Hindiston ixtirolari va kashfiyotlari ro'yxati - List of Indian inventions and discoveries

Fan tarixi va texnologiyasi Hindiston qit'asi
Ixtirolar Hindistondagi fan Bangladeshdagi fan Pokistondagi fan
Mavzuga ko'ra
Matematika Astronomiya Taqvim O'lchov tizimlari O'lchov birliklari Kartografiya Geografiya Bosib chiqarish Metallurgiya Tangalar Hind alkimyosi An'anaviy tibbiyot Qishloq xo'jaligi Ta'lim Arxitektura Ko'priklar Transport Dengiz tarixi Navigatsiya Harbiy

Bu hind ixtirolari va kashfiyotlari ro'yxati Hindistonning ixtirolari, ilmiy kashfiyotlari va qo'shgan hissalari, shu jumladan qadimgi, mumtoz va mumtozdan keyingi xalqlar subkontitentda tarixiy jihatdan batafsil bayon etilgan Hindiston deb nomlanadi va zamonaviy hind davlati. Bu butundan tortib oladi madaniy va texnologiya tarixi davomida Hindiston me'morchilik, astronomiya, kartografiya, metallurgiya, mantiq, matematika, metrologiya va mineralogiya tomonidan ta'qib qilinadigan ta'lim sohalari qatoriga kirgan uning olimlari.^[1] So'nggi paytlarda Hindiston Respublikasida fan va texnika ham e'tibor qaratdi avtomobilsozlik, axborot texnologiyalari, aloqa shuningdek, tadqiqotlar bo'sh joy va qutbli texnologiya.

Ushbu ro'yxatning maqsadlari uchun, ixtirolar Hindistonda ishlab chiqilgan texnologik birinchilar deb hisoblanadi va shu sababli Hindiston aloqa orqali sotib olgan xorijiy texnologiyalarni o'z ichiga olmaydi. Shuningdek, unga boshqa joylarda ishlab chiqilgan va keyinchalik Hindistonda alohida ixtiro qilingan texnologiyalar yoki kashfiyotlar va boshqa joylarda hind emigralari tomonidan ixtiro qilinmagan. Dizayn yoki uslubning kichik tushunchalaridagi o'zgarishlar va badiiy yangiliklar ro'yxatlarda ko'rinmaydi.

Ixtirolar

Qurilish, qurilish va arxitektura

• Dehlining temir ustuni: Dunyodagi birinchi temir ustun Dehlining temir ustunidir - o'sha paytda bunyod etilgan Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413).^[2] Ustun e'tiborni tortdi arxeologlar va materiallar olimlari ga nisbatan yuqori qarshilik ko'rsatgani uchun "qadimgi hind temirchilarining mahoratidan dalolat" deb nomlangan korroziya.^[3]
• Stepvel: Zinapoyaning kelib chiqishining dastlabki aniq dalillari Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasining arxeologik maydonida joylashgan. Mohenjodaro Pokistonda^[4] va Dholavira Hindistonda.^[5] Hovuz havzasi, suvga tushadigan zinapoyalar va diniy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan raqamlarni bir tuzilishga birlashtirgan, miloddan avvalgi 2500 yilga qadar tark qilingan, ma'lum bir maydonchada subkontitendagi zinapoyalarning uchta xususiyati aniq ko'rinib turibdi.^[4] Umumiy davrdan bir necha asr oldin buddistlar va Hindiston jaynlari pog'onalarni o'z me'morchiligiga moslashtirishgan.^[4] Ham quduqlar, ham marosimlarda cho'milish shakli buddizm bilan dunyoning boshqa qismlariga etib bordi.^[4] Miloddan avvalgi 200 dan 400 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda qit'adagi toshli quduqlar.^[6] Keyinchalik Dhankdagi quduqlar (mil. 550-625) va pog'onali hovuzlar Bhinmal (Mil. 850–950) qurilgan.^[6]
• Stupa: Stupaning kelib chiqishi miloddan avvalgi 3-asrda Hindistonda kuzatilishi mumkin.^[7] U muqaddas yodgorliklarni saqlash bilan bog'liq bo'lgan yodgorlik yodgorligi sifatida ishlatilgan.^[7] Stupa arxitekturasi qabul qilingan Janubi-sharqiy va Sharqiy Osiyo, qaerda u evolyutsiyaga aylandi pagoda, muqaddas yodgorliklarni rasmiylashtirishda foydalaniladigan buddist yodgorligi.^[7]

Xanuman va Ravana yilda Tolu Bommalata, soyali qo'g'irchoq ning an'anasi Andxra-Pradesh, Hindiston

• Squat hojatxonasi: quduqlar yaqinidagi drenajlar ustidagi hojatxona platformalari shaharlarning bir nechta uylarida joylashgan Mohenjodaro va Xarappa miloddan avvalgi III ming yillikdan.^[8]

Hindistonning shahar tsivilizatsiyasi 5000 yil oldin rejalashtirilgan shahar jamoalari mavjud bo'lgan Pokistondagi Mohenjodaro va Harappa tomonidan kuzatilishi mumkin. O'sha paytdan boshlab qadimgi hind me'morchiligi va qurilish muhandisligi rivojlanib va ​​o'sishda davom etdi. Hindiston yarim orolida va unga qo'shni mintaqalarda ibodatxonalar, saroylar va qal'alar qurilishida o'z ifodasini topdi. Qadimgi Hindistonda arxitektura va qurilish Sthapatya Kala sifatida tanilgan bo'lib, uning so'zma-so'z tarjimasi qurilish san'ati (ba'zi) ma'nosini anglatadi. Kushon imperiyasi va Maurya imperiyalari davrida erishilgan hind me'morchiligi va kabi mintaqalarda qurilish Belujiston va Afg'oniston. Buddaning haykallari kesilgan va butun Afg'onistonning Bomiyon buddalari singari tog 'devorlari va jarliklarini qoplagan. ma'lum bir davrda aralashib, qadimgi hind san'ati va yunon uslublarining qurilishi va Markaziy Osiyoga tarqalishi. Boshqa tomondan buddizm hindistonlik kabi mamlakatlarda me'morchilik va qurilish uslublarini oldi Shri-Lanka, Indoneziya, Malayziya, Vetnam, Laos, Kambodja, Tailand, Birma, Xitoy, Koreya va Yaponiya. Angkor vat Hindiston fuqarolik muhandisligi va Kambodja kxmerlari merosining me'morchilik va qurilish sohasidagi hissasi haqidagi jonli guvohlikdir. Hindistonning materik qismida qadimgi Hindistonning me'moriy merosining bir qancha mo''jizalari, shu jumladan Jahon merosi obidalari mavjud Ajanta, Ellora, Xajuraxo, Mahabodhi ibodatxonasi, Sanchi, Brixadisvara ibodatxonasi va Mahabalipuram

