Magna Carta - Magna Carta

Magna Carta
Paxta MS. Avgust II. 106, omon qolgan to'rt kishidan bittasi misollar 1215 matndan
Yaratilgan	1215; 805 yil oldin (1215)
Manzil	2 da Britaniya kutubxonasi; 1 da Linkoln qasri va Solsberi sobori
Muallif (lar)	Jon, Angliya qiroli Uning baronlari Stiven Langton, Canterbury arxiepiskopi
Maqsad	Tinchlik shartnomasi

Maqolalar turkumining bir qismi
Monarxiya
Markaziy tushunchalar Monarx Monarxizm Imperializm Shohlarning ilohiy huquqi Osmon mandati
Turlari Mutlaqo Xitoy yuristi Kompozit Konstitutsiyaviy Crown respublikasi Diarxiya Ikki tomonlama Tanlangan Amirlik Etnarx Federal Irsiy Shaxsiy birlashma Mustaqil bo'lmagan Ommabop Regency Ishonchlilik Tetrarx Uchlik Umumjahon
Tarix Rim imperiyasining tug'ilishi Magna Carta Usmonli imperiyasining asosi Shonli inqilob Frantsiya inqilobi Trienio Liberal Birinchi Frantsiya imperiyasi Liberal urushlar Ikkinchi Frantsiya imperiyasi Italiyaning birlashishi Meiji-ni tiklash Avstriya-Vengriya murosasi Germaniyaning birlashishi 1910 yil 5 oktyabr inqilobi Braziliyaning respublika e'lon qilinishi Xitoy inqilobi Rossiya inqilobi 1932 yildagi siyam inqilobi Italiya Respublikasining tug'ilishi Ispaniyaning demokratiyaga o'tishi Eron inqilobi Zamonaviy Kambodja Nepal fuqarolar urushi
Tegishli mavzular Aristokratiya Asillik Avtokratiya Konservatizm Despotizm Sulola Ro'yxat Ma'rifatli absolutizm Tomas Xobbs Legitimistlar Orleanist Oligarxiya Tenglik Faylasuf qirol Primogenizatsiya Rank Royalizm Regitsid Regnal raqami Qirollik oilasi Uslub Ultra-royalist
Siyosat portali

Magna Carta Libertatum (O'rta asr lotin tili odatda "Ozodliklarning Buyuk Xartiyasi" uchun) Magna Carta (shuningdek Magna Charta; "Buyuk Xartiya"),^[a] a qirol nizomi^[4][5] ning huquqlar tomonidan kelishilgan Angliya qiroli Jon da Runnymede, yaqin Vindzor, 1215 yil 15-iyunda.^[b] Birinchi tomonidan tayyorlangan Canterbury arxiepiskopi Stiven Langton mashhur bo'lmagan shoh va bir guruh isyonchilar o'rtasida tinchlik o'rnatish baronlar, cherkov huquqlarini himoya qilishni, baronlarni noqonuniy qamoqdan himoya qilishni, tezkor adolatdan foydalanish huquqini va cheklovlarni va'da qildi feodal uchun to'lovlar toj, 25 baronlik kengash orqali amalga oshiriladi. Ikkala tomon ham o'z majburiyatlari ortida turmadi va nizom bekor qilindi Papa begunoh III ga olib boradi Birinchi baronlar urushi.

Yuhannoning o'limidan so'ng, uning kichik o'g'lining regensiya hukumati, Genri III, 1216 yilda hujjatni qayta radikal mazmunidan mahrum qilib, ularning ishi uchun siyosiy qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishlarda. 1217 yildagi urush oxirida u Lambetda kelishilgan tinchlik shartnomasi, u erda hujjat Magna Carta nomini olgan, uni kichikroq ajratish uchun O'rmon xartiyasi bir vaqtning o'zida chiqarilgan. Mablag'larning etishmasligi tufayli Genri yangi soliqlarni to'lash evaziga yana 1225 yilda nizomni qayta rasmiylashtirdi. O'g'li, Edvard I, 1297 yilda mashqni takrorladi, bu safar uni Angliyaning bir qismi sifatida tasdiqladi qonun. Xartiya ingliz siyosiy hayotining bir qismiga aylandi va odatda har bir monarx tomonidan o'z navbatida yangilandi, garchi vaqt o'tishi bilan va yangi paydo bo'lishiga qaramay Angliya parlamenti yangi qonunlarni qabul qildi, u o'zining amaliy ahamiyatini biroz yo'qotdi.

XVI asrning oxirida Magna Kartaga qiziqish kuchaygan. O'sha paytdagi yuristlar va tarixchilar qadimgi ingliz konstitutsiyasi mavjud deb ishonishgan Anglo-saksonlar, bu individual ingliz erkinliklarini himoya qildi. Ular bu 1066 yilgi Normand istilosi Magna Carta ularni qayta tiklash uchun ommalashgan urinish bo'lib, bu nizomni parlamentning zamonaviy vakolatlari va shu kabi huquqiy tamoyillar uchun muhim asosga aylantirdi. habeas corpus. Garchi bu tarixiy hisobotda xatolar bo'lsa ham, Sir kabi huquqshunoslar Edvard Koks Magna Carta-ga qarshi bahs yuritib, 17-asrning boshlarida keng foydalangan shohlarning ilohiy huquqi tomonidan e'lon qilingan Styuart monarxlar. Ikkalasi ham Jeyms I va uning o'g'li Karl I Magna Carta munozarasini bostirishga urinib ko'rdi Ingliz fuqarolar urushi 1640 yillar va Charlzning qatl qilinishi. Magna Kartaning siyosiy afsonasi va uning qadimiy shaxsiy erkinliklarini himoya qilish bundan keyin ham saqlanib qoldi Shonli inqilob 1688 yil 19-asrgacha. Bu dastlabki amerikalik mustamlakachilarga ta'sir ko'rsatdi O'n uchta koloniya va shakllanishi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi, bu Qo'shma Shtatlarning yangi respublikasida mamlakatning eng yuqori qonuniga aylandi.^[c] Tadqiqot tomonidan Viktoriya davri tarixchilar 1215 yilgi dastlabki nizom oddiy odamlarning huquqlaridan ko'ra, monarx va baronlar o'rtasidagi O'rta asr munosabatlariga taalluqli ekanligini ko'rsatdilar, ammo bu nizom deyarli barcha mazmuni qonun hujjatlaridan bekor qilinganidan keyin ham kuchli, ramziy hujjat bo'lib qoldi. 19 va 20 asrlarda.

Magna Carta bugungi kunda ham ozodlikning muhim ramzini shakllantiradi, uni ko'pincha siyosatchilar va tashviqotchilar keltirishadi va Britaniya va Amerika yuridik hamjamiyatlari tomonidan katta hurmat bilan qaraladi, Lord Denning uni "barcha zamonlarning eng buyuk konstitutsiyaviy hujjati - despotning o'zboshimchalik hokimiyatiga qarshi shaxs erkinligining asosi" deb ta'riflagan.^[6] 21-asrda to'rt misollar 1215 yilgi asl nizomning ikkitasi amal qiladi Britaniya kutubxonasi, birida Linkoln qasri va bittasi Solsberi sobori. Bundan tashqari, davlat va xususiy mulkda keyingi nizomlarning bir nechtasi, shu jumladan AQSh va Avstraliyada 1297 yilgi nizomning nusxalari mavjud. Dastlabki ustavlar yozilgan pergament choyshablardan foydalanish kviling qalamlar, ichida og'ir qisqartirilgan o‘rta asr lotincha, bu o'sha paytda huquqiy hujjatlar uchun konventsiya edi. Ularning har biri qirol bilan muhrlangan katta muhr (yasalgan asal mumi va qatron muhrlangan mum ): muhrlarning juda oz qismi saqlanib qolgan. Garchi olimlar Magna Kartaning 63 ta raqamli "bandlariga" murojaat qilishsa-da, bu Sir tomonidan kiritilgan zamonaviy raqamlash tizimi Uilyam Blekston 1759 yilda; asl nizom yagona, uzun va uzluksiz matnni tashkil etdi. Magna Carta ning 800 yilligiga bag'ishlangan to'rtta asl 1215 ta nizom 2015 yil 3-fevral kuni Britaniya kutubxonasida namoyish etildi.

