Qizil armiya fraktsiyasi - Red Army Faction

"Baader-Meinhof" bu erga yo'naltiradi. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Baader-Meinhof (ajralish).

Qizil armiya fraktsiyasi
Rote Armee Fraktion
Ishlash sanalari1970–1998
Faol hududlarG'arbiy Germaniya (1990 yilgacha)
Germaniya (1990 yildan)
Frantsiya
Gollandiya
Shvetsiya
Mafkura
Ittifoqchilar Sharqiy Germaniya (1990 yilgacha)
Raqiblar G'arbiy Germaniya (1990 yilgacha)
 Germaniya (1990 yildan)
 Qo'shma Shtatlar
Janglar va urushlarG'arbiy Germaniya elchixonasini qamal qilish, Nemis kuzi

The Qizil armiya fraktsiyasi (RAF, Nemischa: [ɛʁʔaːˈʔɛf] (Ushbu ovoz haqidatinglang); Nemis: Rote Armee Fraktion, talaffuz qilingan [ˌʁoː.tə aʁˈmeː fʁakˌt͡si̯oːn] (Ushbu ovoz haqidatinglang)),[a] sifatida ham tanilgan Baader-Meinhof Group yoki Baader-Meinhof Gang (Nemischa: Baader-Meinhof-Gruppe, Baader-Meinhof-Bande, Nemischa: [ˈBaːdɐ ˈmaɪ̯nˌhɔf ˈɡʁʊpə] (Ushbu ovoz haqidatinglang)), edi a G'arbiy Germaniya o'ta chap 1970 yilda tashkil etilgan jangari tashkilot. Dastlabki asosiy raqamlar kiritilgan Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin, Xorst Maler va Ulrike Meinhof, Boshqalar orasida.[b] Ulrike Meinhof 1970 yilda Baaderning qamoqdan qochishida ishtirok etgan.[2] G'arbiy Germaniya / Germaniya hukumati ham, ko'pchilik kabi G'arbiy ommaviy axborot vositalari va adabiyotlar Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasini a deb hisoblashgan terrorchi tashkilot.[c][3][4][5]

Qizil armiya fraktsiyasi o'ttiz yil davomida bir qator portlashlar, suiqasdlar, o'g'irlashlar, banklarni talon-taroj qilish va politsiya bilan otishmalar bilan shug'ullangan. Ularning faoliyati 1977 yil oxirida avjiga chiqdi va bu milliy inqirozga olib keldi va "Nemis kuzi ". RAF o'ttiz to'rtta o'lim uchun javobgardir, shu jumladan ko'plab ikkinchi darajali maqsadlar, masalan, haydovchilar va soqchilar, shuningdek, deyarli o'ttiz yillik faoliyati davomida ko'plab jarohatlar. Garchi taniqli bo'lsa-da, RAF hujumlarga qaraganda kamroq hujumlar uyushtirdi Inqilobiy hujayralar 1973-1995 yillarda 296 ta bomba hujumi, o't qo'yish va boshqa hujumlar uchun javobgar.[6]

Ba'zida guruh haqida avlodlar haqida gap boradi:

  • Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof va boshqalardan iborat bo'lgan "birinchi avlod";
  • "ikkinchi avlod", birinchi avlodning aksariyati 1972 yilda hibsga olinganidan keyin; va
  • 1980 va 1990 yillarda 1998 yilgacha, birinchi avlod vafot etganidan keyin mavjud bo'lgan "uchinchi avlod" RAF Stammxaymning qattiq tartibli qamoqxonasi 1977 yilda.

1998 yil 20 aprelda nemis tilida yozilgan sakkiz betlik maktub faksga faks orqali yuborildi Reuters yangiliklar agentligi "RAF" avtomat qizil yulduz bilan imzolangan va guruh tarqatib yuborilganligini e'lon qilgan.[7] 1999 yilda, o'g'irlikdan keyin Dyuysburg, Ernst-Volker Staub va Daniela Klettega ishora qiluvchi dalillar topilib, qayta tashkil etish bo'yicha rasmiy tergov o'tkazildi.[8]

Umuman olganda, RAF 34 kishini o'ldirdi,[9] va 27 a'zo yoki tarafdorlari o'ldirildi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ism

Ingliz tiliga odatiy tarjima - Qizil Armiya Fraksiya; ammo, muassislar uni aks ettirmaslikni xohlashdi parchalanadigan guruh aksincha, kengroq kommunistik ishchilar harakatiga kiritilgan yoki uning bir qismi bo'lgan embrional jangari birlik,[d] ya'ni a kasr bir butun.

Guruh har doim o'zini Rote Armee Fraktion, hech qachon Baader-Meinhof Group yoki Gang. Ism tashkilotning barcha mujassamlanishlarini anglatadi: Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof va boshqalardan iborat "birinchi avlod" RAF; "ikkinchi avlod" RAF; va 1980-90 yillarda mavjud bo'lgan "uchinchi avlod" RAF. "Baader-Meinhof Gang" va "Baader-Meinhof Group" atamalari birinchi marta ommaviy axborot vositalari va hukumat tomonidan ishlatilgan. Guruh hech qachon ushbu nomlarni o'ziga murojaat qilish uchun ishlatmagan, chunki u o'zini ikkita figurali boshli guruh emas, balki ko'plab a'zolardan tashkil topgan birgalikda tashkil etilgan guruh deb bilgan.

Fon

Qizil Armiya Fraktsiyasining Shahar partizanlari kontseptsiyasi Federativ Respublikada va G'arbiy Berlinda mavjud bo'lgan vaziyatlarni optimistik qarashlariga asoslanmagan.