Metrologiya

• Hukmdor: Hukmdorlar Fil suyagidan yasalgan buyumlar Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi tomonidan miloddan avvalgi 1500 yilgacha Shimoliy G'arbiy Hindiston va Pokiston hududlarida ishlatilgan.^[9] Lotolda qazish ishlari (miloddan avvalgi 2400 y.) Shunday o'lchagichning taxminan 1/16 dyuymgacha kalibrlanganiga olib keldi - 2 dan kam millimetr.^[9] Ian Whitelaw (2007) "The Mohenjodaro o'lchagich 1,32 dyuym (33,5 mm) ga to'g'ri keladigan birliklarga bo'linadi va ular o'nlik bo'linmalarida ajoyib aniqlik bilan belgilanadi - 0,005 dyuymgacha. Ular qadimgi me'morchilikda an'anaviy ravishda Janubiy Hindistonda ishlatilgan 1 3/8 dyuymli "xasta" qadamlar bilan chambarchas mos keladi. Mintaqa bo'ylab topilgan qadimiy g'ishtlarning o'lchamlari ushbu birliklarga mos keladi. '^[10] Shigeo Iwata (2008) yana shunday yozadi: "Lothalda qazilgan fil suyagidan qilingan chiziqli o'lchov segmentida bitiruvning minimal bo'linmasi 1,79 mm (bu 1/940 fathga to'g'ri keladi), qobiq bo'lagi esa - bittasi Mohenjodaro 6,72 mm (1/250 gramm) va bronzadan yasalgan Xarappadan 9,33 mm (1/180 fath). '^[11] Hind tsivilizatsiyasining og'irliklari va o'lchovlari Fors va Markaziy Osiyo, ular yana o'zgartirilgan joyda.^[11]
• Tarozi o'lchovi: Tarozi o'lchovi mavjudligining dastlabki dalillari miloddan avvalgi 2400 - miloddan avvalgi 1800 yillarga qadar Hind vodiysining tsivilizatsiyasida tarozi yo'qligi sababli bank ishi olib borilmagan.^[12]
• Kreskograf: O'simliklarning o'sishini o'lchaydigan asbob - kresograf 20-asrning boshlarida benqaliyalik olim Sir tomonidan ixtiro qilingan. Jagadish Chandra Bose.^[13][14]
• Buxoriy soat: Tutatqi soati bu vaqtni saqlash vositasi, daqiqa, soat yoki kunni o'lchash uchun ishlatilgan, tutatqi soatlari odatda xonadonlar davrida uylarda va ibodatxonalarda ishlatilgan. Xalq bilan mashhur bo'lib, tutatqi soati Hindistonda paydo bo'lgan deb hisoblashadi, hech bo'lmaganda uning asosiy shaklida ishlamaydi.^[15][16] VI-VIII asrlar oralig'ida Xitoyda topilgan tutatqilarning dastlabki soatlari - bu Xitoyda paydo bo'lgan davr hammasi bo'lib tuyuladi. Devanagari xitoycha muhr belgilari o'rniga ularga o'yma naqshlar.^[15][16] Xushbo'y tutatqining o'zi Xitoyga milodning dastlabki asrlarida Hindistondan kirib kelgan va sayohatchi rohiblar tomonidan buddizm tarqalishi bilan birga.^[17][18][19] Edvard Shafer tutatqi soatlari, ehtimol, Xitoyga topilgan hindistonlik ixtiro edi, deb ta'kidlaydi, bu Xitoyda topilgan tutatqi tutatqi soatlaridagi Devanagari yozuvlarini tushuntiradi.^[15] Silvio Bedini boshqa tomondan, tutatqi soatlari qisman aytib o'tilgan tutatqi muhrlaridan olingan deb ta'kidlaydi Tantrik buddist Hindistondagi ushbu oyatlar xitoy tiliga tarjima qilinganidan keyin Xitoyda birinchi bo'lib paydo bo'lgan oyatlar, ammo muhrning vaqtni aniqlash funktsiyasini xitoyliklar o'z ichiga olgan.^[16]

Metallurgiya va ishlab chiqarish

• Tigel po'latdir: Ehtimol, miloddan avvalgi 300-yillarda, hattoki miloddan avvalgi 200-yilda, hindistonning janubida yuqori sifatli po'lat ishlab chiqarilayotgandir, keyinchalik evropaliklar uni krujka usuli deb atashgan.^[20] Ushbu tizimda yuqori toza temir, ko'mir va shisha krujkada aralashtirilgan va temir eritilib, uglerodni yutguncha qizdirilgan.^[20]

Yaqin-atrof Wootz po'latdir, Hindistonda ishlab chiqarilgan po'lat qotishma matritsasi.

• Wootz po'latdir: Wootz po'lati ultra yuqori uglerodli po'latdir va uni qo'llash va ishlatish bilan ishlab chiqarilgan krujka po'latining birinchi shakli. nanomateriallar uning mikroyapısında juda yuqori uglerod miqdori bilan ajralib turadi, bu superplastiklik, yuqori zarba qattiqligi va uch qit'ada ming yil davomida saqlanib turishi kabi xususiyatlarga ega, bu hozirgi davrning ilg'or materiallari bilan engib o'tish ehtimoli yo'q.^[21] Arxeologik va Tamil tili adabiy dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ushbu ishlab chiqarish jarayoni umumiy davrdan ancha oldin Janubiy Hindistonda mavjud bo'lgan wootz po'latdir dan eksport qilingan Chera sulolasi va chaqirilgan Serik temir Rimda va keyinchalik nomi bilan tanilgan Damashq po'lati Evropada.^{[22][23][24][25]} Reproduktiv tadqiqotlar hozirda doktor Oleg Sherbi va doktor Jeff Uodsvort va boshqa turli olimlar tomonidan olib borilmoqda Lourens Livermor milliy laboratoriyasi barchasi Wootzga o'xshash xususiyatlarga ega po'latlarni yaratishga urinib ko'rdilar, ammo muvaffaqiyatsiz JD Verhoeven va Al Pendray ishlab chiqarishni rekonstruktsiya qilish usullarida bir muncha muvaffaqiyatga erishdilar, naqsh yaratishda ma'dan aralashmalarining rolini isbotladilar va Wootz po'latini qayta ishlab chiqarishdi qadimgi pichoq naqshlaridan biriga mikroskopik va ingl.^[26]
• Choksiz samoviy globus: Eng ajoyib yutuqlardan biri hisoblanadi metallurgiya, u Hindistonda milodiy 1589 - 1590 yillarda ixtiro qilingan.^[27][28] 1980-yillarda ular qayta kashf etilgunga qadar, zamonaviy metallurglar tomonidan metall globuslarni hech qanday texnikasiz ishlab chiqarish texnik jihatdan imkonsiz deb ishonishgan. tikuvlar, hatto zamonaviy texnologiyalar bilan ham.^[28]
• Naycha chizilgan texnologiya: hindular birinchi marta miloddan avvalgi II asrda ishlab chiqarilgan shisha munchoq ishlab chiqarish uchun naychali chizilgan texnologiyadan foydalanganlar.^[29][30][31]
• Tamburali polishing: Hindular miloddan avvalgi 10-asrda sayqallangan toshdan yasalgan munchoqlarni seriyali ishlab chiqarish uchun sayqallash usulini taklif qildilar.^{[32][33][34][35]}
• Olmos matkaplari Miloddan avvalgi 12-asrda yoki miloddan avvalgi 7-asrda hindular nafaqat olmosli uchli matkaplardan foydalanishni, balki boncuklar ishlab chiqarish uchun ikkita olmosli uchli matkaplarni ham ixtiro qildilar.^[33]
• Olmosni kesish va parlatish: Olmoslarni kesish va sayqallash texnologiyasi Hindistonda ixtiro qilingan, Ratnapariksha, 6-asrga oid matnda olmosni kesish haqida so'z yuritilgan va Al-Beruniy milodiy 11-asrda olmosni polishing uchun qo'rg'oshin plitasidan foydalanish usuli haqida gapiradi.^[36]

Kompyuterlar va dasturlash tillari

• J Sharp: Visual J # (talaffuzi "jay-"o'tkir ") dasturlash tili dasturchilari uchun o'tish tili bo'lgan Java va Visual J ++ tillar, shuning uchun ular mavjud bilimlari va dasturlaridan foydalanishlari mumkin edi .NET Framework. Bu tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Haydarobod asoslangan HITEC City-da joylashgan Microsoft India Development Center Hindistonda.^[37][38]
• Kojo: Kojo a dasturlash tili va birlashgan rivojlanish muhiti (IDE) kompyuterni dasturlash va o'rganish uchun. Kojo an ochiq manbali dasturiy ta'minot. U kompyuter dasturchisi va o'qituvchisi Lalit Pant tomonidan yaratilgan va faol ravishda ishlab chiqilgan Dehradun, Hindiston.^[39][40]