Tarix

13-asr

Fon

Qirol Jon a qoq ovi

Magna Carta 1215 yilda qirollik va qo'zg'olonchilar guruhlari o'rtasida tinchlikka erishish uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz urinish sifatida paydo bo'lgan. Birinchi baronlar urushi. Angliyani qirol boshqargan Jon, uchinchisi Angevin shohlari. Garchi qirollik ma'muriy tizimga ega bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Angevin monarxlari davridagi hukumatning mohiyati aniq belgilanmagan va noaniq edi.^[7][8] Yuhanno va uning salaflari printsipidan foydalangan holda hukmronlik qilishgan vis va voluntas, yoki "kuch va iroda", ijro etuvchi va ba'zan o'zboshimchalik bilan qaror qabul qilish, ko'pincha shoh qonundan ustun bo'lganligi asosida oqlanadi.^[8] Ko'pgina zamonaviy yozuvchilar monarxlar odat va qonunlarga binoan, shohlikning etakchi a'zolari maslahatiga binoan hukmronlik qilishlari kerak, deb hisoblashgan, ammo agar podshoh buni rad etsa, nima bo'lishining namunasi yo'q edi.^[8]

Yuhanno Frantsiyadagi ajdodlari erlarining ko'pini qirolga boy bergan edi Filipp II 1204 yilda va ularni qaytarib olish uchun ko'p yillar davomida kurash olib borgan, urushga qarshi kurashish uchun pul to'plash uchun baronlarga katta soliqlarni oshirib, 1214 yilda qimmat muvaffaqiyatsizlik bilan tugagan.^[9] Ittifoqchilarining mag'lubiyatidan so'ng Bovinlar jangi, Jon tinchlik uchun sudga murojaat qilishi va tovon puli to'lashi kerak edi.^[10] Jon allaqachon baronlarning ko'pchiligiga shaxsan yoqmagan edi, ularning aksariyati tojga qarzdor edi va ikki tomon o'rtasida ozgina ishonch mavjud edi.^[11][12][13] Tantana uning mavqeini mustahkamlagan bo'lar edi, ammo mag'lubiyati oldida, Frantsiyadan qaytib kelganidan keyin bir necha oy ichida Jon Angliyaning shimolida va sharqida isyonchi baronlar uning hukmronligiga qarshilik uyushtirayotganini aniqladi.^[14][15]

Isyonchilar "cherkov va saltanat erkinligi uchun qat'iy turamiz" deb qasamyod qildilar va qiroldan tasdiqlashlarini talab qildilar Ozodlik xartiyasi Qirol tomonidan e'lon qilingan Genri I o'tgan asrda va bu o'z huquqlarini himoya qilish uchun baronlar tomonidan qabul qilingan.^[16][15][17] Qo'zg'olonchilar rahbariyati o'sha vaqt me'yorlari bilan ta'sirchan bo'lmagan, hatto obro'siz bo'lgan, ammo ularni Yuhannoga bo'lgan nafratlari birlashtirgan;^[18] Robert FitsVolter, keyinchalik isyonchi baronlarning etakchisi etib saylangan, Jon qizini zo'rlashga uringanligini ko'pchilik oldida da'vo qilgan,^[19] va 1212 yilda Yuhannoga suiqasd uyushtirishda ishtirok etgan.^[20]

Zamonaviy devor qog'ozi Papa begunoh III

Jon 1215 yil yanvar oyida Londonda potentsial islohotlarni muhokama qilish uchun kengash o'tkazdi va muhokamalarga homiylik qildi Oksford bahor paytida uning agentlari va isyonchilar o'rtasida.^[21] Ikkala tomon ham murojaat qildi Papa begunoh III nizo bo'yicha yordam uchun.^[22] Muzokaralar davomida isyon ko'targan baronlar dastlabki hujjatni ishlab chiqdilar, uni tarixchilar "Ozodliklarning noma'lum xartiyasi" deb atashdi, bu hujjat Genri I ning Ozodlik Xartiyasiga asosan uning tili uchun asos bo'lgan; ushbu hujjatdan etti maqola keyinchalik "Baronlarning maqolalarida" va keyingi ustavda paydo bo'ldi.^[23][24][25]

Yuhanno Papa unga qimmatli huquqiy va ma'naviy yordam beradi degan umidda edi va shunga ko'ra Jon vaqt o'ynadi; Qirol 1213 yilda o'zini papa vassali deb e'lon qilgan va Papadan yordam so'rashiga ishongan.^[26][22] Jon shuningdek, Frantsiyadan yollanma kuchlarni jalb qila boshladi, ammo keyinchalik Shoh mojaroni avj oldirayotgani kabi taassurot qoldirmaslik uchun ba'zilari qaytarib yuborildi.^[21] O'zining yordamini qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun yana bir harakat qilib, Jon a bo'lishga qasamyod qildi salibchi, cherkov qonunchiligiga binoan unga qo'shimcha siyosiy himoya bergan bu harakat, garchi ko'pchilik bu va'dani samimiy emas deb hisoblasa ham.^[27][28]

Jonni qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan xatlar aprel oyida Papadan kelgan, ammo o'sha paytgacha isyonchi baronlar harbiy guruhga aylangan edi. Ular yig'ilishdi Nortxempton may oyida va yurish bilan Jon bilan feodal aloqalaridan voz kechgan London, Linkoln va Exeter.^[29] Jonning mo''tadil va murosaga kelish harakatlari asosan muvaffaqiyatli bo'lgan, ammo isyonchilar Londonni ushlab turgandan so'ng, ular qirollik tarafdorlarining yangi to'lqinini jalb qilishgan.^[30] Qirol bu masalani oliy hakam sifatida Papa bilan arbitraj qo'mitasiga topshirishni taklif qildi, ammo bu isyonchilar uchun jozibali emas edi.^[31] Stiven Langton, Canterbury arxiepiskopi, qo'zg'olon baronlari bilan ularning talablari bo'yicha ish olib borgan va Papa hakamligi taklifi muvaffaqiyatsiz tugaganidan so'ng, Jon Langtonga tinchlik muzokaralarini tashkil qilishni buyurgan.^[30][32]

1215 yilgi Buyuk Xartiya

Baronlarning maqolalari, 1215 yil Britaniya kutubxonasi

Jon isyonchilar rahbarlari bilan uchrashdi Runnymede, a suv o'tqini ning janubiy sohilida Temza daryosi, 1215 yil 10-iyunda. Runnymede anjumanlar uchun an'anaviy joy edi, ammo u shuningdek qirol qal'asi o'rtasida neytral zaminda joylashgan edi. Vindzor qasri va isyonchilar bazasi Laklar va ikkala tomonga ham harbiy ahvolga tushib qolish ehtimoli yo'q bo'lgan uchrashuv xavfsizligini taklif qilishdi.^[33][34] Bu erda isyonchilar Jonga "Baronlarning maqolalari" ni isloh qilish to'g'risidagi talablarini taqdim etishdi.^[30][32][35] Keyingi o'n kun ichida Stiven Lentonning vositachilik bo'yicha amaliy harakatlari ushbu to'liq bo'lmagan talablarni taklif qilingan tinchlik shartnomasini aks ettiruvchi nizomga aylantirdi; bir necha yil o'tgach, ushbu shartnoma Magna Carta, ya'ni "Buyuk Xartiya" deb o'zgartirildi.^[36][32][35] 15 iyunga kelib matn bo'yicha umumiy kelishuvga erishildi va 19 iyunda isyonchilar Yuhannoga sodiqlik qasamlarini yangiladilar va nizom nusxalari rasmiy ravishda rasmiylashtirildi.^[35][32]

Garchi, tarixchi sifatida Devid duradgor Xartiya ta'kidlaganidek, "siyosiy nazariyaga ko'p vaqt sarflamagan", u shunchaki individual baronial shikoyatlarni ko'rib chiqishdan tashqariga chiqdi va siyosiy islohotlar uchun kengroq taklifni shakllantirdi.^[30][37] U cherkov huquqlarini himoya qilishni, noqonuniy qamoqlardan himoya qilishni, tezkor adolatdan foydalanish imkoniyatini va eng muhimi, tojga soliq va boshqa feodal to'lovlarni cheklashni, baronial rozilikni talab qiladigan feodal soliqqa tortishning ayrim shakllarini va'da qildi.^[38][14] Unda erkin erkaklar, xususan baronlarning huquqlariga e'tibor qaratildi^[37] - ammo, 16, 20 va 28-moddalarda krepostnoylarning huquqlari kiritilgan.^[39][d] Uning uslubi va mazmuni Genri I ning Ozodlik Xartiyasini, shuningdek, shaharlarga chiqarilgan qirollik nizomlari, cherkov va baronial sudlarning faoliyati va Pamiers statuti singari Evropa nizomlarini o'z ichiga olgan keng huquqiy an'analarni aks ettirdi.^[42][43]