— Shahar partizanlari kontseptsiyasi RAF asoschilaridan biri Ulrike Meinhof tomonidan yozilgan (1971 yil aprel)

Guruhning kelib chiqishini quyidagicha izlash mumkin G'arbiy Germaniyadagi talabalar norozilik harakati. 1960 yillarning oxirlarida sanoatlashgan mamlakatlar tajriba o'tkazdilar ijtimoiy silkinishlar etukligi bilan bog'liq "bolalar boomerlari ", the Sovuq urush, va oxiri mustamlakachilik. Yangi topildi yoshlik o'ziga xosligi kabi masalalar irqchilik, ayollarning ozodligi va anti-imperializm oldingi qatorda edilar chap qanot siyosati. Ko'pgina yoshlar o'zlarining ota-onalaridan va davlat muassasalaridan begonalashgan. Tarixiy merosi Natsizm avlodlar o'rtasida xanjar olib bordi va shubhalarni kuchaytirdi avtoritar jamiyatdagi tuzilmalar (ba'zi tahlilchilar xuddi shu narsani post-fashizm Italiyasida ko'rishmoqda va "Brigate Rosse ").[10]

G'arbiy Germaniyada urushdan keyingi chap yoshlar orasida g'azab bor edi denazifikatsiya G'arbiy Germaniyada va Sharqiy Germaniya muvaffaqiyatsiz yoki samarasiz deb qabul qilingan,[11] oldingi sifatida (haqiqiy va taxmin qilingan) Natsistlar hukumat va iqtisodiyotda lavozimlarda ishlagan.[12] The Germaniya Kommunistik partiyasi 1956 yildan beri noqonuniy deb topilgan.[13] Mahalliy darajagacha saylangan va tayinlangan hukumat lavozimlarini ko'pincha sobiq natsistlar egallab olishgan.[12] Konrad Adenauer, birinchi federal respublika kansleri (1949-1963-yillarda), hatto sobiq natsistlar xayrixohini tayinlagan edi Xans Globke direktori sifatida Federal kantsler idorasi G'arbiy Germaniya (idorasida 1953–1963).

Radikallar buni ko'rib chiqdilar konservativ ommaviy axborot vositalari xolis Kabi vaqtdagi konservatorlar Aksel Springer talaba radikalizmiga bemalol qarshi bo'lgan, konservativ ommaviy axborot vositalariga egalik qilgan va ularni boshqargan, shu qatorda barcha eng nufuzli ommaviy nashrlarda nashr etilgan tabloid gazetalari. Ning paydo bo'lishi Katta koalitsiya ikki asosiy partiyalar o'rtasida SPD va CDU, oldingi bilan Natsistlar partiyasi a'zo Kurt Georg Kiesinger kansler sifatida 1966 yilda sodir bo'lgan. Bu chap tomonda ko'plarni dahshatga solgan va monolit, siyosiy sifatida qaralgan qulaylik nikohi pro-bilanNATO tomonidan kapitalistik tarafdorlarning til biriktirilishi sotsial-demokratik SPD. Taxminan 90% bilan Bundestag koalitsiya tomonidan boshqariladi, an Parlamentdan tashqari muxolifat (APO) norozilik va siyosiy faoliyatni hukumatdan tashqarida ishlab chiqarish maqsadida tuzilgan.[14] 1972 yilda qonun qabul qilindi Radikalenerlass - radikallarni yoki "shubhali" siyosiy ishontirishga ega bo'lganlarni davlat sektoridagi ishlarda taqiqlagan.[15]

Ba'zi radikallar taxmin qilinayotgan jamiyatning katta qismlarini natsizm bilan har qanday tinch yondashuvlarga qarshi dalil sifatida ishlatishdi:

Ular hammamizni o'ldirishadi. Siz qanday cho'chqalarga qarshi ekanligimizni bilasiz. Bu Osvensim avlod. Osvensimni yaratgan odamlar bilan siz bahslasha olmaysiz. Ularda qurol bor, bizda yo'q. Biz o'zimizni qurollantirishimiz kerak!

— Gudrun Ensslin vafotidan keyin nutq so'zlamoqda Benno Ohnesorg.[16]

Ko'pchilik singari radikalizatsiya qilingan Yangi chap, ta'sirlangan:

RAF asoschisi Ulrike Meinhof Kommunistik partiyada uzoq tarixga ega edi. Holger Meins kino o'qigan va Berlin qo'zg'oloni faxriysi bo'lgan; uning qisqa xususiyati Molotov kokteyli qanday ishlab chiqariladi katta tomoshabinlar tomonidan ko'rilgan. Jan Karl Raspe da yashagan Kommune 2; Xorst Maler belgilangan huquqshunos edi, ammo ayni paytda uniSpringer boshidan qo'zg'olon. O'zlarining shaxsiy tajribalari va ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy vaziyatni baholashlari natijasida ular tez orada aniqroq ta'sirga tushishdi Leninizm va Maoizm, o'zlarini chaqirish "Marksist-leninchi "garchi ular ushbu mafkuraviy an'anani samarali ravishda qo'shgan yoki yangilagan bo'lsa ham. Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasining davlat haqidagi qarashlarini bir vaqtning o'zida tanqid qilish, pirat nashrida chop etilgan Le Monde Diplomatique unga "davlat-fetishizm" - burjua dinamikasi va G'arbiy Germaniyani o'z ichiga olgan ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyingi jamiyatlarda davlatning mohiyati va rolini mafkuraviy jihatdan obsesif ravishda noto'g'ri o'qish kiradi.[19]

Bu mol-mulkni yo'q qilish paytida da'vo qilingan Vattdagi tartibsizliklar 1965 yilda Qo'shma Shtatlarda RAF asoschilarining va ba'zi birlarining amaliy va mafkuraviy yondashuviga ta'sir ko'rsatdi Vaziyatshunos doiralar.[20]

Ning yozuvlari Antonio Gramsci[21] va Gerbert Markuz[22] chizilgan. Gramsci jamiyat va muassasalardagi hokimiyat, madaniy va mafkuraviy qarama-qarshiliklar - tez rivojlanayotgan sanoat sharoitida amalga oshirilayotgan sinfiy kurashlar to'g'risida yozgan. millat davlatlari Markuse, siyosiy xatti-harakatlarning o'zaro bog'liq sohalari orqali majburlash va gegemonlik Bunda aloqa vositalari ("repressiv bag'rikenglik") orqali madaniy aqidaparastlik va mafkuraviy manipulyatsiya zamonaviy zamonaviy qo'pol kuchga muhtojligidan voz kechdi.liberal demokratik davlatlar '. Uning Bir o'lchovli odam oltmishinchi yillardagi tinch o'quvchilarga murojaat qildi. Markuzening ta'kidlashicha, talabalarning marginal guruhlari va kambag'al chet ellik ishchilargina tizimga samarali qarshi turishlari mumkin. Gramsci ham, Marcuse ham mafkuraviy asos va "yuqori qurilish Jamiyat 'sinf nazoratini (va hamfikrlikni) tushunishda hayotiy ahamiyatga ega edi. Buni, ehtimol Marks ishining kengayishi deb hisoblash mumkin, chunki u bu sohani batafsil yoritmagan. Das Kapital, uning asosan iqtisodiy faoliyati, kitoblar turkumiga kirishi kerak edi davlat,[23] ammo uning o'limi bu amalga oshishiga to'sqinlik qildi.