Ilm-fan va texnologiya

• Shudgorlash: Shudgorlangan maydonning ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimgi nusxasi topilgan Kalibangan ^[41]
• Hindiston siyohi Miloddan avvalgi III ming yilliklardan beri Osiyoda tanilgan va Hindistonda miloddan avvalgi kamida 4-asrdan beri qo'llanilgan.^[42] Masi, Hindistondagi dastlabki siyoh bir nechta kimyoviy tarkibiy qismlarning aralashmasi edi.^[42] suyaklar, smola, qatron va boshqa moddalarni yoqish natijasida olingan siyoh ishlab chiqariladigan uglerod qora bilan.^[43][44][45] Milodiy III asrga tegishli hujjatlar Xarosti, siyoh bilan topilgan Sharqiy Turkiston, Shinjon.^[46] Qadimda siyoh va o'tkir uchli igna bilan yozish odat bo'lgan Janubiy Hindiston.^[47] Bir nechta Jain Hindistondagi sutralar siyoh bilan tuzilgan.^[48]
• Mikroto'lqinli aloqa: Mikroto'lqinli uzatishni birinchi ommaviy namoyishi Jagadish Chandra Bose, 1895 yilda, Kalkuttada, Angliyada Markoni tomonidan o'tkazilgan shunga o'xshash namoyishdan ikki yil oldin va atigi bir yil o'tgach Oliver Lodj Xertzning vafotidan keyin radioaloqa bo'yicha xotira ma'ruzasi. Bose-ning inqilobiy namoyishi mobil telefoniya, radarlar, sun'iy yo'ldosh aloqasi, radio, televizion eshittirish, WiFi, masofadan boshqarish pultlari va boshqa ko'plab dasturlarda ishlatiladigan texnologiyaning asosini tashkil etadi.^[49][50]
• Optik tolali aloqa: Fortune jurnali tomonidan 7 ta "Ko'ngilsiz qahramonlar" dan biri deb nomlangan, Doktor Narinder Singx Kapani, optik tolali texnologiyadagi kashshof faoliyati uchun keng tarqalgan "Fiber optikaning otasi" sifatida tan olingan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}
• Qirqish interferometri: M.V.R.K tomonidan ixtiro qilingan Murty, Lateralning bir turi Qirqish interferometri sinishi ko'rsatkichini o'lchash uchun lazer manbasidan foydalanadi.^[51][52]
• Mysorean raketalari: Birinchi temir korpusli va metall tsilindrlardan biri raketalar tomonidan joylashtirilgan Tipu Sulton armiyasi, Janubiy Hindiston hukmdori Mysore qirolligi va uning otasi Hyder Ali, 1780-yillarda. U ushbu temir kassetali raketalarni katta kuchlarga qarshi muvaffaqiyatli ishlatgan British East India kompaniyasi davomida Angliya-Misur urushlari. Ushbu davrdagi Mysore raketalari, asosan, yoqilg'ini ushlab turish uchun temir naychalardan foydalanganligi sababli, inglizlar ko'rgan narsalarga qaraganda ancha rivojlangan edi; bu raketa uchun yuqori zarba va uzoqroq masofani (2 km masofagacha) faollashtirdi. Tipu mag'lubiyatidan so'ng To'rtinchi Angliya-Misur urushi va Mysore temir raketalarini qo'lga olish, ular Britaniyaning raketalarini yaratishda ta'sir ko'rsatdi va ilhomlantirdi Congveve raketasi va tez orada ichida foydalanishga topshirildi Napoleon urushlari.^[53]

Buyuk Stupa Sanchi (Miloddan avvalgi 4-1 asr). Gumbaz shaklidagi stupa Hindistonda muqaddas yodgorliklarni saqlash bilan bog'liq bo'lgan yodgorlik yodgorligi sifatida ishlatilgan.

• Shampun: So'z shampun ingliz tilida olingan Hindustani chempo (चाँपो.) [tʃãːpoː]),^[54] va 1762 yilga to'g'ri keladi.^[55] Hindistonda qadim zamonlardan beri turli xil o'tlar va ularning ekstraktlari shampun sifatida ishlatilgan. Juda samarali erta shampun qaynatish yo'li bilan qilingan Sapindus quritilgan bilan Hind krijovnik (aamla) va boshqa bir nechta o'tlar, suzilgan ekstrakt yordamida. Sapindus, shuningdek, sovunbo'yi yoki sovunbo'yi deb nomlanuvchi, deyiladi Ksuna (Sanskritcha: kकp)^[56] qadimgi hind yozuvlarida va uning mevali xamiri tarkibida tabiiy sirt faol moddasi bo'lgan saponinlar mavjud. Ksuna ekstrakti ko'pik hosil qiladi, uni hind matnlari aniqlaydi fenaka (Sanskritcha: नेनक),^[57] sochlarni yumshoq, porloq va boshqaruvchan qiladi. Sochni tozalash uchun ishlatiladigan boshqa mahsulotlar shikakai (Acacia concinna ), sovun (Sapindus ), gibiskus gullar,^[58][59] ritha (Sapindus mukorossi ) va arappu (Albizzia amara).^[60] Guru Nanak, asos solgan payg'ambar va birinchi Guru ning Sihizm, XVI asrda sovunli daraxt va sovun haqida ma'lumot berilgan.^[61] Kundalik ipni yuvish paytida sochlarni yuvish va tanani massaj qilish (champu) Hindistondagi dastlabki mustamlakachilar savdogarligi edi. Ular Evropaga qaytib kelgach, ular o'zlarining yangi o'rgangan odatlarini, shu jumladan shampun deb atagan sochlarni davolash usullarini joriy qilishdi.^[62]
• Oyoq barmog'ining uzilishi: Bosh barmog'ini ushlab turuvchi oyoq halqasi bo'lgan uzangning eng dastlabki namoyishi miloddan avvalgi 500 yilda Hindistonda ishlatilgan.^[63] yoki boshqa manbalarga ko'ra, ehtimol miloddan avvalgi 200 yilgacha.^[64][65] Ushbu qadimiy uzang tolalar yoki teridan yasalgan egarning pastki qismida joylashgan bosh barmog'i uchun halqalangan arqondan iborat edi.^[65] Bunday konfiguratsiya Hindistonning aksariyat joylarida iliq iqlim sharoitiga moslashtirdi, bu erda odamlar ilgari yalangoyoq otda yurishgan.^[65] Ikkala uchi egri chiziqli megalitik er-xotin egilgan temir panjaralar Junapani Hindistonning markaziy shtatida Madxya-Pradesh ular boshqa bir narsa bo'lishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, uzuk sifatida qabul qilingan.^[66] Sanchi ibodatxonalarida buddaviy o'ymakorliklari, Matura va Bhaja g'orlari miloddan avvalgi II va II asrlar oralig'ida oyoqlari belbog'lar ostiga sirg'alib egar bilan o'tirgan chavandozlar.^[67][68][69] Ser Jon Marshall Sanchining relyefini "dunyoning istalgan qismida besh asrlik uzuklardan foydalanishning dastlabki namunasi" deb ta'rifladi.^[69] Milodiy I asrda shimoliy Hindistonda, ba'zan qishi uzoq va sovuq bo'lgan otliq chavandozlarning oyoqlari ilgak uzanglarga bog'langanligi qayd etilgan.^[64] Biroq, shakl, ibtidoiy hind uzbagi tushunchasi g'arbga va sharqqa tarqalib, asta-sekin bugungi kun uzumiga aylandi.^[65][68]

Genetika

• Pseudomonas putida: Hind (bengal) ixtirochisi va mikrobiologi Ananda Mohan Chakrabarti Xom neftni parchalash uchun odam organizmini mikroorganizmga aylantirdi.^[70] U genetik jihatdan muhandislik qildi^{[71][72][73][74][75][76]} ning yangi turi Pseudomonas bakteriyalar (" moy - ovqatlanadigan bakteriyalar ") 1971 yilda.^[77] Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi Chakrabartining ixtirosiga tirik tur bo'lsa ham patent berdi. Sud qarori bilan Chakrabartining kashfiyoti "tabiatning qo'l ishi emas, balki uning o'zi ..." Ixtirochi Chakrabarti patentini 1980 yilda qo'lga kiritgan.^[78](qarang Olmos Chakrabartiga qarshi )