Keyinchalik tarixchilar "61-band" yoki "xavfsizlik bandi" deb belgilagan narsalarga ko'ra, Jonning kelajakda ushbu nizomga rioya qilishini nazorat qilish va ta'minlash uchun 25 barondan iborat kengash tuziladi.^[44] Agar Yuhanno kengash tomonidan qonunbuzarlik to'g'risida ogohlantirilgandan keyin 40 kun ichida ustavga muvofiq kelmasa, 25 baron 61-bandga binoan Yuhannoning qal'alari va erlarini, ularning fikriga ko'ra, tuzatishlar kiritilgunga qadar tortib olish huquqiga ega bo'ldilar.^[45] Erkaklar shohni nazorat qilishda kengashga yordam berish uchun qasamyod qilishga majbur bo'lishlari kerak edi, ammo har qanday qonunbuzarliklar uchun tuzatish kiritilgandan so'ng, Qirol avvalgidek hukmronlik qilishni davom ettiradi. Bir ma'noda bu misli ko'rilmagan edi; boshqa qirollar ilgari podshoh o'z majburiyatlarini bajarmagan taqdirda, ularga bo'ysunishlariga qarshi individual qarshilik ko'rsatish huquqini berishgan. Magna Carta yangi bo'lgan, chunki u qirolni majburan majburlashning rasmiy tan olingan vositasini yaratdi.^[46] Tarixchi Uilfred Uorren Ushbu moddaning fuqarolar urushiga olib kelishi deyarli muqarrar edi, chunki u "o'z uslublari bilan xom va o'z ta'sirini bezovta qilgan".^[47] Baronlar Jonni ustavga rioya qilishga majburlamoqchi edilar, ammo 61-band podshohga qarshi juda og'ir bo'lganligi sababli, nizomning ushbu versiyasi omon qololmadi.^[45]

Yuhanno va qo'zg'olon baronlari bir-biriga ishonishmadi va hech bir tomon tinchlik kelishuvini amalga oshirishga jiddiy urinishmadi.^[44][48] Yangi kengash uchun tanlangan 25 baron isyonchilar edi, ular ko'proq ekstremistik baronlar tomonidan tanlangan va isyonchilar orasida ko'pchilik o'z kuchlarini safarbar qilish uchun bahona topgan.^[49][50][51] Qirollik fraktsiyasi va musodara qilingan yerlarni qaytarib berilishini kutgan isyonchilar o'rtasida nizolar kelib chiqa boshladi.^[52]

Magna Carta-ning 61-bandida Yuhanno "o'zimizdan yoki boshqa birovdan hech kimdan hech narsa olishga intilmasligi, shu bilan ushbu imtiyozlar yoki erkinliklarning birortasi bekor qilinishi yoki kamaytirilishi mumkinligi to'g'risida hech qanday ma'lumot olishga intilmasligi" majburiyatini o'z ichiga olgan.^[53][54] Shunga qaramay, qirol Iyul oyida Papa Innokentdan yordam so'rab murojaat qilib, bu nizomda Papaning Jon feodali sifatida huquqlari buzilganligini ta'kidladi.^[55][52] Iyun oyidagi tinchlik bitimi doirasida baronlar 15 avgustga qadar Londonni taslim qilishi kerak edi, ammo ular buni rad etishdi.^[56] Shu bilan birga, Papa buyrug'i avgust oyida tinchlik kelishuvidan oldin yozilgan bo'lib, natijada papa komissarlari isyonchi baronlarni quvib chiqarib, sentyabr oyining boshlarida Langtonni lavozimidan chetlashtirdi.^[57] Xartiyadan xabardor bo'lganidan so'ng, Papa batafsil javob berdi: 24 avgustda yozilgan va sentyabr oyining oxirida kelgan maktubida u Xartiyani "nafaqat uyatli va kamsituvchi, balki noqonuniy va adolatsiz" deb e'lon qildi, chunki Jon "majburan qabul qilingan". "bu, va shunga muvofiq nizom" bekor va hech qachon amal qilmaydi "; quvib chiqarish tahdidi ostida Qirol nizomga rioya qilmasligi kerak edi, va baronlar uni bajarishga intilmaydilar.^{[58][52][59][56]}

O'sha paytda ikki tomon o'rtasida zo'ravonlik boshlandi; kelishilganidan uch oy o'tmay, Jon va sodiq baronlar muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lgan nizomni qat'iyan rad etishdi: Birinchi Baronlar urushi boshlandi.^[60][61][52] Qo'zg'olon baronlari Jon bilan tinchlik o'rnatish mumkin emas degan xulosaga kelishdi va kelajak Filipp II ning o'g'liga murojaat qilishdi Louis VIII, yordam uchun, unga ingliz taxtini taklif qildi.^[62][52][e] Tez orada urush boshi berk ko'chaga kirib qoldi. Qirol kasal bo'lib qoldi va 1216 yil 18 oktyabrga o'tar kechasi to'qqiz yoshli bolani qoldirib vafot etdi Genri III uning merosxo'ri sifatida.^[63]

1215 yildagi ishtirokchilar ro'yxatlari

1216 yilgi Buyuk Xartiya

Garchi 1215 yilgi Xartiya tinchlik shartnomasi sifatida muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan bo'lsa-da, u yosh Genrix III yangi hukumati davrida qayta ko'tarilib, isyonchilar fraktsiyasidan yordamni jalb qilish usuli sifatida qayta tiklandi. Qirol Jon o'lim to'shagida Genriga qirollikni qaytarib olishga yordam berish uchun o'n uchta ijrochilar kengashini tayinladi va o'g'lining vasiyligiga topshirilishini so'radi Uilyam Marshal, Angliyadagi eng mashhur ritsarlardan biri.^[70] Uilyam bolani ritsarlik qildi va Kardinal Guala Bikchieri, papa legati Angliyaga, keyin uning toj marosimini nazorat qildi Gloucester sobori 28 oktyabrda.^[71][72][73]

Yosh qirol og'ir vaziyatni meros qilib oldi, Angliyaning yarmidan ko'pi isyonchilar tomonidan ishg'ol qilindi.^[74][75] U Genri uchun fuqarolik urushida g'alaba qozonish va isyonchilarni jazolash niyatida bo'lgan Gualadan katta yordam oldi.^[76] Guala Angliya va Papa o'rtasidagi aloqalarni mustahkamlashga kirishdi, toki tantananing o'zi, Genri bergan davrdan boshlab hurmat Papani o'z feodal xo'jayini deb tan olib, Papaga.^[77][71] Papa Honorius III Genri Rim Papasi ekanligini e'lon qildi vassal va palata va legit Genri va uning qirolligini himoya qilish uchun to'liq vakolatlarga ega ekanligi.^[71] Qo'shimcha chora sifatida Genri xochni olib, o'zini salibchi deb e'lon qildi va shu bilan Rimdan maxsus himoya huquqiga ega bo'ldi.^[71]

Sadoqatli kishilar uchun urush yaxshi o'tmadi, ammo shahzoda Lui va isyonchi baronlar ham keyingi taraqqiyotga erishishga qiynalishdi.^[78][79] Yuhannoning o'limi isyonchilarning ba'zi tashvishlarini bostirgan edi va qirol qal'alari mamlakatning bosib olingan qismlarida hanuzgacha davom etmoqda.^[80][79] Genri hukumati isyonchi baronlarni o'zlarining erlarini qaytarib berish evaziga o'zlarining maqsadlariga qaytishga undashdi va 1215-yilgi Xartiyaning birinchi bandini, shu jumladan papachilik va 61-bandi uchun noqulay bo'lganlarni olib tashlagan bo'lishiga qaramay, bir nusxasini qayta chiqardi. baronlar kengashini tuzgan edi.^[81][82] Bu harakat muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi va Genrining yangi hukumatiga qarshilik kuchayib ketdi.^[83]

1217 yilgi Buyuk Xartiya

Britaniya kutubxonasi tomonidan olib borilgan 1217 yil O'rmon Xartiyasi

1217 yil fevralda Lui Frantsiya tomon qo'shimcha kuch yig'ish uchun yo'l oldi.^[84] U yo'qligida Lui frantsuz va ingliz izdoshlari o'rtasida tortishuvlar boshlandi va Kardinal Guala Genrining isyonchilarga qarshi urushi diniy salib yurishiga teng deb e'lon qildi.^[85] Ushbu deklaratsiya isyonchilar harakatidan ketma-ket ketishga olib keldi va mojaro to'lqini Genri foydasiga ko'tarildi.^[86] Lui aprel oyining oxirida qaytib keldi, ammo uning shimoliy kuchlari Uilyam Marshal tomonidan mag'lubiyatga uchradi Linkoln jangi May oyida.^[87][88]

Ayni paytda Frantsiyada Lui kampaniyasini qo'llab-quvvatlash kamayib bordi va u Angliyadagi urush yo'qolgan degan xulosaga keldi.^[89] U kardinal Guala bilan shartnoma bo'yicha muzokaralar olib bordi, unga ko'ra Lui ingliz taxtiga bo'lgan da'vosidan voz kechadi; evaziga uning izdoshlariga o'z erlari, har qanday hukmlari qaytarib berilishi kerak edi chetlatish bekor qilinadi va Genri hukumati o'tgan yilgi nizomni bajarilishini va'da qiladi.^[90] Taklif qilinayotgan kelishuv tez orada ba'zi bir sodiq kishilarning isyonchilarga, ayniqsa isyonga qo'shilgan ruhoniylarga nisbatan juda saxiy ekanligi haqidagi da'volari ostida echila boshladi.^[91]