Benno Ohnesorg davlat tashrifiga norozilik namoyishi paytida Berlin operasi oldida otib tashladi Muhammad Rizo Pahlaviy.

Ko'pgina radikallar Germaniyani his qilishdi qonun chiqaruvchilar avtoritar siyosatni davom ettirayotgan edilar va jamoatchilikning ochiq tan olinishi fashistlarning jamiyatda kashshof bo'lgan ta'limotining davomi sifatida qaraldi (Volksgemeinschaft ). Federativ respublika Afrika diktaturalariga qurol eksport qilar edi, bu esa uni qo'llab-quvvatlagan Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi urush va Germaniyani remilitarizatsiya qilishni AQSh boshchiligidagi qo'shin bilan muhandislik qilish Varshava shartnomasi millatlar.

Davom etayotgan voqealar vaziyatni yanada katalizator qildi. 1967 yil 2 iyunda Eron shohi Muhammad Rizo Pahlaviy tashrif buyurganida noroziliklar g'alayonlarga aylandi G'arbiy Berlin. Namoyishchilar bor edi, shuningdek, Shohning yuzlab tarafdorlari[iqtibos kerak ], shuningdek, tashrifning odatdagi jarayonini buzish uchun bir qator soxta tarafdorlar yog'och tayoq bilan qurollangan. Ushbu ekstremistlar namoyishchilarni kaltaklashdi. Eronlik surgun qilingan radikal marksistlarning bir kunlik g'azabli noroziligidan so'ng, nemis talabalari tomonidan keng qo'llab-quvvatlangan guruh Shoh tashrif buyurdi Berlin operasi, bu erda olmon talabalarining noroziligi to'plangan. Opera teatri namoyishlarida nemis talabasi Benno Ohnesorg birinchi norozilik mitingida qatnashayotganda politsiya xodimi tomonidan boshiga o'q uzilgan. Ofitser, Karl-Xaynts Kurras, keyingi sud jarayonida oqlandi. Keyinchalik Kurrasning a'zosi bo'lganligi aniqlandi G'arbiy Berlin kommunistik partiyasi SEW va shu bilan birga ishlagan Stasi,[24] Kurrasning Ohnesorgni o'ldirishi hech kimning, shu jumladan Stasi buyrug'ining ostida bo'lganligi to'g'risida hech qanday ma'lumot yo'q.

Vaziyat va politsiya shafqatsizligi ga qarshi keng tarqalgan muxolifat Vetnam urushi, Ohnesorgning o'limi ko'plab yosh nemislarni galvanizatsiya qildi va G'arbiy Germaniya uchun muhim voqea bo'ldi Yangi chap. Berlin 2 iyun harakati, jangari-anarxist guruh, keyinchalik Ohnesorgning vafot etgan kunini sharaflash uchun o'z nomini oldi.

1968 yil 2 aprelda Gudrun Ensslin va Andreas Baader, qo'shildi Torvald Proll va Xorst Söhnlayn, shahridagi ikkita universal do'konga o't qo'ydi Frankfurt Vetnam urushiga qarshi norozilik sifatida. Ikki kundan keyin ular hibsga olingan.

1968 yil 11 aprelda Rudi Dutschke, norozilik bildirayotgan talabalarning etakchi vakili, tomonidan uyushtirilgan suiqasd natijasida boshiga o'q uzildi o'ng qanot hamdard Jozef Baxman. Og'ir yaralangan bo'lsa-da, Dutschke siyosiy faollikka qaytdi Germaniya Yashil partiyasi jarohati natijasida 1979 yilda vannada o'limidan oldin.[25]

Aksel Springer populist gazeta Bild-Zeitung, "Endi Dutschkeni to'xtating!" kabi sarlavhalar bilan chiqqan, otishmani qo'zg'atishda bosh aybdor sifatida ayblangan. Meinhof: "Agar kimdir mashinani yoqib yuborsa, bu jinoiy javobgarlikka sabab bo'ladi. Agar yuzlab mashinalarni yoqib yuborsa, bu siyosiy harakatlardir".[26]

Shakllanish

Gudrun Ensslin
Ulrike Meinhof, 1964 yil

Ikkinchi jahon urushi bundan yigirma yil oldin bo'lgan. Politsiya, maktablar va hukumat uchun mas'ul bo'lganlar - ular natsizm davrida ham boshqarilgan odamlar edi. Kantsler Kurt Georg Kiesinger natsist edi. Odamlar buni faqat 60-yillarda muhokama qilishni boshladilar. Biz urushdan keyingi birinchi avlod edik va ota-onamizga savol berardik. Natsistlar o'tmishi tufayli, hamma yomon narsalar Uchinchi Reyx bilan taqqoslangan. Agar siz politsiya shafqatsizligi haqida eshitgan bo'lsangiz, bu xuddi SSga o'xshaydi deyilgan. O'z mamlakatingizni fashistik davlatning davomi sifatida ko'rgan ondayoq, siz unga qarshi deyarli hamma narsani qilishga ruxsat berasiz. Siz o'zingizning harakatingizni ota-onangiz qo'ymagan qarshilik deb bilasiz.

— Stefan Ost, muallifi Der Baader Meinhof Kompleksi[27]

Yong'in uyushtirishda va inson hayotiga xavf tug'dirishda ayblanayotgan barcha to'rt sudlanuvchi sudlandi, ular uch yilga ozodlikdan mahrum etildi. Ammo 1969 yil iyun oyida ular vaqtincha shartli ravishda ozod qilindi amnistiya uchun siyosiy mahbuslar, lekin o'sha yilning noyabr oyida, Federal Konstitutsiyaviy sud (Bundesverfassungsgericht) ularni hibsga qaytarishni talab qildi. Faqat Horst Söhnlayn buyruqni bajardi; qolganlari yer ostiga kirib, Frantsiyaga yo'l olishdi, u erda taniqli frantsuz jurnalisti va inqilobchisiga tegishli uyda bir muddat qolishdi, Régis Debray bilan do'stligi bilan mashhur Che Gevara va fokus partizanlar urushi nazariyasi. Oxir-oqibat ular yo'l oldilar Italiya, bu erda advokat Mahler ularga tashrif buyurgan va ularni o'zi bilan birga Germaniyaga qaytib, er osti partizan guruhini tuzishga undagan.