O'yinlar

• Chaturanga: Ning prekursori shaxmat davrida Hindistonda paydo bo'lgan Gupta sulolasi (taxminan milodiy 280-550).^{[79][80][81][82]} Ikkalasi ham Forslar va Arablar shaxmat o'yinining kelib chiqishini hindularga aytib bering.^[81][83][84] "Shaxmat" so'zlari Qadimgi forscha va Arabcha bor chatrang va shatranj mos ravishda - dan olingan atamalar katuraṅga yilda Sanskritcha,^[85][86] so'zma-so'z ma'noda an degan ma'noni anglatadi to'rt qismdan iborat armiya yoki to'rt korpus.^[87][88] Shaxmat butun dunyoga tarqaldi va o'yinning ko'p variantlari tez orada shakllana boshladi.^[89] Ushbu o'yin Yaqin Sharq Hindistondan kelib, knyazlik yoki saroy ta'limining bir qismiga aylandi Fors tili zodagonlik.^[87] Buddist ziyoratchilar, Ipak yo'li savdogarlar va boshqalar uni olib borishdi Uzoq Sharq u maydonga aylantirilib, o'zlashtirilib, ko'pincha kvadrat ichida emas, balki taxtaning chiziqlari kesishgan joyda o'ynaladi.^[89] Chaturanga Evropaga Fors, orqali Vizantiya imperiyasi va kengayish Arab imperiya.^[88][90] Musulmonlar Shatranjni olib bordi Shimoliy Afrika, Sitsiliya va X asrga kelib Ispaniya shaxmatning so'nggi zamonaviy shaklini oldi.^[89]
• Kabaddi: O'yin kabaddi tarixdan oldingi davrda Hindistonda paydo bo'lgan.^[91] Qanday qilib uning zamonaviy shaklga aylangani haqidagi takliflar kurash mashqlari, harbiy mashg'ulotlar va jamoaviy o'zini o'zi himoya qilishdan iborat, ammo aksariyat rasmiylar bu o'yin Hindistonda miloddan avvalgi 1500 va 400 yillarda bo'lgan.^[91]
• Lyudo: Pachisi VI asrga kelib Hindistonda paydo bo'lgan.^[92] Hindistonda ushbu o'yinning dastlabki dalillari Ajanta g'orlaridagi taxtalarning tasviridir.^[92] Ushbu o'yinning Ludo deb nomlangan varianti Britaniyalik Raj paytida Angliyaga yo'l oldi.^[92]
• Ilonlar va narvon: Vaikunta pali Ilonlar va narvonlari Hindistonda axloqqa asoslangan o'yin sifatida paydo bo'lgan.^[93] Angliya Hindiston hukmronligi davrida ushbu o'yin Angliyaga yo'l oldi va oxir-oqibat Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarida o'yin kashshofi tomonidan joriy qilindi. Milton Bredli 1943 yilda.^[93]
• Kostyumlar o'yin: Kridapatram erta kostyumlar Qadimgi Hindistonda ixtiro qilingan, bo'yalgan lattalardan qilingan o'yin. Atama kridapatram so'zma-so'z "o'ynash uchun bo'yalgan lattalar" degan ma'noni anglatadi.^{[94][95][96][97][98]} Qog'oz o'yin kartalari birinchi bo'lib 9-asrda Sharqiy Osiyoda paydo bo'lgan.^[94][99] O'rta asrlardagi hind o'yini ganjifa yoki o'yin kartalari birinchi marta XVI asrda qayd etilgan.^[100]

Mato va materiallar ishlab chiqarish

• Tugma: Dekorativ tugmalar - tayyorlangan dengiz qobig'i - ishlatilgan Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi miloddan avvalgi 2000 yilgacha dekorativ maqsadlar uchun.^[101] Ba'zi tugmalar geometrik shakllarda o'yib ishlangan va ularga iplar yordamida kiyimga biriktirilishi uchun teshiklari teshilgan.^[101] Yan Makneyl (1990) shunday deb ta'kidlaydi: "Aslida bu tugma dastlab mahkamlashdan ko'ra ko'proq bezak sifatida ishlatilgan. Bu eng qadimgi Mohenjo-darodan topilgan. Hind vodiysi. Taxminan 5000 yillik kavisli qobiqdan yasalgan. "^[102]

A Nepal Charxa amalda

• Kaliko: Kaliko XI asrda subkontitendan kelib chiqqan va XII asr yozuvchisi Xemachandra tomonidan hind adabiyotida esga olingan. U lotus dizaynida ishlangan kaliko mato izlarini eslatib o'tdi.^[103] 15-asrga kelib hind to'qimachilik savdogarlari afrikaliklar bilan kalikoda savdo qilishgan Gujarat ichida paydo bo'ldi Misr.^[103] Evropa bilan savdo XVII asrdan boshlab kuzatilgan.^[103] Hindistonda kaliko kelib chiqishi Kojikode.^[103]
• Karding qurilmalari: Ilmiy tarixchi Jozef Nidxem Hindistonga to'qimachilik texnologiyasida qo'llaniladigan kamon asboblari ixtirosini tavsiflaydi.^[104] Kamon cholg'u asboblarini karding uchun ishlatishga oid dastlabki dalillar Hindistondan keladi (milodiy 2-asr).^[104] Ushbu kartalash moslamalari kaman va dhunaki tebranuvchi ip yordamida tolaning tuzilishini bo'shatadi.^[104]
• Charxa (Yigiruv g'ildiragi): 500-1000 yillarda Hindistonda ixtiro qilingan.^[105]
• Chintz: Chintzning kelib chiqishi Hindistondagi kaliko paxta matosidan olingan.^[106] So'zning kelib chiqishi chintz o'zi .dan Hind tili चिच्र् (chitr) so'zi, bu tasvirni anglatadi.^[106][107]
• Muslin: Mato Evropaliklar birinchi marta duch kelgan shahar nomi bilan atalgan, Mosul, hozirda Iroq, lekin mato aslida kelib chiqqan Dakka hozirda Bangladesh.^[108][109] 9-asrda an Arab savdogari Sulaymon ismli shaxs materialning kelib chiqishini qayd etadi Bengal (nomi bilan tanilgan Ruhml yilda Arabcha ).^[109]

Yagona rolikli paxta tozalash zavodi, foydalanishda v. 1820

• Palampor: Hind tilidan kelib chiqqan hindcha (hind tili)^[110] g'arbiy dunyoga - taniqli Angliya va Mustamlaka Amerika - Hindistondan.^[111][112] 17-asrda Angliyada ushbu qo'lda bo'yalgan paxta matolari mahalliy ekipaj ishlarining dizayniga ta'sir ko'rsatdi.^[111] Hindistondan jo'natilgan kemalar palamporani mustamlakachilik Amerikasiga olib bordi va u erda ishlatilgan choyshab.^[112]
• Namoz bayroqlari: The Buddist stralar, Hindistonda matoga yozilgan, dunyoning boshqa mintaqalariga etkazilgan.^[113] Bannerlarda yozilgan ushbu sutralar ibodat bayroqlarining kelib chiqishi edi.^[113] Afsonada ibodat bayrog'ining kelib chiqishi Shakyamuni Budda, kimning ibodatlari tomonidan ishlatiladigan jang bayroqlariga yozilgan devas ularning dushmanlariga qarshi asuralar.^[114] Afsona hinduga bergan bo'lishi mumkin bhikku "samoviy" bayroqni ko'tarib, uning sadoqatini ko'rsatadigan usul sifatida ko'tarilishining sababi ahimsa.^[115] Ushbu bilimga erishildi Tibet milodiy 800 yilgacha va haqiqiy bayroqlar milodiy 1040 yildan kechiktirmasdan joriy qilingan va u erda ular yanada o'zgartirilgan.^[115] Hind rohib Otisha (Milodiy 980–1054) Tibetga hindlarning mato namozi bayroqlariga bosib chiqarish amaliyotini joriy etdi.^[114]
• Yagona rolikli paxta tozalash zavodi: The Ajanta g'orlari Hindistonda 5-asrda ishlatilgan bitta g'altakli paxta tozalash zavodining dalillari keltirilgan.^[116] Ushbu paxta tozalash vositasi Hindistonda oyoq bilan ishlaydigan paxta terish mashinalari shaklida yangiliklar ishlab chiqarilgunga qadar ishlatilgan.^[117] Paxta tozalash zavodi Hindistonda mexanik qurilma sifatida ixtiro qilingan charxi, ko'proq texnik jihatdan "yog'ochdan yasalgan qurt bilan ishlangan rolik". Ushbu mexanik qurilma, Hindistonning ba'zi hududlarida, suv quvvati tomonidan boshqarilgan.^[104]