Qaror yo'q bo'lganda, Lui Frantsiyadan qo'shimcha kuchlar kelishiga umid qilib qolgan kuchlari bilan Londonda qoldi.^[91] Kutilgan avtoulov avgust oyida etib kelganida, uni sodiqlar ushlab qolishdi va mag'lub etishdi Sandviç jangi.^[92] Lui yangi tinchlik muzokaralariga kirishdi va fraksiyalar finalda kelishib oldilar Lambet shartnomasi 1217 yil 12 va 13 sentyabrda Kingston shartnomasi sifatida ham tanilgan.^[92] Shartnoma birinchi tinchlik taklifiga o'xshash edi, ammo erlari va tayinlovlari bekor qilingan isyonkor ruhoniylar bundan mustasno edi; Shu bilan birga, Lui izdoshlari 1216 yilgi Xartiyasiga murojaat qilgan holda, o'zlarining an'anaviy erkinliklari va urf-odatlaridan bahramand bo'lishlari uchun va'da berishdi.^[93] Lui Angliyani kelishilgan holda tark etdi va qo'shildi Albigensiya salib yurishi Frantsiyaning janubida, urushni oxiriga etkazish.^[89]

A buyuk kengash urushdan keyingi vaziyatni hisobga olish uchun oktyabr va noyabr oylarida chaqirilgan; ushbu kengash 1217 yilgi Xartiyani ishlab chiqqan va chiqargan deb o'ylashadi.^[94] Nizom 1216 yilgi nizomga o'xshardi, garchi baronlarning feodal sub'ektlari ustidan huquqlarini himoya qilish uchun ba'zi qo'shimcha bandlar qo'shildi va tojning soliq undirish qobiliyatiga qo'yilgan cheklovlar bekor qilindi.^[95] Qirollik o'rmonlarini boshqarish borasida bir qator kelishmovchiliklar mavjud bo'lib, ular maxsus huquqiy tizim bilan bog'liq bo'lib, natijada qirollarning katta daromad manbai bo'lgan; shikoyatlar ushbu sudlarning bajarilishi va qirol o'rmonlarining geografik chegaralari ustidan ham mavjud edi.^[96] Qo'shimcha nizom, O'rmon xartiyasi, yaratilgan, mavjud o'rmon huquqbuzarliklarini avf etish, o'rmon sudlari ustidan yangi nazorat o'rnatish va o'rmon chegaralarini qayta ko'rib chiqishni o'rnatish.^[96] Ikki nizomni ajratish uchun, atama magna carta libertatum, "erkinliklarning buyuk xartiyasi", ulamolar tomonidan vaqt o'tishi bilan shunchaki Magna Carta nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan katta hujjatga murojaat qilish uchun ishlatilgan.^[97][98]

1225 yilgi Buyuk Xartiya

Magna Carta-ning 1225 versiyasi tomonidan chiqarilgan Genri III, bo'lib o'tgan Milliy arxivlar

Magna Karta Genri III davrida ingliz siyosiy hayotiga tobora kirib bordi ozchilik.^[99] Qirol o'sib ulg'aygan sari uning hukumati fuqarolar urushidan asta-sekin tiklana boshladi, okruglar ustidan nazoratni qaytarib oldi va yana bir marta daromadlarni oshirishni boshladi, nizom shartlarini buzmaslik uchun.^[100] Genri voyaga etmagan bo'lib qoldi va uning hukumatining uning nomidan doimiy majburiy qarorlar qabul qilish huquqi cheklangan edi. 1223 yilda nizomlarning maqomi bo'yicha ziddiyatlar aniq bo'ldi qirol saroyi, Genri hukumati okruglardagi mulklari va daromadlari bo'yicha o'z huquqlarini qayta tiklashga urinib ko'rganida, ko'plab jamoalarning qarshiliklariga duch keldi - ba'zan noto'g'ri bo'lsa - nizomlar yangi tartiblarni himoya qildi.^[101][102] Ushbu qarshilik natijasida arxiepiskop Langton va Uilyam Brewer Qirol nizom shartlarini bajarishga majbur bo'lganmi yoki yo'qmi, chunki u ularga rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'lgan.^[103] Shu munosabat bilan Genri og'zaki va'dalar berishicha, u o'zini nizomlarga bo'ysungan deb hisoblaydi va qirollik tomonidan tumanlardagi vaziyatni surishtirishga imkon beradi.^[104]

Ikki yil o'tgach, Genrining ustavlarga sodiqligi haqidagi savol yana paydo bo'ldi, fransuz Lyudovik VIII Frantsiyada qolgan Genri viloyatlarini bosib olganida, Poitou va Gascony.^[105][106] Poitu shahridagi Genri armiyasi mablag 'bilan ta'minlanmagan va viloyat tezda qulab tushgan.^[107] Angliyadan qo'shimcha kuchlar yuborilmasa, Gascony ham qulashi aniq bo'ldi.^[108] 1225 yil boshida katta kengash Gashkoni tezda qaytarib olgan qo'shinni jo'natish uchun 40 ming funt sterling miqdorida soliqni tasdiqladi.^[109][110] Genri qo'llab-quvvatlashga rozilik berish evaziga baronlar qiroldan Magna Kartani va O'rmon Xartiyasini qayta chiqarishni talab qilishdi.^[111][112] Tarkibi 1217 versiyalari bilan deyarli bir xil edi, ammo yangi versiyalarida Qirol ustavlar o'zining "o'z-o'zidan va erkin irodasi" bilan chiqarilganligini e'lon qildi va ularni yangi Buyuk Xartiya va Xartiyani berib, qirol muhri bilan tasdiqladi. 1225 yilgi O'rmon oldingi versiyalarga qaraganda ancha ko'proq vakolat.^[113][112]

Baronlar Qirol qonunlarga bo'ysungan va dvoryanlar maslahati bilan boshqarib, ushbu nizomlarga muvofiq harakat qilishini taxmin qilishgan.^[114][115] Noaniqlik davom etdi va 1227 yilda u yoshga to'lgan va mustaqil ravishda hukmronlik qila oladigan deb e'lon qilinganda, Genri bo'lajak nizomlarni o'z muhri ostida chiqarish kerakligini e'lon qildi.^[116][117] Bu uning ozchilik davrida chiqarilgan avvalgi nizomlarning haqiqiyligini shubha ostiga qo'ydi va Genri o'rmon Xartiyasini bekor qilish bilan faol ravishda tahdid qildi, agar buning evaziga va'da qilingan soliqlar aslida to'lanmasa.^[116][117] 1253 yilda Genri soliqqa tortish evaziga ustavlarni yana bir bor tasdiqladi.^[118]

Genri ramziy ma'noda qirol hokimiyatini tiklashga urg'u berdi, ammo uning hukmronligi Magna Karta tomonidan nisbatan chegaralangan.^[119][73] U, odatda, tojning baronlarga nisbatan suddan tashqari choralar ko'rishiga, shu jumladan otasi Jon davrida keng tarqalgan jarima va ekspluatatsiya qilinishiga yo'l qo'ymaydigan nizom shartlari doirasida harakat qildi.^[119][73] Nizomlarda qirol maslahatchilarini tayinlash va homiylikni taqsimlash bo'yicha nozik masalalar ko'rib chiqilmagan va agar qirol ularni e'tiborsiz qoldirishni ma'qul ko'rsa, ularga hech qanday majburlash vositalari etishmas edi.^[120] U o'z hukmronligi davrida nizomlarni qo'llagan nomuvofiqlik ko'plab baronlarni, hattoki o'z fraktsiyasi tarkibidagi kishilarni ham chetlashtirdi.^[73]

Turli xil nizomlarga qaramay, qirol adolatining ta'minlanishi bir-biriga zid va zudlik bilan olib borilayotgan siyosat talablaridan kelib chiqqan edi: ba'zida qonuniy baronial shikoyatni ko'rib chiqish uchun choralar ko'rilar edi, boshqa hollarda bu muammo shunchaki e'tibordan chetda qolishi mumkin edi.^[121] Mahalliy darajada odil sudlovni ta'minlash uchun mamlakatni aylanib chiqqan qirol sudlari, odatda kam baronlar va yirik lordlarga qarshi shikoyat da'vo qilayotgan janoblar uchun kam kuchga ega bo'lib, yirik baronlar mahalliy adliya tizimida hukmronlik qilishlariga imkon yaratdilar.^[122] Genri hukmronligi sust va beparvo bo'lib qoldi, natijada viloyatlarda qirol hokimiyati pasayib ketdi va pirovardida sudda uning hokimiyati quladi.^[122][73]

1258 yilda bir guruh baronlar Genrini a Davlat to'ntarishi Magna Carta va O'rmon Xartiyasini qat'iyan bajarish zarurligini aytib, islohotlarni ilgarilash uchun yangi baronial hukumat tuzdi. Oksford qoidalari.^[123] Baronlar qat'iy g'alabani qo'lga kiritish uchun harbiy jihatdan kuchga ega emas edi va buning o'rniga murojaat qilishdi Frantsiya Louis IX 1263–1264 yillarda ular taklif etgan islohotlar bo'yicha hakamlik qilish. Islohotchi baronlar o'zlarining ishlarini Magna Kartaga asoslanib, Angliya qonunchiligiga binoan daxlsiz va qirol uning shartlarini buzgan deb taxmin qilishdi.^[124]