Qizil Armiya Fraktsiyasi G'arbiy Germaniya va Evropa bo'ylab inqilobiy va radikal guruhlarning ko'pligini to'ldirish niyatida tuzilgan. sinf ongli va ba'zi bir zamondoshlari bilan taqqoslaganda aniqlangan kuch. A'zolar va tarafdorlar allaqachon "Inqilobiy hujayralar 'va 2 iyun harakati kabi radikal oqimlar va hodisalar Sotsialistik bemorlar jamoasi, Kommune 1 va Vaziyatshunoslar.

Baader 1970 yil aprel oyida yana hibsga olingan, ammo 1970 yil 14 mayda uni Meinhof va boshqalar ozod qilishgan. Bir oydan kam vaqt o'tgach, Gudrun Ensslin G'arbiy Berlin yer osti gazetasida ismli maqola yozadi Agit883 (Ajitatsiya va ijtimoiy amaliyot uchun jurnal), Qurolni chaqirishni va Qizil Armiya binosini talab qilmoqda. Maqola "Sinf kurashlarini rivojlantiring. Proletariatni tashkil qiling. Qurolli qarshilikni boshlang!"[28] Keyin Baader, Ensslin, Maller va Meinhof bordi Iordaniya, ular qaerda mashq qilishgan Falastinni ozod qilish uchun Xalq jabhasi (PFLP) va Falastinni ozod qilish tashkiloti (PLO) partizanlari[10][tekshirib bo'lmadi ] ilhom va yo'l-yo'riq uchun Falastin masalasiga murojaat qildi. Ammo RAF tashkiloti va dunyoqarashi ham qisman modellangan edi Urugvay Tupamaros shahar qarshilik harakati sifatida rivojlangan harakat, samarali inverting Che Gevara Maoga o'xshash dehqon yoki qishloqqa asoslangan kontseptsiya partizan urushi va buning o'rniga metropol yoki shaharlar.

RAFning ko'plab a'zolari bitta kontakt orqali ish yuritgan yoki boshqalarni faqat o'zlarining kodlari bilan bilishgan. Amallar tomonidan amalga oshirildi faol birliklar deb nomlangankomandalar ', o'qitilgan a'zolar a tomonidan ta'minlanadi chorakmeyster o'z vazifalarini bajarish uchun. Keyinchalik uzoq muddatli yoki yadro uchun kadrlar a'zolar, ajratilgan hujayralarga o'xshash tashkilot yo'q edi yoki yanada moslashuvchan shaklga ega bo'ldi.

1969 yilda braziliyalik inqilobchi Karlos Marighella uni nashr etdi Shahar partizanining minimanuali.[29] U shahar partizanini quyidagicha ta'riflagan:

... noan'anaviy usullarni qo'llagan holda, harbiy diktatura bilan qurol bilan kurashadigan odam. ... Shahar partizanlari siyosiy maqsadga ergashadilar va faqat hukumatga, yirik korxonalarga va xorijiy imperialistlarga hujum qilishadi.

Ning ahamiyati kichik qurollar o'qitish, sabotaj, musodara qilish va sezilarli seyf / shahar aholisi o'rtasida qo'llab-quvvatlash bazasi Marighellaning qo'llanmasida ta'kidlangan. Ushbu nashr Meinhofning "Shahar partizanlari kontseptsiyasi" ga antiqa bo'lib, keyinchalik ko'plab partizanlarga va isyonkor butun dunyo bo'ylab guruhlar.[30] Garchi Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasining ba'zi tarafdorlari va operativlarini "mavjud" deb ta'riflash mumkin edi anarxist yoki libertarist kommunist guruhning etakchi a'zolari, asosan, moyil Marksist-leninchi mafkura. Ya'ni, ular ochiq hamkorlik qilishdan qochishdi kommunistik davlatlar, ichida Xitoy tomonining chiziqlari bo'yicha bahslashmoqda Xitoy-Sovet bo'linishi Sovet Ittifoqi va uning Evropadagi sun'iy yo'ldosh davlatlari, agar ritorikada bo'lmasa, aslida Qo'shma Shtatlarga Uchinchi Dunyo aholisini ekspluatatsiya qilish va "foydali" Uchinchi Dunyo diktatorlarini qo'llab-quvvatlashda erkin o'tish huquqini berish orqali kommunistik ishning xoinlariga aylanishgan. Shunga qaramay, RAF a'zolari vaqti-vaqti bilan qo'llab-quvvatlanishdi va chegaradagi muqaddas joyni olishdi Sharqiy Germaniya 1980 yillar davomida.

Antiimperializm va xalqni qo'llab-quvvatlash

Baader-Meinhof Gang, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi zo'ravon chapchilarni, masalan, Ob-havo osti, hech qachon zavqlanmagan. O'sha paytda o'tkazilgan so'rovnoma shuni ko'rsatdiki, qirq yoshgacha bo'lgan G'arbiy nemislarning to'rtdan biri to'daga hamdardlik ko'rsatgan va o'ndan bir qismi to'da a'zosini politsiyadan yashirishni aytgan. Taniqli ziyolilar to'daning adolati (Germaniya) haqida gapirgan Germaniya, hatto 70-yillarga qadar hamon aybdor jamiyat edi. Jinoiy banklarni talon-taroj qilishni boshlaganida, yangiliklar agentliklari uning a'zolarini Bonni va Klayd bilan taqqosladilar. (Andreas) Baader, xarizmatik aksiyalar ishtirokchisi, odamlarga uning sevimli filmlari ekanligini aytib Bonni va Klayd, yaqinda chiqqan va Jazoir jangi. Che Gevaraning estrada plakati uning devoriga osilgan edi (shu bilan birga) u qizil yulduzga qarshi pulemyotning rasmini, qizil armiya fraktsiyasi logotipini tayyorlash uchun dizaynerga pul to'ladi.

— Stefan Ost, muallifi Der Baader Meinhof Kompleksi[27]

G'arbiy Germaniyaga qaytib kelgach, ular o'zlari "nima deb atashdi"antiimperialistik kurash ", bilan banklarni talon-taroj qilish AQSh harbiy ob'ektlari, Germaniya politsiya uchastkalari va Axel Springer press imperiyasiga tegishli binolarga qarshi pul to'plash va bombardimon qilish. 1970 yilda Meinhof mualliflik qilgan manifestda "RAF" va qizil yulduz logotipi bilan Heckler & Koch MP5 avtomat birinchi marta.[31]

Kuchli qidiruvdan so'ng, Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof, Meins va Raspe nihoyat 1972 yil iyun oyida hibsga olingan va hibsga olingan.