Obod turmush

• Hind klublari: 18-asrda Evropada paydo bo'lgan hind klubi Evropaga kirib kelguniga qadar Hindistonning mahalliy askarlari tomonidan uzoq vaqt ishlatilgan.^[118] Davomida Britaniyalik Raj Hindistondagi ingliz zobitlari jismoniy holatni saqlash uchun klublar bilan kalistenik mashqlarni bajarishdi.^[118] Britaniyadan klubning tebranish usulidan foydalanish butun dunyoga tarqaldi.^[118]
• Yoga: Yoga jismoniy, aqliy va ma'naviy amaliyot sifatida paydo bo'lgan qadimgi Hindiston.^[119]
• Meditatsiya: Meditatsiya amaliyotining eng qadimgi hujjatli dalillari - bu devor san'ati Hindiston qit'asi miloddan avvalgi 5000 dan 3500 gacha, meditatsion holatlarda o'tirgan odamlarni yarim yopiq ko'zlar bilan namoyish etadi.^[120]

Kashfiyotlar

• Kaşmir: Shuningdek, tolali kaşmir tola pashm yoki pashmina uni Kashmir, Hindistonning qo'lbola shollarida ishlatish uchun.^[121] Hindistonda jundan qilingan jun sharflar Kashmir miloddan avvalgi III asr va milodiy XI asrlar orasida yozma eslatmani toping.^[122] Biroq, kashmir jun sanoatining asoschisi an'anaviy ravishda Kashmirning XV asr hukmdori sifatida tanilgan, Zayn-ul-obidin, kimdan to'qilganlar ish bilan ta'minlangan Markaziy Osiyo.^[122]
• Paxta etishtirish: Paxtani. Aholisi etishtirgan Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi tomonidan Miloddan avvalgi 5-ming yillik  – Miloddan avvalgi 4-ming yillik.^[123] Hind paxta sanoati yaxshi rivojlangan va paxtani yigirish va tayyorlashda qo'llaniladigan ba'zi usullar Hindiston zamonaviy sanoatlashguniga qadar amalda bo'lgan.^[124] Oldin Umumiy davr, paxta to'qimachilik mahsulotlaridan foydalanish Hindistondan to O'rta er dengizi va undan tashqarida.^[125]
• Indigo bo'yog'i: Indigo, ko'k pigment va bo'yoq, Hindistonda ishlatilgan, bu ham uni ishlab chiqarish va qayta ishlashning eng yirik markazi bo'lgan.^[126] The Indigofera tinctoria Hindistonda turli xil Indigo turlari uy sharoitida ishlatilgan.^[126] Bo'yoq sifatida ishlatiladigan Indigo, yo'lini ochdi Yunonlar va Rimliklarga turli xil savdo yo'llari orqali va hashamatli mahsulot sifatida qadrlangan.^[126]
• Jut etishtirish: Jut qadim zamonlardan beri Hindistonda etishtirilgan.^[127] Xom jut eksport qilindi g'arbiy dunyo, qaerda u ishlatilgan arqonlar va kordon.^[127] Hind jut sanoati, o'z navbatida, Hindistondagi Britaniyalik Raj davrida modernizatsiya qilingan.^[127] Mintaqasi Bengal Jut etishtirishning asosiy markazi bo'lgan va 1855 yilda Hindistonning jut sanoatini modernizatsiya qilishdan oldin shunday bo'lgan Kolkata Hindistonda jutni qayta ishlash markaziga aylandi.^[127]
• Shakarni tozalash: Shakar qarag'ay dastlab tropikdan bo'lgan Janubiy Osiyo va Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo,^[128] Hindistondan kelib chiqqan turli xil turlari bilan va S. edule va S. officinarum dan Yangi Gvineya.^[128] Shakar qamishidan kristallangan shakar ishlab chiqarish jarayoni o'sha vaqtga kelib kashf etilgan Imperial Guptalar,^[129] va shakarlangan shakar haqida dastlabki ma'lumot Hindistondan keladi.^[130] Tez orada bu jarayon sayohat qiluvchi buddist rohiblar bilan Xitoyga uzatildi.^[130] Xitoy hujjatlari shakarni qayta ishlash texnologiyasini olish uchun milodiy 647 yilda boshlangan Hindistonga kamida ikkita topshiriqni tasdiqlaydi.^[131] Har bir topshiriq shakarni tozalash bo'yicha natijalar bilan qaytdi.^[131]

Matematika

Sinus funktsiyasining yarim akkord versiyasi hind matematikasi tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Aryabhatta.

Braxmagupta teoremasida (598-668) aytilgan AF = FD.