Lui Genrining foydasiga qat'iy ravishda tushdi, ammo frantsuz hakamligi tinchlikka erisha olmadi, chunki isyon ko'targan baronlar hukmni qabul qilishdan bosh tortdilar. Angliya orqaga qaytdi Ikkinchi baronlar urushi, Genri o'g'li g'olib bo'lgan, Lord Edvard. Edvard, shuningdek, islohotchilar bu masalani o'ta yuqori darajaga ko'targan va o'zlari Magna Kartaga qarshi harakat qilayotganliklarini ta'kidlab, Magna Kartani o'z ishini ilgari surishda chaqirdi.^[125] Baronlar mag'lubiyatga uchraganidan keyin yarashtiruvchi imo-ishora bilan, 1267 yilda Genri chiqargan Marlboro to'g'risidagi nizom Magna Carta shartlariga rioya qilish bo'yicha yangi majburiyatni o'z ichiga olgan.^[126]

1225 yilda guvohlar

1297 yilgi Buyuk Xartiya: nizom

Buyuk Xartiyaning 1297 versiyasi Milliy arxivlar binosi yilda Vashington, Kolumbiya

Qirol Edvard I yangi soliq evaziga 1297 yilda 1225 yilgi Nizomni qayta chiqargan.^[128] Ushbu versiyada qoladi nizom bugungi kunda, garchi aksariyat maqolalar bekor qilingan bo'lsa ham.^[129][130]

The Confirmatio Cartarum (Nizomlarni tasdiqlash) yilda chiqarilgan Norman frantsuzcha Edvard I tomonidan 1297 yilda.^[131] Pulga muhtoj bo'lgan Edvard dvoryanlar uchun soliq solgan va ular unga qarshi qurollanib, Edvardni Magna Carta va Fuqarolar urushidan qochish uchun O'rmon Xartiyasini tasdiqlashga majbur qilishgan.^[132] Zodagonlar yana bir hujjat qo'shishni istashgan edi De Tallagio, Magna Kartaga. Edvard I hukumati buni tan olishga tayyor emas edi, ular chiqarishga rozi bo'lishdi Tasdiqlasholdingi nizomlarni tasdiqlovchi va soliqqa tortish roziligi bilan bo'lishi kerak degan tamoyilni tasdiqlagan holda,^[128] garchi ushbu rozilikning aniq usuli belgilanmagan bo'lsa ham.^[133]

Parcha nusxalari "bizning sohamizdagi sobor cherkovlarida tarqatilishi kerak, u erda qoladi va odamlar oldida yiliga ikki marta o'qiladi",^[134] shuning uchun nusxasini doimiy ravishda o'rnatilishi Solsberi sobori.^[135] Tasdiqning ikkinchi maqolasida bu tasdiqlangan

agar bundan buyon sudlarning yuqorida aytib o'tilgan ustavlari yoki ularning ustav bandlariga qarshi da'vo qilayotgan boshqa vazirlarimiz tomonidan aytib o'tilgan qoidalariga zid keladigan har qanday hukm chiqarilsa, u bekor qilinadi va bekor qilinadi.^[136][137]

1300 yilda Nizomning tasdiqlanishi bilan qo'shimcha hujjat berildi To'liq Cartas to'plamlari (Ustav ustidagi maqolalar).^[138] U 17 moddadan iborat bo'lib, qisman Nizomni bajarish muammosini hal qilishga intildi. Magna Carta va O'rmon Xartiyasi chiqarilishi kerak edi sherif har bir okrugdan va yiliga to'rt marta okrug sudlari yig'ilishlarida o'qilishi kerak. Har bir okrugda Nizomning buzilishi to'g'risida shikoyatlarni eshita oladigan uch kishidan iborat qo'mita bo'lishi kerak.^[139]

Papa Klement V Magna Carta-dagi har qanday da'volarga qarshi monarxlarni (ilohiy inoyat bilan boshqargan) qo'llab-quvvatlash papa siyosatini davom ettirdi va qirolning huquqlarini shubha ostiga qo'ydi va Confirmatio Cartarum 1305 yilda. Edvard I Klement V ni talqin qilgan papa buqasi bekor qilish Confirmatio Cartarum kabi samarali qo'llash To'liq Cartas to'plamlari, garchi ikkinchisi alohida aytib o'tilmagan bo'lsa ham.^[140] 1306 yilda Edvard I Papaning qo'llab-quvvatlashi bilan berilgan imkoniyatdan foydalanib, "norozilikka uchragan" katta maydonlarda o'rmon to'g'risidagi qonunni qayta tikladi. Edvardni ham, Papani ham ba'zi zamonaviy xronikachilar "yolg'on guvohlik berish" da ayblashdi va Robert McNair Scott tomonidan taklif qilingan Robert Bryus Edvard I o'g'li bilan sulh tuzishdan bosh tortdi, Edvard II, 1312 yilda oqlanish bilan: "Angliya qiroli qanday qilib menga ishonadi, chunki u yolg'onchilariga bergan qasamyodlariga rioya qilmaydi ..."^[141][142]

Magna Kartaning ingliz o'rta asr qonunlariga ta'siri

O'rta asrlar davomida Buyuk Xartiyaga sud ishlarida murojaat qilingan. Masalan, 1226 yilda ritsarlar Linkolnshir ularning mahalliy sherifi mahalliy sudlarga nisbatan odatiy amaliyotni o'zgartirayotganini, "ular lord qirolning nizomi bilan o'zlarining erkinliklariga zid ravishda" o'zgarmoqda deb ta'kidladilar.^[143] Amalda, Magna Carta va O'rmon Nizomini buzganligi uchun Qirolga qarshi ish qo'zg'atilmadi, ammo Qirol zobitlari erkinliklarga zid harakat qilayotgani dalilidan foydalanib, qirol zobitlariga, masalan uning sheriflariga qarshi ish qo'zg'atish mumkin edi. nizomlarda qirol tomonidan berilgan.^[144]

Bundan tashqari, O'rta asr ishlarida Magna Carta-dagi parvarish va dowing, qarzlarni undirish va daryolarni suzib yurish uchun bepul saqlash kabi aniq masalalar ko'rib chiqilgan.^[145] XIII asrda ham Magna Carta-ning ba'zi bandlari sud ishlarida kamdan-kam uchraydi, yoki tegishli masalalar ahamiyatsiz bo'lganligi sababli yoki Magna Carta-ga tegishli qonunlar bilan almashtirilganligi sababli. 1350 yilga kelib Magna Kartaning yarim bandlari endi faol ishlatilmay qoldi.^[146]

14-15 asrlar

Magna carta cum statutis angliae (Buyuk Xartiya ingliz nizomi bilan), 14-asr boshlari

Qirol davrida Eduard III oltita chora, keyinchalik Olti nizom, 1331-1369 yillarda qabul qilingan. Ular ustavlarning ayrim qismlariga oydinlik kiritishga intildilar. Xususan, uchinchi nizom, 1354 yilda, 29-bandni qayta belgilab, "erkin odam" hech kimga aylanmaydi mulk yoki u shart bo'lishi mumkin "va" iborasini kiritdiqonunning tegishli jarayoni "tengdoshlarining qonuniy hukmi yoki er qonuni uchun".^[147]

XIII-XV asrlar oralig'ida Magga Karta Sirga ko'ra 32 marta tasdiqlangan Edvard Koks va, ehtimol, 45 martaga qadar.^[148][149] Ko'pincha parlament biznesining birinchi bandi Xartiyani ommaviy o'qish va tasdiqlash edi va o'tgan asrda bo'lgani kabi, parlamentlar buni ko'pincha monarxdan tasdiqlashni talab qilishdi.^[149] Xartiya 1423 yilda King tomonidan tasdiqlangan Genri VI.^{[150][151][152]}

XV asr o'rtalariga kelib Magna Karta Angliya siyosiy hayotida markaziy o'rinni egallashni to'xtatdi, chunki monarxlar Edvard I hukmronligidan keyingi 100 yil ichida qarshi chiqqan hokimiyat va vakolatlarni qayta tikladilar.^[153] The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased.^[154]

XVI asr

A version of the Charter of 1217, produced between 1437 and c. 1450

During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons' War shifted.^[155] Genri VII took power at the end of the turbulent Atirgullar urushi, dan so'ng Genri VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.^[156]

Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th-century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy", showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons".^[157] Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect.^[158]

The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text.^{[159][160][161]} An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell 1527 yilda.Tomas Bertelet, Pynson's successor as the royal printer during 1530–1547,printed an edition of the text along with other "ancient statutes" in 1531 and 1540.^[162]1534 yilda, Jorj Ferrers published the first unabridged English-language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses.^[163]

At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England.^[158] This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles.^{[164][158][165]} Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect—many refer to it as a "afsona "—it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time.^[165][g]

Antikvar Uilyam Lambard, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo-Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th-century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned.^[164] Frensis Bekon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th-century jury system and judicial processes.^[170] Antiquarians Robert Biyel, Jeyms Moris va Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government.^[171] Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions.^[172][173]

17-18 asrlar

Political tensions

Huquqshunos Edvard Koks made extensive political use of Magna Carta.