Qamoqqa olish va Stammxaym sudi

Stammxay qamoqxonasi

RAFning birinchi avlodi qahramonlari hibsga olingandan so'ng, ular ushlab turilgan yakkama-yakka saqlash yangi qurilgan yuqori xavfsizlikda Stammxay qamoqxonasi shimoliy Shtutgart. Ensslin "ma'lumot tizimi" ni ishlatganda taxalluslar har bir a'zo uchun (ismlar allegorik ahamiyatga ega deb hisoblanadi Mobi Dik ),[32] to'rt mahbus o'zlarining himoyasi yordamida xatlarni tarqatib, muloqot qila olishdi maslahat.

Hokimiyat tomonidan qilingan munosabatlarga norozilik bildirish uchun ular bir nechta kelishilgan holda harakat qilishdi ochlik e'lon qilish; Holger Meins 1974 yil 9-noyabrda o'zini o'zi ochlikdan vafot etdi. Jamoatchilik noroziligidan so'ng, ularning sharoitlari hokimiyat tomonidan biroz yaxshilandi.

RAFning ikkinchi avlodi deb atalmish o'sha paytda mahbuslarga qaram bo'lmagan xayrixohlardan tashkil topgan. 1975 yil 27-fevralda, Piter Lorenz, CDU Berlin meri nomzodi tomonidan o'g'irlab ketilgan 2 iyun harakati (RAF bilan ittifoqdosh) hibsga olinganlarning bir nechtasini ozod qilish uchun bosimning bir qismi sifatida. Ularning hech biri qotillik uchun sud qilinmaganligi sababli, davlat rozi bo'ldi va bu mahbuslar (va keyinchalik Lorenzning o'zi) ozod qilindi.

1975 yil 24 aprelda G'arbiy Germaniyaning Stokgolmdagi elchixonasi egallab olindi RAF a'zolari tomonidan; garovdagilarning ikkitasi Germaniya hukumati sifatida kantsler davrida o'ldirilgan Helmut Shmidt ularning talablariga bo'ysunishdan bosh tortdi. Garovga olinganlarning ikkitasi, ular tunda ular o'rnatgan portlovchi moddalar sirli ravishda portlashi natijasida olgan jarohatlaridan vafot etdilar.

1975 yil 21 mayda Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof va Raspe ustidan Stammxaym bo'yicha sud jarayoni boshlanib, tuman nomi berilgan. Shtutgart qaerda sodir bo'lganligi. Bundestag ilgari Jinoyat-protsessual kodeksini o'zgartirgan edi, shunda mahbuslar va RAFning ikkinchi avlodi o'rtasida aloqada bo'lganlikda ayblangan bir nechta advokatlar chiqarib tashlanishi mumkin edi.

1976 yil 9-may kuni Ulrike Meinhof qamoqxonasida o'lik holda, qamoq sochiqlaridan yasalgan arqonga osilgan holda topildi. Tergov xulosasiga ko'ra, u o'zini osib o'ldirgan, natijada o'sha paytda qizg'in bahslar bo'lib, ko'pchilikni fitna nazariyalari. Boshqa nazariyalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, u o'z hayotini guruhning qolgan qismi tomonidan tahqirlangani uchun o'ldirgan. Biroq, ushbu farazning teskari dalillari mavjud.

Sud jarayonida ko'proq hujumlar sodir bo'ldi. Ulardan biri 1977 yil 7 aprelda Federal prokuror bo'lgan Zigfrid Bubak, haydovchisi va tansoqchisi qizil svetoforda kutib turgan paytda ikki RAF a'zosi tomonidan otib o'ldirilgan. Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida fashistlarning a'zosi bo'lgan Bubak RAF tomonidan ularni sud qilish uchun muhim shaxslardan biri sifatida qaraldi. Ikki yil oldin, intervyu berayotganda, boshqa narsalar qatorida Stern jurnali, u "Baader kabi odamlar adolatli sudga loyiq emas" deb ta'kidladi.[33] 1976 yil fevral oyida, u bilan suhbatlashganda Der Spiegel u "biz o'z yurisdiktsiyamizni tartibga solishga hojat yo'q, milliy xavfsizlik biz va Herold (BKA boshlig'i) kabi odamlar tufayli saqlanib qoladi, ular doimo to'g'ri yo'lni topishadi ..."[34]

Oxir-oqibat, 1977 yil 28 aprelda, sudning 192-kuni, qolgan uchta ayblanuvchi bir nechta qotillik, ko'proq qotillikka urinish va terroristik tashkilot tuzishda aybdor deb topildi; ular umrbod qamoq jazosiga hukm qilindi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Xavfsizlik choralari

Ning yangi qismi Stammxay qamoqxonasi ayniqsa RAF uchun qurilgan va o'sha paytda dunyodagi eng xavfsiz qamoqxonalardan biri hisoblangan. Mahbuslar 1975 yilda (hibsga olinganidan uch yil keyin) u erga ko'chirilgan. Tomi va hovlisi temir mash bilan qoplangan edi. Kechasi uchastka ellik to'rtta yorug'lik chiroqlari va yigirma uchta neon lampalar bilan yoritilgan. Merganlar bilan birga maxsus harbiy kuchlar tomni qo'riqlashdi. Bilan birga to'rt yuz politsiyachi Federal Konstitutsiyani himoya qilish idorasi binoni patrul qildi. O'tirgan politsiyachilar ikki smenada aylanadilar. Yana yuztasi GSG-9 sud paytida taktik politsiya xodimlari politsiyani kuchaytirdilar BKA detektivlar sud hududining old qismini qo'riqlashdi. Nihoyat, vertolyotlar bu hududni bosib o'tdi.[35]:549

Akkreditatsiyadan o'tgan ommaviy axborot vositalari muxbirlari suddan 400 metr narida politsiya yo'l to'sig'idan o'tishlari kerak edi. Politsiya ularning ma'lumotlarini va raqamlarini qayd etib, ularning mashinalarini suratga oldi. Shundan so'ng ular uchta tekshiruvdan o'tishlari kerak edi, va nihoyat ular echinishdi va ikki sud amaldori ularning jasadlarini sinchkovlik bilan tekshirdilar. Ularga mahkamada faqat qalam va bloknotni saqlashga ruxsat berildi. Sud jarayonida ularning shaxsiy buyumlari, shu jumladan shaxsini tasdiqlovchi hujjatlar rasmiylar tomonidan ushlab qolingan. Har bir jurnalist sudda faqat ikki marta (ikki kun) qatnashishi mumkin edi. The Times qamalga o'xshash sharoitlarni o'z ichiga olgan ushbu sharoitlarda adolatli sud o'tkazilishi mumkinmi degan savolga javob berdi. Der Spiegel ushbu atmosfera "favqulodda choralar uchun mas'ul bo'lgan sudlanuvchilarni hukm qilishini" kutadimi yoki yo'qmi deb hayron bo'ldi.[36]

Uch nafar qamoqxona advokatlari va kamdan-kam hollarda qarindoshlari (do'stlariga ruxsat berilmagan) tashrifi paytida mahbuslar o'zlarining tashrif buyuruvchilari bilan bo'lgan suhbatlarini kuzatib borishardi. Mahbuslar qamoqxona ichida bir-birlari bilan uchrashishlariga ruxsat berilmagan, 1975 yil oxirigacha muntazam yig'ilish vaqti belgilangan (kuniga 30 minut, kuniga ikki marta), bu vaqt davomida ular qo'riqlanar edi.