• Nol, belgi: hindular birinchi bo'lib nolni belgi sifatida va arifmetik operatsiyalarda ishlatgan,^{[iqtibos kerak ]} garchi bobilliklar noldan foydalanib, "yo'q" degan ma'noni anglatadi.^[132] O'sha ilgari vaqtlarda bo'sh joy nolni belgilash uchun ishlatilgan, keyinchalik bo'shroq chalkashliklarni yuzaga keltirganligi sababli murakkab hujjatlarda dastlab nolni belgilash uchun nuqta ishlatilgan Baxshali qo'lyozmasi.^[133] Baxshali qo'lyozmasida noldan foydalanish 3-4 asrlarga tegishli bo'lib, bu belgining eng qadimgi ishlatilishiga aylangan.^[134]
• Kvadrat tenglamalar: hind matematikasi Īrhardharākārya kvadrat tenglamalarni echish uchun foydalaniladigan kvadratik formulani keltirib chiqardi.^[135][136]
• AKS dastlabki sinovi: AKS dastlabki sinovi a deterministik birinchi darajani isbotlovchi algoritm uch tomonidan yaratilgan va nashr etilgan Hindiston Texnologiya Instituti Kanpur kompyuter olimlari, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal va Nitin Saxena 2002 yil 6-avgustda nomli maqolada PRIMES P.^[137][138] Ushbu kashfiyotning ta'sirini sharhlab, Pol Leyland "Matematik hamjamiyatdagi hayajonlanishning sabablaridan biri shundaki, bu algoritm nafaqat ko'p yillik muammolarni hal qiladi, balki ularni juda sodda tarzda hal qiladi. Hamma endi yana nimani shu kabi e'tibordan chetda qoldirganligi bilan qiziqmoqda".^[138][139]
• Cheklangan farq Interpolatsiya: Hind matematik Braxmagupta ehtimol birinchi instansiya nima ekanligini taqdim etdi^[140][141] Milodiy 665 yil atrofida cheklangan farq interpolatsiyasining.^[142]
• Algebraik qisqartmalar: Matematik Braxmagupta VII asrga kelib noma'lum kishilar uchun qisqartmalardan foydalanishni boshlagan.^[143] U bitta murakkab masalada yuzaga keladigan bir nechta noma'lum narsalarning qisqartmalaridan foydalangan.^[143] Braxmagupta shuningdek uchun qisqartmalaridan foydalangan kvadrat ildizlar va kub ildizlari.^[143]
• Seshadri doimiy: In algebraik geometriya, Seshadri konstantasi - an ning P nuqtasida joylashgan L chiziqli to'plamning o'zgarmasidir algebraik xilma.Nom hind matematikining sharafiga S.Seshadri.
• Basu teoremasi: Basu teoremasi, natijasi Debabrata Basu (1955) har qanday to'liq etarli statistika har qanday yordamchi statistikadan mustaqil ekanligini ta'kidlaydi.^[144][145]
• Roll teoremasi: Bskara II haqida ma'lumotga ega Roll teoremasi garchi u nomlangan bo'lsa ham Mishel Rolle u yetarlicha dalil bilan ta'riflamagan va keyinchalik uni tasdiqlagan.^[146]
• Kosambi-Karxunen-Leve teoremasi: Karxunen-Lyov teoremasi. Kosambi-Karxunen-Lyov teoremasi stoxastik jarayonning cheksiz chiziqli birikmasi sifatida ifodalanishi. ortogonal funktsiyalar, a ga o'xshash Fourier seriyasi funktsiyani cheklangan intervalda aks ettirish. Ushbu shaklning cheksiz ketma-ketligi bilan berilgan stoxastik jarayonlar birinchi bo'ldi^[147] tomonidan ko'rib chiqilgan Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.^[148]
• Braxmagupta - Fibonachchining o'ziga xosligi, Braxmagupta formulasi, Braxmagupta matritsasi va Braxmagupta teoremasi: Hind matematikasi Braxmagupta tomonidan kashf etilgan (milodiy 598-668).^{[149][150][151][152]}
• Chakravala usuli: Chakravala usuli, hal qilish uchun tsiklik algoritm noaniq kvadrat tenglamalar odatda bog'liqdir Bskara II, (taxminan milodiy 1114 - 1185 yillarda)^{[153][154][155]} garchi ba'zilar buni unga bog'lashsa-da Jayadeva (taxminan 950 ~ 1000 milodiy).^[156] Jayadeva ushbu turdagi tenglamalarni echishda Brahmaguptaning yondashuvi cheksiz ko'p sonli echimlarni keltirib chiqarishi kerakligini ta'kidlab o'tdi, keyin u bunday tenglamalarni echishning umumiy usulini tavsifladi.^[157] Jayadevaning uslubini keyinchalik Bskara II takomillashtirdi Bijaganita traktat Chakravala usuli sifatida tanilgan, chakra (olingan kakraṃ Wheelक्र meaning) "g'ildirak" ma'nosini anglatadi Sanskritcha, algoritmning tsiklik xususiyatiga mos keladi.^[157][158] Chakravala uslubiga murojaat qilgan holda E. O. Selenuis Bhasarada yoki undan keyinroq Evropaning biron bir namoyishi o'zining ajoyib matematik murakkabligi darajasiga ko'tarilmagan deb hisoblaydi.^{[153][157][159]}
• Pifagor teoremasi - "Pifagagra" deb nomlanuvchi matematik tomonidan berilgan deb ishonilgan Pifagor teoremasi aslida noto'g'ridir, uni qadimgi donishmand Bodxayana o'z kitobida bergan.
• Sehrli hind matematikasi kashfiyoti: 495 va 6174 raqamlari. Hind matematikasi Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar 6174 raqamini har qanday to'rtta raqamdan hosil bo'ladigan eng katta sondan bir necha marta ayirgandan so'ng erishilganligini aniqladi. Uch xonali raqam uchun xuddi shu tarzda 495 raqamiga erishiladi.
• Hindlarning sanoq tizimi: Bilan o‘nli kasr joy qiymati va nol belgisi, bu tizim keng qo'llaniladigan ajdod edi Arabcha raqam tizim. Milodning I va VI asrlari orasida Hindiston yarim orolida rivojlangan.^[160][161]
• O'nlik belgisi: O'nli belgidan foydalanish amaliyoti o'nlik tizim ichida ishlatilgan Hind matematikasi.^[162]
• Fibonachchi raqamlari: Ushbu ketma-ketlik birinchi marta tomonidan tasvirlangan Viraxanka (mil. 700 yil), Gopala (taxminan 1135) va Gemachandra (taxminan 1150),^[163] tomonidan sanskritcha prozodiya haqidagi avvalgi yozuvlarning o'sishi sifatida Pingala (taxminan miloddan avvalgi 200 yil).
• Ko'paytirishdagi belgilar qonuni: salbiy raqamlar uchun yozuvlardan eng erta foydalanish, kabi subtrahend, olimlar tomonidan miloddan avvalgi II asrga oid xitoyliklar hisoblangan.^[164] Xitoyliklar singari hindular ham subtrahend sifatida salbiy sonlardan foydalanganlar, ammo ijobiy va salbiy sonlarni ko'paytirishga nisbatan birinchi bo'lib "belgilar qonunini" o'rnatdilar, bu xitoy matnlarida 1299 yilgacha bo'lmagan.^[164] Hind matematiklari 7-asrga kelib manfiy sonlardan xabardor edilar,^[164] va qarzning matematik muammolarida ularning o'rni tushunildi.^[165] Salbiy raqamlar bilan ishlashning asosan izchil va to'g'ri qoidalari ishlab chiqilgan,^[166] va ushbu qoidalarning tarqalishi arab vositachilarining uni Evropaga etkazishiga olib keldi.^[165] masalan (+) × (-) = (-), (-) × (-) = (+) va boshqalar.
• Madhava seriyasi: Π va trigonometrik uchun cheksiz qator sinus, kosinus va arktangens endi Sangamagrama Madhavasiga (taxminan 1340 - 1425) va uning Kerala astronomiya va matematik maktabiga tegishli.^[167][168] U ketma-ket kengayishidan foydalangan ${displaystyle arctan x}$ π uchun cheksiz qator ifodasini olish.^[167] Ularning oqilona yaqinlashishi xato chunki ularning seriyasining cheklangan yig'indisi alohida qiziqish uyg'otadi. Ular $ x $ uchun tezroq yaqinlashuvchi qatorni olish uchun xato atamasini manipulyatsiya qildilar.^[169] Ratsional ifoda olish uchun ular takomillashtirilgan seriyadan foydalanishdi,^[169]${displaystyle 104348/33215}$ π o'n bitta kasrgacha tuzatish uchun, ya'ni ${displaystyle 3.1415926539214}$.^[170][171] Sangamagramadan Madhava va uning vorislari Kerala astronomiya va matematika maktabi sinus, kosinus va arktangens uchun katta summa yaqinlashuvlarini olish uchun geometrik usullardan foydalangan. Keyinchalik ular Bruk Teylor seriyasidan kelib chiqqan qator maxsus holatlarni topdilar. Shuningdek, ular ushbu funktsiyalar uchun ikkinchi darajali Teylor, sinuslar uchun uchinchi darajali Teylor yaqinlashuvlarini topdilar.^{[172][173][174]}
• Paskal uchburchagi Milodiy VI asrda tasvirlangan Varaxamihira^[175] va X asrda Halayudha,^[176] tomonidan noaniq ma'lumotnomani sharhlash Pingala (prosodiya bo'yicha ilgari ish muallifi) binomial koeffitsientlarga nisbatan "Meru-prastaara" yoki "Meru tog'ining zinapoyasi" ga. (Shuningdek, u X yoki XI asrlarda Fors va Xitoyda mustaqil ravishda topilgan).
• Pell tenglamasi uchun ajralmas echim: Taxminan ming yil oldin Pellning vaqt ichida hind olimi Braxmagupta (milodiy 598-668) echimini topishga muvaffaq bo'ldi vargaprakṛiti (Pell tenglamasi):^[177][178] ${displaystyle x ^ {2} -Ny ^ {2} = 1,}$ qayerda N uning ichida kvadrat bo'lmagan butun son Brahma-sphuṭa-siddhanta risola.^[178]
• Ramanujan teta funktsiyasi, Ramanujan bosh vaziri, Ramanujan xulosasi, Ramanujan grafigi va Ramanujan summasi: Hind matematikasi tomonidan kashf etilgan Srinivasa Ramanujan 20-asrning boshlarida.^[179]
• Shrikhand grafigi: Grafik hind matematikasi S.S.Shrixande tomonidan 1959 yilda ixtiro qilingan.
• Konventsiyani imzolang: Belgilar, alomatlar va matematik yozuvlar 6-asrda Hindistonda matematik-astronom Aryabhata noma'lum miqdorlarni ifodalash uchun harflardan foydalanishni tavsiya qilganida erta shaklda ishlatilgan.^[143] VII asrga kelib, Brahmagupta allaqachon noma'lumlar uchun qisqartirishni, hatto bitta murakkab masalada yuzaga keladigan bir nechta noma'lumlarni ham ishlatishni boshladi.^[143] Braxmagupta shuningdek kvadrat ildizlar va kub ildizlar uchun qisqartmalardan foydalanishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.^[143] VII asrga kelib kasrlar hozirgi zamonga o'xshash tarzda yozilgan, faqat ajratuvchi satrdan tashqari raqamlovchi va maxraj.^[143] Uchun nuqta belgisi salbiy raqamlar ham ish bilan ta'minlangan.^[143] The Baxshali qo'lyozmasi zamonaviy "+" belgisiga o'xshash xochni aks ettiradi, faqat bu raqam ta'sirlangandan keyin yozilganda olib tashlashni anglatadi.^[143] Tenglik uchun '=' belgisi mavjud emas edi.^[143] Hind matematikasi islom dunyosiga etkazilgan, bu erda dastlab bu belgi kamdan-kam qabul qilingan va ulamolar matematikani to'liq va belgisiz yozishni davom ettirgan.^[180]
• Zamonaviy elementar arifmetik: Modum indorum yoki hindlarning arifmetik operatsiyalar uslubi Al-Xorazmiy va Al-Kindi tomonidan o'zlarining tegishli asarlari orqali ommalashgan, masalan, Al-Xorazmiyning "Hind raqamlari bilan hisoblash to'g'risida" (taxminan 825), "Foydalanish to'g'risida". hind raqamlari (taxminan 830)^[181] 8-9 asrlarda ular boshqa asarlar qatorida hind arifmetikasi tizimining O'rta Sharq va G'arbda tarqalishiga hissa qo'shgan.Pozitsion sanoq sistemasi rivojlanishining ahamiyati frantsuz matematikasi tomonidan tasvirlangan Pyer Simon Laplas (1749–1827) yozgan:

"Aynan Hindiston bizga barcha raqamlarni o'nta belgilar yordamida ifodalashning mohirona usulini berdi, har bir belgi pozitsiya qiymatini oladi, shuningdek mutlaq qiymatni oladi; biz uchun juda sodda ko'rinadigan chuqur va muhim g'oya uning haqiqiy xizmatiga e'tibor bermang, ammo juda soddaligi, barcha hisob-kitoblarga bergan eng katta qulayligi bizning arifmetikamizni foydali ixtirolarning birinchi darajasiga qo'yadi va biz ushbu yutuqning ulug'vorligini uning daholaridan qochib qutulganini eslaganimizda qadrlaymiz. Arximed va Apollonius, qadimgi davrda yaratilgan eng buyuk aqllardan biri. "

• Trigonometrik funktsiyalar : The trigonometrik funktsiyalari sinus va versine kelib chiqishi Hind astronomiyasi, to'liq akkord yunoncha versiyalaridan (zamonaviy yarim akkord versiyalariga) moslashtirilgan. Ular tomonidan batafsil tavsiflangan Aryabhata 5-asr oxirida, lekin ehtimol ilgari rivojlangan Siddxantas, 3-4 asr astronomik traktatlari.^[182][183] Keyinchalik, VI asr astronomi Varaxamihira sin ^ 2 (x) + cos ^ 2 (x) = 1 kabi bir necha asosiy trigonometrik formulalar va identifikatorlarni kashf etdi.^[175]
• Rasmiy tizimlar: Panini birinchisining yaratilishi bilan bog'liq Rasmiy tizim dunyoda.

Dori

Katarakt Inson ko'zi - a bilan tekshirilganda ko'rilgan magnitlangan ko'rinish yoriq chiroq. Hindistonlik jarroh Susruta miloddan avvalgi VI asrga qadar katarakt jarrohligini amalga oshirdi.

• Ayurveda va Siddha dorisi: Ayurveda va Siddha - Janubiy Osiyoda qo'llaniladigan qadimgi tibbiyot tizimlari. Ayurveda g'oyalarini hind matnida topish mumkin^[184] (miloddan avvalgi birinchi ming yillikning o'rtalarida). Ayurveda ming yillar davomida rivojlanib kelgan va bugungi kunda ham qo'llanilmoqda. Xalqaro shaklda uni a deb o'ylash mumkin qo'shimcha va muqobil tibbiyot. Shahar markazlaridan uzoqda joylashgan qishloq sharoitida bu shunchaki "dori". Sanskritcha so'z आयुर्वेदः (ayur-vedaḥ) "bilim" degan ma'noni anglatadi (veda.)) uzoq umr ko'rish uchun (ayur)".^[185] Siddha tibbiyoti asosan Janubiy Hindistonda keng tarqalgan bo'lib, matnlar sanskrit tilida emas, balki Tamil tilida yuboriladi. O'simliklar va minerallar Siddha terapevtik tizimining asosiy xom ashyosi bo'lib, ularning kelib chiqishi milodiy dastlabki asrlarga tegishli bo'lishi mumkin.^[186][187]
• Katarakt jarrohligi: Katarakt jarrohligi hind vrachi Sushrutaga ma'lum bo'lgan (miloddan avvalgi VI asr).^[188] Hindistonda katarakt jarrohligi maxsus vosita yordamida amalga oshirildi Jabamuxi Salaka, linzalarni bo'shatish va kataraktni ko'rish maydonidan siqib chiqarish uchun ishlatiladigan egri igna.^[189] Keyinchalik ko'zni iliq sariyog 'bilan ho'llash va keyin bog'lash kerak edi.^[189] Ushbu usul muvaffaqiyatli bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Susruta katarakt jarrohligi faqat o'ta zarurat tug'ilganda amalga oshirilishi kerakligi haqida ogohlantirdi.^[189] Yunonistonlik faylasuflar va olimlar ushbu operatsiyalarni shifokorlar tomonidan amalga oshirilgan Hindistonga borishdi.^[189] Kataraktni jarrohlik yo'li bilan olib tashlash Xitoyga Hindistondan ham kiritilgan.^[190]
• Qadimgi stomatologiya: The Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi (IVC) stomatologiyaning miloddan avvalgi 7000 yilda amalga oshirilganligini isbotladi. IVC sayti Mehrgarh stomatologiyaning ushbu shakli bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tish kasalliklarini davolashni o'z ichiga olganligini ko'rsatadi kamon mashqlari ehtimol, mohir boncuk ustalari tomonidan boshqariladi.
• Davolash Moxov: Kearns & Nash (2008) moxov kasalligi haqida birinchi eslatma Hind tibbiyot traktatida tasvirlanganligini ta'kidlamoqda Sushruta Samhita (Miloddan avvalgi VI asr).^[191] Biroq, Tibbiyot uchun Oksford Illustrated hamrohi moxov haqida zikr qilish va uni davolash uchun ritualistik usullar bayon etilgan Atharva-veda Dan oldin yozilgan (miloddan avvalgi 1500–1200) Sushruta Samhita.^[192]
• Plastik jarrohlik: Singan burunni plastik usulda tiklash bo'yicha muolajalar birinchi marta Edvin Smit Papirus,^[193] Qadimgi Misr tibbiyot matni, ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimgi jarrohlik risolasining transkripsiyasi Eski qirollik miloddan avvalgi 3000 dan 2500 gacha.^[194] Miloddan avvalgi 2000 yilga qadar Hindistonda plastik jarrohlik amaliyoti o'tkazilardi.^[195] Noto'g'ri ayolning tanasini deformatsiya qilish yo'li bilan jazolash tizimi ushbu amaliyotga talabning oshishiga olib kelishi mumkin.^[195] Jarroh Sushruta asosan plastik va katarakt jarrohlik sohasiga o'z hissasini qo'shdi.^[196] Sushrutaning ham, tibbiyot asarlari ham Charaka davomida arab tiliga tarjima qilingan Abbosiylar xalifaligi (Milodiy 750).^[197] Ushbu tarjima qilingan arabcha asarlar vositachilar orqali Evropaga yo'l oldi.^[197] Yilda Italiya Branca oilasi Sitsiliya and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.^[197]
• Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (Miloddan avvalgi VI asr).^[198] Amaliyot ta'sir o'tkazishni va siydik pufagi ostidan o'tishni o'z ichiga olgan.^[198]
• Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendranat Braxmachari (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the Fiziologiya yoki tibbiyot bo'yicha Nobel mukofoti in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial birikma davolash uchun kala azar ) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'^[199] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.^[200] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.^[200]
• Angina pectoris: The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by Sushruta (Miloddan avvalgi VI asr).^[196]

Konchilik

• Olmos qazib olish and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,^{[201][202][203]} where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna va Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.^[204] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.^{[205][206][207]} Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds in markaziy Hindiston.^[208] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.^[208] Hindistonda olmos haqida dastlabki ma'lumot kelib chiqadi Sanskritcha matnlar.^[209] The Arthashastra ning Kautilya Hindistondagi olmos savdosi haqida eslatib o'tadi.^[207] Buddist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.^[201] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.^[201] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".^[201] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.^[201]
• Sink qazib olish va medicinal zinc: Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.^[210] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajastan, were active during early Christian era.^[211][212] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).^[213] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (v. 5th – 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.^[213][214] India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world. The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

Fanlar

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesised NH₄YOQ₂ uning sof shaklida.

A Ramachandran fitnasi generated from the protein PCNA, inson DNK qisqichi oqsil that is composed of both beta-varaqlar va alfa spirallari (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- va C-terminali residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include Glitsin, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.