In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy.^[174] Jeyms I va Karl I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the shohlarning ilohiy huquqi, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.^[167]

Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs.^{[167][174][175][176]} Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties".^{[167][174][165]}

Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text—the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610—Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly.^[165] His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Kler Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing" the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically", and taking a "very selective" approach to his analysis.^[167][177] More sympathetically, J. C. Xolt noted that the history of the charters had already become "distorted" by the time Coke was carrying out his work.^[178]

Jon Lilburne criticised Magna Carta as an inadequate definition of English liberties.

In 1621, a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta; although this bill failed, lawyer Jon Selden argued during Darnell ishi in 1627 that the right of habeas corpus was backed by Magna Carta.^[179][180] Coke supported the Huquq iltimosnomasi in 1628, which cited Magna Carta in its preamble, attempting to extend the provisions, and to make them binding on the judiciary.^[181][182] The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear-cut than was being claimed, restricted the activities of antiquarians, arrested Coke for treason, and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta.^[180][183] Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right, and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King.^[184][185]

England descended into Fuqarolar urushi in the 1640s, resulting in Charles I's execution in 1649. Under the respublika that followed, some questioned whether Magna Carta, an agreement with a monarch, was still relevant.^[186] An anti-Kromvellian pamphlet published in 1660, The English devil, said that the nation had been "compelled to submit to this Tyrant Nol or be cut off by him; nothing but a word and a blow, his Will was his Law; tell him of Magna Carta, he would lay his hand on his sword and cry Magna Farta".^[187] In a 2005 speech the Lord Angliya va Uels bosh sudyasi, Lord Woolf, repeated the claim that Cromwell had referred to Magna Carta as "Magna Farta".^[188]

The radical groups that flourished during this period held differing opinions of Magna Carta. The Levellers rejected history and law as presented by their contemporaries, holding instead to an "anti-Normanism" viewpoint.^[189] Jon Lilburne, for example, argued that Magna Carta contained only some of the freedoms that had supposedly existed under the Anglo-Saxons before being crushed by the Norman bo'yinturug'i.^[190] The Leveller Richard Overton described the charter as "a beggarly thing containing many marks of intolerable bondage".^[191] Both saw Magna Carta as a useful declaration of liberties that could be used against governments they disagreed with.^[192] Jerrard Uinsteynli, the leader of the more extreme Diggers, stated "the best lawes that England hath, [viz., Magna Carta] were got by our Forefathers importunate petitioning unto the kings that still were their Task-masters; and yet these best laws are yoaks and manicles, tying one sort of people to be slaves to another; Clergy and Gentry have got their freedom, but the common people still are, and have been left servants to work for them."^[193][194]

Shonli inqilob

A 1733 engraving of the Charter of 1215 by John Pine

The first attempt at a proper tarixshunoslik was undertaken by Robert Brady,^[195] who refuted the supposed antiquity of Parliament and belief in the immutable continuity of the law. Brady realised that the liberties of the Charter were limited and argued that the liberties were the grant of the King. By putting Magna Carta in historical context, he cast doubt on its contemporary political relevance;^[196] his historical understanding did not survive the Shonli inqilob, which, according to the historian J. G. A. Pokok, "marked a setback for the course of English historiography."^[197]

Ga ko'ra Tarixni talqin qilish, the Glorious Revolution was an example of the reclaiming of ancient liberties. Bilan mustahkamlangan Lokk concepts, the Whigs believed England's constitution to be a ijtimoiy shartnoma, based on documents such as Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi.^[198] The English Liberties (1680, in later versions often Britaniya Ozodliklari) by the Whig propagandist Henry Care (d. 1688) was a cheap polemical book that was influential and much-reprinted, in the American colonies as well as Britain, and made Magna Carta central to the history and the contemporary legitimacy of its subject.^[199]

Ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change. 1716 yilda Septennial qonun was passed, which had a number of consequences. First, it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable, as it provided for a maximum parliamentary term of seven years, whereas the Uch yillik qonun (1694) (enacted less than a quarter of a century previously) had provided for a maximum term of three years.^[200]

It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament. Under this new constitution, monarchical absolyutizm bilan almashtirildi parlament ustunligi. It was quickly realised that Magna Carta stood in the same relation to the King-in-Parliament as it had to the King without Parliament. This supremacy would be challenged by the likes of Granvil Sharp. Sharp regarded Magna Carta as a fundamental part of the constitution, and maintained that it would be treason to repeal any part of it. He also held that the Charter prohibited qullik.^[200]

Janob Uilyam Blekston published a critical edition of the 1215 Charter in 1759, and gave it the numbering system still used today.^[201] In 1763, Member of Parliament Jon Uilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet, No. 45, 23 April 1763; he cited Magna Carta continually.^[202] Lord Kamden denounced the treatment of Wilkes as a contravention of Magna Carta.^[203] Tomas Peyn, uning ichida Inson huquqlari, would disregard Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights on the grounds that they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives.^[204]

Use in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States

Magna Carta replica and display in the rotunda of the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kapitoliy, Vashington, Kolumbiya

When English colonists left for the New World, they brought royal charters that established the colonies. The Massachusets ko'rfazidagi kompaniya charter, for example, stated that the colonists would "have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects."^[205] The Virginia Charter of 1606, which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke, stated that the colonists would have the same "liberties, franchises and immunities" as people born in England.^[206] The Massachusets shtati Ozodliklar tanasi contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta; when drafting it, the Massachusets umumiy sudi viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law.^[207] The other colonies would follow their example. 1638 yilda, Merilend sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province, but the request was denied by Charles I.^[208]

1687 yilda, Uilyam Penn nashr etilgan The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property: being the birth-right of the Free-Born Subjects of England, which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil. Penn's comments reflected Coke's, indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a fundamental law.^[209] The colonists drew on English law books, leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta, believing that it guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus.^[210]

The development of parliamentary supremacy in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the O'n uchta koloniya, which retained an adherence to Ingliz umumiy huquqi, but it directly affected the relationship between Britain and the colonies.^[211] When American colonists fought against Britain, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties and rights that they believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta.^[212]

18-asr oxirida Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi ga aylandi supreme law of the land, recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law.^[212] Konstitutsiya Beshinchi o'zgartirish guarantees that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law", a phrase that was derived from Magna Carta.^[213] In addition, the Constitution included a similar writ in the To'xtatish to'g'risidagi maqola, Article 1, Section 9: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it."^[214]

Each of these proclaim that no person may be imprisoned or detained without evidence that he or she committed a crime. The To'qqizinchi o'zgartirish states that "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." The writers of the U.S. Constitution wished to ensure that the rights they already held, such as those that they believed were provided by Magna Carta, would be preserved unless explicitly curtailed.^[215][216]

The AQSh Oliy sudi has explicitly referenced Edward Coke's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Oltinchi o'zgartirish 's right to a speedy trial.^[217]

19-21 asrlar

Tafsir

A romanticised 19th-century recreation of King John signing Magna Carta. Rather than signing in writing, the document would have been authenticated with the Buyuk muhr and applied by officials rather than John himself.^[218]

Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. Tarixchi Uilyam Stubbs "s Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high-water mark of this view.^[219] Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John.^[219][220]

This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late-Victorian jurist and historian Frederik Uilyam Meytlend provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots.^[221] 1904 yilda, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta", which undermined the previously accepted view of Magna Carta.^[222] Kabi tarixchilar Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented" the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights.^[223]

This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar va Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Yaxshi narsa for everyone (except the Common People)".^[224][225]

In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Carta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Carta to challenge perceived economic injustices.^[221] The Magna Charta baronial ordeni was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta.^[226] The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Carta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Carta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the Amerika advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi o'rnatilgan Magna Carta yodgorligi Runnymede-da.^{[213][227][228]} The prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Carta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot".^[229]

Repeal of articles and constitutional influence

Radicals such as Sir Frensis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed,^[230] but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 26 in 1829, by the Shaxsiy qonunga qarshi jinoyatlar 1828 (9 Geo. 4 v. 31 s. 1),^[231] was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole of Magna Carta (1297) as statute was repealed,^[232] leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force (in England and Wales) after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in modern Shimoliy Irlandiya and also in the modern Irlandiya Respublikasi tomonidan Statut qonuni (Irlandiya) qayta ko'rib chiqish to'g'risidagi qonun 1872 yil.^[231]

Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand,^[233] Kanada^[234] (bundan mustasno Kvebek ) va ilgari Janubiy Afrika Ittifoqi va Janubiy Rodeziya, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the Britaniya imperiyasi.^[235]

Zamonaviy meros

The Magna Carta yodgorligi at Runnymede, designed by Sir Edvard Mauf va tomonidan o'rnatilgan Amerika advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi in 1957. The memorial stands in the meadow known historically as Long Mede: it is likely that the actual site of the sealing of Magna Carta lay further east, towards Egham va Laklar.^[33]

Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions.^[229][236] Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties, for example, led to Toni Benn 's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed".^[237] Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Londonni bosib oling protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from Avliyo Pol cherkovi tomonidan London shahri. In his judgment the Rulo ustasi gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and that the two other surviving clauses ironically concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London and could not help the defendants.^[238][239]

Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration" and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries.^[240] The historian W. L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said".^[241]

It also remains a topic of great interest to historians; Natali Frayd characterised the charter as "one of the holiest of cows in English medieval history", with the debates over its interpretation and meaning unlikely to end.^[220] In many ways still a "sacred text", Magna Carta is generally considered part of the kodlanmagan konstitutsiya Buyuk Britaniya; in a 2005 speech, the Lord Angliya va Uels bosh sudyasi, Lord Woolf, described it as the "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status".^[242][188]

Magna Carta was reprinted in Yangi Zelandiya in 1881 as one of the Imperial Acts in force there.^[243] Clause 29 of the document remains in force as part of New Zealand law.^[244]

The document also continues to be honoured in the United States as an antecedent of the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi va Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi.^[245] In 1976, the UK lent one of four surviving originals of the 1215 Magna Carta to the United States for their bicentennial celebrations and also donated an ornate display case for it. The original was returned after one year, but a replica and the case are still on display in the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kapitoliy Kiring Vashington, Kolumbiya^[246]

Celebration of the 800th anniversary

Media-ni ijro etish

The plan for four surviving original copies of Magna Carta to be brought together in 2015, at the Britaniya kutubxonasi bilan hamkorlikda Linkoln sobori va Solsberi sobori and supported by the law firm Linklaters

The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory events.^[247] The Britaniya kutubxonasi brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript in February 2015 for a special exhibition.^[248] Britaniyalik rassom Korneliya Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (kashta tikish), which was shown at the British Library between May and July 2015.^[249] The artwork is a copy of the Vikipediya article about Magna Carta (as it appeared on the document's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), hand-embroidered by over 200 people.^[250]

On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries.^[251] Xuddi shu kuni, Google celebrated the anniversary with a Google Doodle.^[252]

Nusxasi Linkoln sobori da namoyish etildi Kongress kutubxonasi in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015.^[253] A new visitor centre at Linkoln qasri was opened for the anniversary.^[254] The Royal Mint released two commemorative ikki funtli tangalar.^[255][256]

2014 yilda, Bury Sent-Edmunds yilda Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214.^[257]

Tarkib

Physical format

Numerous copies, known as misollar, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive.^[258] The documents were written in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin in clear handwriting, using kviling pens on sheets of pergament made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across.^[259][260] They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin.^[261][260] There were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own muhrlar unga.^[262] The text was not divided into paragraphs or numbered clauses: the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir Uilyam Blekston 1759 yilda.^[201]

Namunalar

1215 exemplifications

1225 charter, held in the British Library, with the royal great seal biriktirilgan

At least thirteen original copies of the charter of 1215 were issued by the royal chancery during that year, seven in the first tranche distributed on 24 June and another six later; they were sent to county sheriffs and bishops, who were probably charged for the privilege.^[263] Slight variations exist between the surviving copies, and there was probably no single "master copy".^[264] Of these documents, only four survive, all held in England: two now at the Britaniya kutubxonasi, one at Solsberi sobori, and one, the property of Linkoln sobori, on permanent loan to Linkoln qasri.^[265] Each of these versions is slightly different in size and text, and each is considered by historians to be equally authoritative.^[266]

The two 1215 charters held by the British Library, known as Paxta MS. Augustus II.106 va Cotton Charter XIII.31a, were acquired by the antiquarian Ser Robert Koton 17-asrda.^[267] The first had been found by Humphrey Wyems, a London lawyer, who may have discovered it in a tailor's shop, and who gave it to Cotton in January 1629.^[268] The second was found in Dover qal'asi 1630 yilda Ser Edvard Dering. The Dering charter was traditionally thought to be the copy sent in 1215 to the Cinque portlari;^[269] but in 2015 the historian Devid duradgor argued that it was more probably that sent to Canterbury sobori, as its text was identical to a transcription made from the Cathedral's copy of the 1215 charter in the 1290s.^{[270][271][272]} This copy was damaged in the Cotton library fire of 1731, when its seal was badly melted. The parchment was somewhat shrivelled but otherwise relatively unscathed, and an engraved faksimile of the charter was made by John Pine in 1733. In the 1830s, however, an ill-judged and bungled attempt at cleaning and konservatsiya rendered the manuscript largely illegible to the naked eye.^[273][274] This is, nonetheless, the only surviving 1215 copy still to have its great seal attached.^[275][276]

Lincoln Cathedral's copy has been held by the county since 1215. It was displayed in the Common Chamber in the cathedral, before being moved to another building in 1846.^[277][265] Between 1939 and 1940 it was displayed in the British Pavilion at the 1939 World Fair yilda Nyu-York shahri va Kongress kutubxonasi.^[278] Ikkinchi jahon urushi boshlanganda, Uinston Cherchill wanted to give the charter to the American people, hoping that this would encourage the United States, then neutral, to enter the war against the Eksa kuchlari, but the cathedral was unwilling, and the plans were dropped.^[279] After December 1941, the copy was stored in Noks-Fort, Kentukki, for safety, before being put on display again in 1944 and returned to Lincoln Cathedral in early 1946.^{[279][280][281][278]} It was put on display in 1976 in the cathedral's medieval library.^[277] It was subsequently displayed in San Francisco, and was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for another visit to the United States, where it was exhibited in 2007 at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia va Milliy Konstitutsiya markazi Filadelfiyada.^{[277][282][283]} In 2009 it returned to New York to be displayed at the Fraunces tavernasi Muzey.^[284] It is currently on permanent loan to the David P. J. Ross Vault at Linkoln qasri, along with an original copy of the 1217 O'rmon xartiyasi.^[285][286]

The fourth copy, held by Salisbury Cathedral, was first given in 1215 to its predecessor, Old Sarum Cathedral.^[287] Rediscovered by the cathedral in 1812, it has remained in Salisbury throughout its history, except when being taken off-site for restoration work.^[288][289] It is possibly the best preserved of the four, although small pin holes can be seen in the parchment from where it was once pinned up.^{[289][290][291]} The handwriting on this version is different from that of the other three, suggesting that it was not written by a royal scribe but rather by a member of the cathedral staff, who then had it exemplified by the royal court.^[288][258]

Later exemplifications

A 1297 copy of Magna Carta, owned by the Australian Government and on display in the Members' Hall of Parlament uyi, Kanberra

Other early versions of the charters survive today. Only one exemplification of the 1216 charter survives, held in Darxem sobori.^[292] Four copies of the 1217 charter exist; three of these are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford and one by Hereford sobori.^[292][293] Hereford's copy is occasionally displayed alongside the Mappa Mundi soborda zanjirli kutubxona and has survived along with a small document called the Articuli super Cartas that was sent along with the charter, telling the sheriff of the county how to observe the conditions outlined in the document.^[294] One of the Bodleian's copies was displayed at San Francisco's Kaliforniya Faxriy Legion Saroyi 2011 yilda.^[295]

Four exemplifications of the 1225 charter survive: the British Library holds one, which was preserved at Lacock Abbey until 1945; Durham Cathedral also holds a copy, with the Bodleian Library holding a third.^{[293][296][297]} The fourth copy of the 1225 exemplification was held by the museum of the Jamoat yozuvlari idorasi va hozirda ushlab turiladi Milliy arxiv.^[298][299] The Antikvarlarning jamiyati also holds a draft of the 1215 charter (discovered in 2013 in a late 13th-century register from Peterboro abbatligi ), a copy of the 1225 third re-issue (within an early 14th-century collection of statutes) and a roll copy of the 1225 reissue.^[300]

Only two exemplifications of Magna Carta are held outside England, both from 1297. One of these was purchased in 1952 by the Australian Government for £12,500 from Bruton shahridagi qirol maktabi, Angliya.^[301] This copy is now on display in the Members' Hall of Parlament uyi, Kanberra.^[302] The second was originally held by the Brudenell oilasi, earls of Kardigan, before they sold it in 1984 to the Perot jamg'armasi in the United States, which in 2007 sold it to U.S. businessman Devid Rubenshteyn for US$21.3 million.^{[303][304][305]} Rubenstein commented "I have always believed that this was an important document to our country, even though it wasn't drafted in our country. I think it was the basis for the Declaration of Independence and the basis for the Constitution". This exemplification is now on permanent loan to the Milliy arxivlar Vashingtonda^[306][307] Only two other 1297 exemplifications survive,^[308] one of which is held in the UK's National Archives,^[309] ikkinchisi Gildxoll, London.^[308]

Seven copies of the 1300 exemplification by Edward I survive,^[308][310] yilda Faversham,^[311] Oriel kolleji, Oksford, Bodleian kutubxonasi, Darxem sobori, Vestminster abbatligi, London shahri (held in the archives at the London Gildxol^[312]) va Sendvich (ichida o'tkazilgan Kent County Kengashi arxivlar). The Sandwich copy was rediscovered in early 2015 in a Victorian scrapbook in the town archives of Sendvich, Kent, lardan biri Cinque portlari.^[310] In the case of the Sandwich and Oriel College exemplifications, the copies of the O'rmon xartiyasi originally issued with them also survive.