Sinov

Sudyalar va ularning o'tmishi ayblanuvchilar tarafdorlari tomonidan muhim deb hisoblanadi. Sudya Vayss (Maller sudi) Yoaxim Raysni (Uchinchi Reyx sudining prezidenti) etti marta aybsiz deb topgan. Meinhofni uni shisha qafasga solaman deb qo'rqitganida, u shunday javob berdi: "Demak, siz Eyxmanning qafasi bilan tahdid qilyapsizmi, fashist?" (Adolf Eyxmann kim edi Obersturmbannführer ichida SS, Isroilda sud paytida shisha qafas ichida ushlangan). Zigfrid Bubak RAFning Stammxaymdagi asosiy sud sudyasi fashistlar partiyasi a'zosi bo'lgan. Federal prokuror Geynrix Vunder (Mudofaa vazirligida katta hukumat amaldori bo'lib ishlagan) bilan birga Bubak hibsga olishga buyruq bergan Rudolf Augshteyn va boshqa jurnalistlar Shpigel ish 1962 yilda Teodor Prinzingni advokat aybladi Otto Shili boshqa sudyalarni ishdan bo'shatib, o'zboshimchalik bilan tayinlanganligi.[35]:547

Stammxaym sudining bir nechta nuqtalarida sudlanuvchilar so'zlashayotganda mikrofonlar o'chirilgan. Ular ko'pincha zaldan chiqarib yuborilgan va boshqa harakatlar amalga oshirilgan. Keyinchalik ma'lum bo'lishicha, ular o'zlari orasida ham, advokatlari bilan ham bo'lgan suhbatlari yozib olingan. Va nihoyat, sudlanuvchilarning advokatlari va ayrim qamoqxona shifokorlari ma'lum qilishlaricha, yakka tartibdagi kameralarda va oq kameralarda saqlanayotgan mahbuslarning jismoniy va psixologik holati shuki, ular uzoq sud kunlarida ishtirok eta olmaydilar va o'zlarini munosib himoya qiladilar. 1975 yil boshida Stammxaym sudi boshlanganda, ba'zi mahbuslar uch yildan beri yakka tartibda saqlanmoqda.[35]

RAFning ikki sobiq a'zosi Karl-Xaynts Ruxland va Gerxard Myuller keyinchalik aniqlanganidek BKA buyrug'i bilan ko'rsatma berishdi. Ularning bayonotlari ko'pincha qarama-qarshi bo'lgan, bu narsa gazetalarda ham sharhlangan. Keyinchalik Rullandning o'zi xabar bergan Stern uning joylashishi politsiya bilan hamkorlikda tayyorlanganligi.[37] 1974-1975 yil qishda 145 kun davom etgan uchinchi ochlik e'lon paytida Myuller "sindirdi" deb xabar berilgan edi. Prokuratura unga Gamburgda ofitser Norbert Shmidtni o'ldirganligi uchun daxlsizlik taklif qildi (1971) va buning o'rniga Baader, Meinhof, Ensslin va Raspe aybdor. Oxir-oqibat u ozod qilindi va yangi shaxsni va 500,000ni olganidan keyin AQShga ko'chib o'tdi Deutschmarks.[iqtibos kerak ]

Advokatlarning hibsga olinishi

Hukumat shoshilinch ravishda Stammheim sudi jarayonida foydalanish uchun bir nechta maxsus qonunlarni tasdiqladi. 1945 yildan beri birinchi marta advokatlar suddan chetlatildi, masalan, turli xil noo'rin harakatlar, masalan, jinoiy tashkilotlarni tuzishda yordam berishda ayblangan (129-bo'lim, Jinoyat qonuni). Hokimiyat bostirib kirdi va advokatlarning idoralarida ayblov materiallari mavjudligini tekshirdi. Adliya vaziri Xans-Yoxen Fogel G'arbning boshqa biron bir davlatida advokatlarni sud jarayonidan chetlatish bo'yicha bunday keng ko'lamli me'yorlar mavjud emasligi bilan faxrlanamiz. Klaus Kruassant, Xans-Kristian Ströbele, Uch yildan beri sud jarayoniga tayyorgarlik ko'rgan Kurt Groenevold sudning ikkinchi kuni haydab chiqarildi. 1975 yil 23-iyun kuni Kruvasan, Ströbele (u allaqachon chiqarib yuborilgan) va Meri Beker hibsga olingan va shu orada politsiya bir nechta himoyachilarning ish joylari va uylariga bostirib kirib, hujjatlar va fayllarni olib qo'ygan. Ströbele va Kruassan hibsga olingan va to'rt va sakkiz hafta davomida ushlab turilgan. Kruassan 80000 Deutschmarks to'lashi, har hafta politsiya bo'limiga xabar berishi va transporti va shaxsini tasdiqlovchi hujjatlari olib qo'yilishi kerak edi.[35]:545–572

RAF-sudi uchun ko'rilgan choralar nafaqat advokatlar va mahbuslarga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. 1974 yil 26-noyabrda militsiya tomonidan misli ko'rilmagan safarbarlik va GSG-9 23 nafar gumon qilingan RAF a'zolarini hibsga olish uchun bo'linmalar o'nlab uylarga, chap qanot kitob do'konlariga va yig'ilish joylariga bostirib kirgan va hibsga olingan. Hech qanday partizan topilmadi.[iqtibos kerak ] BKA rahbari Horst Herold "keng ko'lamli operatsiyalar odatda amaliy natijalarga olib kelmasligiga qaramay, olomon taassurotlari doimo katta ustunlikka ega" deb ta'kidladi.[38]

1979 yil 16 fevralda Frantsiya uning siyosiy boshpana berish haqidagi iltimosini rad etganidan keyin Kruvasan hibsga olingan (jinoiy tashkilotni qo'llab-quvvatlash ayblovi bilan - 129-bo'lim) va qamoqda o'tirish uchun ikki yarim yilga ozodlikdan mahrum qilingan. Stammxey qamoqxonasi.