• Gravitatsiya: Aryabhata first identified the force to explain why objects do not spin out when the earth rotates, Braxmagupta described gravity as an attractive force and used the term gurutvākarṣaṇ tortishish uchun.^{[215][216][217]} Aryabhata was the one who first developed a geliosentrik model of solar system, where the planets spin on their axes and follow orbits around the Sun while the moon revolving around the earth in epitsikllar.
• Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesised NH₄YOQ₂ in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.^[218] Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.^[218]
• Ashtekar o'zgaruvchilari: In theoretical physics, Ashtekar (new) variables, named after Abxay Ashtekar who invented them, represent an unusual way to rewrite the metric on the three-dimensional spatial slices in terms of a SU (2) o'lchov maydoni va uni to'ldiruvchi o'zgaruvchan. Ashtekar variables are the key building block of halqa kvant tortishish kuchi.
• Atom: One of the remarkable scientists of ancient India was Kanada, who is said to have developed the atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the existence of Anu or a small indestructible particles, similar to an atom. He also explained that Anu can have two states – absolute peace and a state of movement. He wrote that atoms of the same substance combined with each other and in a specific manner to form synchronised dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) which then generated tryanuka (triatomic molecules).^{[iqtibos kerak ]}
• Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Svarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.^[219] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Qirollik jamiyati exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.^[219]
• Bhabha sochilib ketmoqda: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha da maqola chop etdi Qirollik jamiyati materiallari, A seriyasi, unda u elektron-pozitron tarqalishining kesimini aniqlash uchun birinchi hisob-kitobni amalga oshirdi.^[220] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.^[220]
• Bose-Eynshteyn statistikasi, condensate: On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Eynshteyn huquqiga ega Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Falsafiy jurnal.^[221] The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of fotonlar.^[221][222] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik.^[221][222] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the Bose-Eynshteyn kondensati.^[222][223]
• Boson: The name boson was coined by Pol Dirak^[224] to commemorate the contribution of the Hind fizik Satyendra Nath Bose.^[225][226] Yilda kvant mexanikasi, a boson (/ˈboʊsɒn/,^[227] /ˈboʊzɒn/^[228]) is a particle that follows Bose-Eynshteyn statistikasi. Bosons make up one of the two classes of zarralar, boshqa mavjudot fermions.^[229]
• Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy: This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of kvant tortishish kuchi and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates, Samuel L. Braunshteyn and Simone Severini.
• Chandrasekhar limiti va Chandrasekhar raqami: Discovered by and named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Fizika bo'yicha Nobel mukofoti 1983 yilda ishlaganligi uchun yulduz tuzilishi va yulduz evolyutsiyasi.^[230] Subrrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovered the calculation used to determine the future of what would happen to a dying star. If the star's mass is less than the Chandrasekhar Limit it will shrink to become a white dwarf, and if it is great the star will explode, becoming a supernova
• Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.^[231] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of qisqa to'lqin, oq nur va ultrabinafsha nur.^[231] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.^[232]
• Geliy: The French astronomer, Per Yansen observed the Solar eclipse of 18 August 1868 from Guntur in Madras State, British India. He discovered the first evidence of helium as a bright yellow line in the chromograph of the Sun
• Mahalanobis masofasi: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.^[233]
• Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.^[218] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.^[218]
• Ramachandran fitnasi, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the Molekulyar biologiya jurnali in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for aloqa, representation, and various kinds of ma'lumotlarni tahlil qilish.^[234]
• Raman effekti: The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Ser Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."^[235]
• Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengal tili fizik Amal Kumar Raychaudxuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems ning umumiy nisbiylik.^[236]

Bo'shliq

• Oy suvi: Although the presence of water ice on the moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the Oy ta'sirini tekshirish tomonidan chiqarilgan Chandrayaan-1 2009 yilda,^{[237][238][239]} confirmed and established by NASA.^[240]
• Yerning orbitasi (Sidereal yil ): The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the Surya Siddxanta (c.600 CE), give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only a negligible 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days.^[241] This calculation was the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.
• Periodicity of comets: Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.^[242]
• Saha ionisation equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises ionisations in context of stellar atmospheres.^[243]
• Quasi-normal modes ning qora tuynuklar: C. V. Vishveshvara discovered the quasi-normal modes of black holes.^[244] These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detectors.

Innovatsiyalar

• Dazmol bilan ishlash: Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anadolu va Kavkaz. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malxar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day Uttar-Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.^[245] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiokarbonli uchrashuv. Spikes, pichoqlar, xanjar, arrow - boshlar, piyolalar, qoshiq, kostryulkalar, o'qlar, keskiler, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.^[246] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.^[245] Yilda Janubiy Hindiston (Bugungi kun Mysore ) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.^[247] Vaqtida Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Dehlining temir ustuni, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.^[248]

Computer science and Programming

• Oddiy: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inconvenient. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore.^[249] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilised by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organisations.
• Backus-naur form: In Kompyuter fanlari, Backus-Naur shakli yoki Backus normal form (BNF) yoki Panini Backus form^[250] a notation technique uchun kontekstsiz grammatikalar, often used to describe the sintaksis ning tillar used in computing, such as computer dasturlash tillari, document formats, ko'rsatmalar to'plamlari va aloqa protokollari. They are applied wherever exact descriptions of languages are needed: for instance, in official language specifications, in manuals, and in textbooks on programming language theory.The idea of describing the structure of language using rewriting rules can be traced back to at least the work of Pokini (who lived sometime between the 7th and 4th century Miloddan avvalgi ).^[251][252] Ism Pāṇini Backus form has also been suggested in view of the fact that the expansion Backus normal form may not be accurate, and that Pokini had independently developed a similar notation earlier.^[253] His notation to describe Sanskritcha word structure notation is equivalent in power to that of Backus and has many similar properties.

Tilshunoslik

• Rasmiy grammatika: In his treatise Astadhyayi, Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of Sanskritcha.^[254] Yilda rasmiy til nazariyasi, a grammatika (when the context is not given, often called a rasmiy grammatika for clarity) is a set of ishlab chiqarish qoidalari uchun torlar a rasmiy til. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's alifbo that are valid according to the language's sintaksis. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form.

Metrologiya

• Standardisation: The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE^[11] characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as^[255] well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.^[255] Hind tsivilizatsiyasining og'irliklari va o'lchovlariga ham erishildi Fors va Markaziy Osiyo, ular yana o'zgartirilgan joyda.^[256]

Mohenjodaro, Harappa va .dan jami 558 ta og'irlik qazilgan Chanxu-daro, nuqsonli og'irliklarni hisobga olmaganda. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. Bu kuchli nazorat kamida 500 yillik davr mavjud bo'lganligining dalili edi. 13,7 g vazn Hind vodiysida ishlatiladigan birliklardan biri bo'lib tuyuladi. Notation ga asoslangan edi ikkilik va o‘nli kasr tizimlar. Yuqoridagi uchta shahardan qazib olingan og'irliklarning 83% kubik, 68% esa yasalgan chert.^[11]

• Texnik standartlar: Technical standards were being applied and used in the Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used in burchak o'lchovi va o'lchov qurilishda.^[257] Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Xarappa va Mohenjo-daro.^[11] Hind tsivilizatsiyasining og'irliklari va o'lchovlariga ham erishildi Fors va Markaziy Osiyo, ular yana o'zgartirilgan joyda.^[256] Shigeo Ivata Hind sivilizatsiyasidan topilgan qazilgan og'irliklarni tasvirlaydi:

Shuningdek qarang

• Hindiston innovatsiyalarining xronologiyasi
• Nalanda universiteti
• Hindistonda fan va texnika tarixi
• Tarixiy ixtirolarning xronologiyasi

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Tashqi havolalar

• Qadimgi Hindistonning fan va texnika sohasidagi ixtirolari
• Hindiston ilmi va texnologiyasi bo'yicha insholar.
• P. K. Rey, FAN, MADANIYAT VA RIVOJLANISh - BIRLANGAN FENOMENA, Everyman's Science Vol.
• Janubiy Osiyoda fan tarixi (hssa-journal.org ). HSSA - bu Hindistondagi ilm-fan tarixi uchun qayta ko'rib chiqilgan, ochiq, onlayn jurnal.