Maqolalar

A kumush Shoh Jon tiyin; much of Magna Carta concerned how royal revenues were raised.

Most of the 1215 charter and later versions sought to govern the feudal rights of the Crown over the barons.^[313] Under the Angevin kings, and in particular during John's reign, the rights of the King had frequently been used inconsistently, often in an attempt to maximise the royal income from the barons. Feodal yengillik was one way that a king could demand money, and clauses 2 and 3 fixed the fees payable when an heir inherited an estate or when a minor came of age and took possession of his lands.^[313] Yomonlik was a form of medieval taxation; all knights and nobles owed military service to the Crown in return for their lands, which theoretically belonged to the King, but many preferred to avoid this service and offer money instead; the Crown often used the cash to pay for mercenaries.^[314] The rate of scutage that should be payable, and the circumstances under which it was appropriate for the King to demand it, was uncertain and controversial; clauses 12 and 14 addressed the management of the process.^[313]

The English judicial system had altered considerably over the previous century, with the royal judges playing a larger role in delivering justice across the country. John had used his royal discretion to extort large sums of money from the barons, effectively taking payment to offer justice in particular cases, and the role of the Crown in delivering justice had become politically sensitive among the barons. Clauses 39 and 40 demanded due process be applied in the royal justice system, while clause 45 required that the King appoint knowledgeable royal officials to the relevant roles.^[315] Although these clauses did not have any special significance in the original charter, this part of Magna Carta became singled out as particularly important in later centuries.^[315] Masalan, Qo'shma Shtatlarda Kaliforniya Oliy sudi interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement in common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration be entitled to a trial overseen by a legally trained judge.^[316]

King John holding a church, painted c. 1250–59 by Metyu Parij

Qirollik o'rmonlari were economically important in medieval England and were both protected and exploited by the Crown, supplying the King with hunting grounds, raw materials, and money.^[317][318] They were subject to special royal jurisdiction and the resulting forest law was, according to the historian Richard Huscroft, "harsh and arbitrary, a matter purely for the King's will".^[317] The size of the forests had expanded under the Angevin kings, an unpopular development.^[319]

The 1215 charter had several clauses relating to the royal forests; clauses 47 and 48 promised to deforest the lands added to the forests under John and investigate the use of royal rights in this area, but notably did not address the forestation of the previous kings, while clause 53 promised some form of redress for those affected by the recent changes, and clause 44 promised some relief from the operation of the forest courts.^[320] Neither Magna Carta nor the subsequent Charter of the Forest proved entirely satisfactory as a way of managing the political tensions arising in the operation of the royal forests.^[320]

Some of the clauses addressed wider economic issues. The concerns of the barons over the treatment of their debts to Jewish moneylenders, who occupied a special position in medieval England and were by tradition under the King's protection, were addressed by clauses 10 and 11.^[321] The charter concluded this section with the phrase "debts owing to other than Jews shall be dealt with likewise", so it is debatable to what extent the Jews were being singled out by these clauses.^[322] Some issues were relatively specific, such as clause 33 which ordered the removal of all baliq ovlash —an important and growing source of revenue at the time—from England's rivers.^[320]

The role of the English Church had been a matter for great debate in the years prior to the 1215 charter. The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories. 1040-yillardan boshlab ketma-ket papalar Rimdan cherkovni yanada samarali boshqarish muhimligini ta'kidladilar va mustaqil sud tizimi va ierarxik hokimiyat zanjirini o'rnatdilar.^[323] 1140-yillardan so'ng, ushbu tamoyillar, hatto Rimda hokimiyatni markazlashtirish haqida tashvishlanish elementi bilan birga bo'lsa ham, asosan ingliz cherkovi tomonidan qabul qilingan.^[324][325]

Ushbu o'zgarishlar Yuhanno kabi oddiy hukmdorlarning cherkov tayinlanishlari bo'yicha odatiy huquqlarini shubha ostiga qo'ydi.^[324] Yuqorida tavsiflanganidek, Yuhanno Qirolni siyosiy qo'llab-quvvatlash evaziga Papa Innokent III bilan murosaga kelgan va Magna Kartaning 1-bandida cherkovning erkinliklari va erkinliklarini va'da qilgan holda ushbu tartib aniq ko'rsatilgan edi.^[313] Ushbu bandning ahamiyati arxiepiskop Langtonning muzokaralardagi rolini ham aks ettirishi mumkin: Langton o'z faoliyati davomida ushbu masalada qat'iy pozitsiyani egallagan.^[313]

Maqolalar batafsil

Ingliz qonunlarida qolgan bandlar

Magna Kartaning faqat uchta bandi Angliya va Uelsda qonun hujjatlarida qolmoqda.^[236] Ushbu bandlar 1) ingliz cherkovining erkinligi, 2) London shahrining "qadimiy erkinliklari" (1215 yilgi nizomning 13-bandi, 1297-yilgi nizomning 9-bandi) va 3) tegishli sud jarayoni ( 1215 yilgi nizomning 39 va 40-bandlari, 1297-yilgi nizomning 29-bandi).^[236] Ushbu bandlarda (1297-sonli sanoq tizimidan foydalangan holda) quyidagicha bayon etilgan:

• I. BIRINChI, biz Xudoga berganmiz va shu bilan hozirgi Nizomimiz biz uchun va bizning merosxo'rlarimiz uchun Angliya cherkovi ozod bo'lishini va uning barcha huquqlari va erkinliklariga daxlsizligini tasdiqladi. Biz va bizning merosxo'rlarimiz uchun biz o'z shohligimizdagi barcha erkin odamlarga abadiy yozib qo'yilgan ushbu Ozodliklarni ularga va ularning merosxo'rlariga, bizlarga va merosxo'rlarimizga abadiy ega bo'lishlari va saqlashlari uchun berdik.
• IX. THE London shahri ilgari mavjud bo'lgan barcha eski Ozodlik va urf-odatlarga ega bo'lishi kerak. Bundan tashqari, biz boshqa barcha shaharlarga, tumanlarga, shaharlarga va baronlarga beramiz va beramiz Beshta port boshqa barcha portlarda bo'lgani kabi, barcha erkinliklari va bepul bojxonalariga ega.
• XXIX. YO'Q Freeman olib ketilishi yoki qamoqqa olinishi yoki uning Ozodligi yoki Ozodliklari yoki bepul bojxonalari nomidan ko'rilishi yoki qonunga xilof qilinishi yoki surgun qilinishi yoki boshqa biron bir dono odam yo'q qilinishi mumkin emas; Biz unga o'tmaymiz va uni hukm qilmaymiz, balki tengdoshlarining qonuniy hukmiga binoan yoki Er qonuni. Biz hech kimga sotmaymiz, na adolatni va na o'ngni hech kimga rad etmaymiz yoki kechiktirmaymiz.^[231][329]

Shuningdek qarang

• Buyuk Britaniyadagi fuqarolik erkinliklari
• O'rmon xartiyasi
• Angliyaning asosiy qonunlari
• Haandfæstning
• Demokratiya tarixi
• Inson huquqlari tarixi
• Eng qimmat kitoblar va qo'lyozmalar ro'yxati
• Magna Carta Hiberniae - inglizcha Magna Carta yoki Irlandiyadagi Buyuk Ozodlik Xartiyasining soni
• Mortmain to'g'risidagi nizom

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Ambler, S. T. (avgust 2015). "Magna Carta: uning 1265 yildagi Simon de Montfort parlamentida tasdiqlanishi". Ingliz tarixiy sharhi. CXXX (545): 801–30. doi:10.1093 / ehr / cev202.
• McKechnie, William Sharp (1914). Magna Karta: tarixiy kirish bilan Yuhanno shohining Buyuk Xartiyasiga sharh (PDF). Glazgo, Buyuk Britaniya: Jeyms Makleuz va o'g'illar.

Tashqi havolalar

Magna Carta hukumatining veb-saytlari

• Britaniya kutubxonasi
• Milliy arxivlar Buyuk Britaniya
• Britaniya parlamenti

Matnlar

• Magna Carta matni 1297 bugungi kunda (har qanday tuzatishlarni o'z ichiga olgan holda) Birlashgan Qirollik tarkibida bo'lgani kabi laws.gov.uk.
• Magna Carta Libertatum 1215-yilgi nizomning lotincha va inglizcha matni
• Magna Carta matni Inglizcha tarjimasi, kirish tarixiy eslatmasi bilan. Dan Internet O'rta asr manbalari kitobi.
• Magna Carta jamoat domenidagi audiokitob LibriVox