Mudofaa strategiyasi

Sudlanuvchilar va ularning advokatlari tomonidan umumiy yondashuv RAFning siyosiy maqsadi va xususiyatlarini ta'kidlash edi.

1976 yil 13 va 14 yanvar kunlari sudlanuvchilar o'zlarining ko'rsatmalarini tayyorladilar (taxminan 200 bet), unda ular imperializmning o'rni va uning "uchinchi dunyo" mamlakatlaridagi inqilobiy harakatlarga qarshi kurashini tahlil qildilar. Shuningdek, ular G'arbiy Germaniyaning fashistlashuvi va uning imperialistik davlat sifatidagi rolini (AQSh bilan Vetnam ustidan ittifoq) tushuntirdilar. Nihoyat ular shahar partizanlari vazifasi haqida gaplashdilar va bombardimon hujumlari uchun siyosiy javobgarlikni o'z zimmalariga oldilar. Nihoyat ularning advokatlari (Ulrike Meinhofning taklifiga binoan) ayblanuvchini rasman ko'rib chiqishni iltimos qildilar harbiy asirlar.[35]

4 may kuni (Meinhof o'limidan besh kun oldin) to'rt sudlanuvchi Vetnam urushi haqida ma'lumot berishni talab qilishdi. Ular AQSh (va bilvosita, FRG) tomonidan Vetnamga qilingan harbiy aralashuv xalqaro qonunlarni buzganligi sababli, AQShning G'arbiy Germaniyadagi harbiy bazalari xalqaro qasosning haqli ob'ekti bo'lgan. Ular bir nechta siyosatchilarga murojaat qilishdi (masalan Richard Nikson va Helmut Shmidt ) hamda guvoh sifatida chaqirilishi uchun AQShning ba'zi sobiq agentlari (ular guvohlik berishga tayyor bo'lgan).

Keyinchalik ularning so'rovlari rad etilgach, AQSh agentlari Barton Osburn (sobiq Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi sobiq a'zosi) Feniks dasturi ), G. Pek (NSA) va Gari Tomas 1976 yil 23-iyun kuni keng qamrovli intervyular o'tkazdilar (advokatlar tomonidan uyushtirilgan), ular FRGning qo'llab-quvvatlashi AQShning Vetnamdagi operatsiyalari uchun juda muhimligini tushuntirdilar. Pek, RAF "AQSh hukumatining Hindxitoydagi jinoiy tajovuziga va Germaniya hukumatining yordamiga javob bo'ldi. Haqiqiy terrorchi mening hukumatim edi" degan xulosaga keldi.[39] Tomas FRG va AQSh maxfiy xizmatlarining Sharqiy Evropadagi birgalikdagi operatsiyalari to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlarni taqdim etdi. Shuningdek, u Stammxaym sud jarayonini kuzatgan va ularni qanday qilib qotillikni o'z joniga qasd qilishga o'xshatishni o'rgatgan Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasining instruktoriga murojaat qilgan. Ushbu bayonotlar Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi xodimi tomonidan tasdiqlangan Filipp Eji.[35]

Terrorizm harakatlari

Baader-Meinhof to'dasi tashkil etilganidan beri turli xil terroristik harakatlar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan. Talabadan keyin guruhga tegishli bo'lgan birinchi terroristik harakat Benno Ohnesorg 1967 yilda politsiyachi tomonidan o'ldirilgan, Kaufhaus Schneider universal do'koniga bomba qo'yilgan. 1968 yil 2 aprelda guruhning filiallari do'konni portlatib yuborishdi va taxminiy 200 ming AQSh dollarlik moddiy zarar etkazishdi. Bomba portlashining taniqli a'zolari kiritilgan Andreas Baader va Gudrun Ensslin, Baader-Meinhof to'dasining asoschilaridan ikkitasi. Bomba yarim tunda do'konda hech kim bo'lmagan paytda portlagan, shu sababli hech kim jabrlanmagan. Bomba yoqilganda, Gudrun Ensslin yaqin atrofdagi taksofonda bo'lib, baqirgan Germaniya matbuot agentligi, "Bu qasos olishning siyosiy harakati".[iqtibos kerak ]

1972 yil 11-mayda Baader-Meinhof to'dasi uchta quvurli bombani AQShning shtab-kvartirasida joylashtirdi Frankfurt. Portlash AQSh zobitining o'limiga va yana 13 kishining jarohatlanishiga olib keldi. Bomba portlashining sababi AQSh imperializmiga, xususan AQShning Shimoliy Vetnam portlarini qazib olishlariga qarshi norozilik siyosiy bayonoti edi.[iqtibos kerak ]

1972 yil 19 mayda Baader-Meinhof to'dasi a'zolari oltita bombani qurollantirdilar Axel Springer Verlag Gamburgda. Besh bomba faqat uchtasi portladi, ammo bu 36 kishiga jarohat etkazish uchun etarli edi.[40]

1972 yil 24 mayda, Frankfurtdagi AQSh shtab-kvartirasi bombardimon qilinganidan atigi ikki hafta o'tgach, guruh IDHS (Intelligence Data Handling Service) binosida bomba yuklangan mashinani o'rnatdi. Kempbell kazarmasi yilda Geydelberg. Bombalash natijasida mutaxassislar Charlz Pek va Ron Vudvord va kapitan Klayd Bonnerlar halok bo'ldi va yana besh kishi jarohat oldi.[iqtibos kerak ]

1974 yil 10-noyabrda guruh o'ldirildi Gyunter fon Drenkmann, Germaniya oliy adliya sudi prezidenti. Qotillik 2 iyun harakati tomonidan olib borilgan muvaffaqiyatsiz o'g'irlashga olib keladigan bir qator voqealardan so'ng sodir bo'ldi, bu guruh o'limidan keyin Baader-Meinhof guruhidan ajralib chiqdi. Holger Meins qamoqxonada ochlik e'lon qilish bilan.[iqtibos kerak ]

1975 yil fevraldan boshlab va 1975 yil martgacha davom etib, 2 iyun harakati o'g'irlab ketildi Piter Lorenz, o'sha paytda kim edi Xristian-demokrat G'arbiy Berlin meri uchun kurashda nomzod. Lorenzni ozod qilish evaziga guruh zo'ravonlikdan boshqa sabablarga ko'ra qamalgan Baader-Meinhof va 2 iyun harakati a'zolarini qamoqdan ozod qilishni talab qildi. Hukumat Lorenzni xavfsiz ravishda ozod qilish uchun ushbu a'zolardan bir nechtasini majbur qildi va ozod qildi.[iqtibos kerak ]

1975 yil 24 aprelda Baader-Meinhof guruhiga aloqador olti a'zo G'arbiy Germaniyaning Stokgolmdagi elchixonasini egallab oldi. Guruh garovga olingan va binoni portlatish uchun o'rnatgan. Ular Baader-Meinhof to'dasining qamoqdagi bir necha a'zosining ozod qilinishini talab qilishdi. Hukumat garovdagilarning ikkitasini qatl etishga olib kelgan talabni rad etdi. Elchixonani portlatish uchun mo'ljallangan bir nechta bomba muddatidan oldin portlatildi, natijada Baader-Meinhofning oltita filialidan ikkitasi o'ldi. Qolgan to'rt a'zosi oxir-oqibat rasmiylarga taslim bo'ldi.[iqtibos kerak ]

1975 yil may oyida Baader-Meinhof to'dasi o'g'irlanganligi to'g'risida Britaniya razvedkasining bir nechta xabarlari tarqaldi xantal gazi AQSh va Britaniyaning qo'shma omboridan. Xabarlarda, shuningdek, Baader-Meinhof to'dasi Germaniya shaharlarida o'g'irlangan gazdan foydalanishni maqsad qilganligi ko'rsatilgan. Oxir oqibat, xantal gazli idishlar shunchaki noto'g'ri joylashtirilgan ekan; ammo, Baader-Meinhof to'dasi hanuzgacha bir nechta turli agentliklarni qo'rqitib, yangiliklardan muvaffaqiyatli foydalangan.[41]

1980-yillarning boshlarida nemis va frantsuz gazetalari politsiya Parijdagi Baader-Meinhof to'dasi xavfsiz uyiga bostirib kirganligi va kolbalar bilan to'ldirilgan vaqtincha laboratoriyani topgani haqida xabar berishdi. Clostridium botulinum qiladi botulinum toksini. Keyinchalik bu hisobotlar noto'g'ri ekanligi aniqlandi; hech qachon bunday laboratoriya topilmadi.[42]

Nemis kuzi

Asosiy maqola: Nemis kuzi

1977 yil 30-iyulda, Yurgen Ponto, rahbari Dresdner banki, uyi oldida otib o'ldirilgan Oberursel o'g'irlab ketishda.[43] Unga aloqador bo'lganlar Brigitte Mohnhaupt, Kristian Klar va Susanne Albrecht, Pontoning xudojo'y qizining singlisi.

Sudlanganlikdan so'ng, Xanns Martin Shleyer, sobiq ofitser SS o'sha paytda Germaniya ish beruvchilar uyushmasining prezidenti bo'lgan (va shu tariqa G'arbiy Germaniyadagi eng qudratli sanoatchilardan biri) zo'ravonlik bilan o'g'irlab ketilgan. 1977 yil 5 sentyabrda Shleyer avtoulovini Shleyer avtoulovi orqasiga o'girgan o'g'irlab ketuvchilar tomonidan to'xtatilgan Shleyer avtoulovi haydab ketayotgan Mersedesga sabab bo'lgan. Konvoy to'xtatilgandan so'ng, niqob kiygan beshta hujumchi darhol uch politsiyachi va haydovchini otib o'ldirdi va Shleyerni garovga oldi. Guruhlardan biri (Sieglinde Hofmann) qurolini yo'lda itarayotgan bolalar aravachasidan ishlab chiqardi.[44]

Shundan so'ng federal hukumat tomonidan hibsga olingan o'n bir kishining, shu jumladan Stammxaymda bo'lganlarning ozod qilinishini talab qiladigan xat qabul qilindi. Inqiroz qo'mitasi tashkil etildi Bonn, kantsler boshchiligida Helmut Shmidt, which, instead of acceding, resolved to employ delaying tactics to give the police time to discover Schleyer's location. At the same time, a total communication ban was imposed on the prison inmates, who were now allowed visits only from government officials and the prison chaplain.

The crisis dragged on for more than a month, while the Bundeskriminalamt carried out its biggest investigation to date. Matters escalated when, on 13 October 1977, Lufthansa 181-reys dan Palma de Mallorca ga Frankfurt edi o'g'irlab ketilgan. To'rt kishilik guruh PFLP members took control of the plane (which was named Landshut). The leader introduced himself to the passengers as "Captain Mahmud" who would be later identified as Zohair Youssef Akache. When the plane landed in Rome for refueling, he issued the same demands as the Schleyer kidnappers, plus the release of two Palestinians held in Turkey and payment of US$15 million.

The Bonn crisis team again decided not to give in. The plane flew on via Larnaka, keyin Dubay, keyin esa Adan, where flight captain Jürgen Schumann, whom the hijackers deemed not cooperative enough, was brought before an improvised "revolutionary tribunal" and executed on 16 October. His body was dumped on the runway. The aircraft again took off, flown by the co-pilot Jürgen Vietor, this time headed for Mogadishu, Somali.

A high-risk rescue operation was led by Xans-Yurgen Vischnyskiy, then undersecretary in the chancellor's office, who had been secretly flown in from Bonn. At five past midnight (CET ) on 18 October, the plane was stormed in a seven-minute assault by GSG 9, an elite unit of the German federal police. All four hijackers were shot; three of them died on the spot. None of the passengers were seriously hurt and Wischnewski was able to phone Schmidt and tell the Bonn crisis team that the operation had been a success.

"Stammheim Death Night"

Baader, Raspe va Ensslin dafn etilgan joy

After the successful conclusion of the Landshut hostage crisis was announced in the late evening of 17 October, all the RAF members incarcerated in Stammheim committed suicide during the following night. Their lawyer, Arndt Müller, had smuggled pistols into the prison. Andreas Baader and Jan-Carl Raspe shot themselves with these weapons while Gudrun Ensslin hanged herself. Irmgard Myuller tried to kill herself with a knife, but survived severely injured. The suicides went unnoticed until early next morning. Doctors were rushed in. Baader and Ensslin were already dead when found. Raspe was still alive and moved to the hospital where he died soon after. Möller recovered after being brought to a hospital.[45]

The suicide of the imprisoned RAF leadership led to a significant media echo. The coordinated attempt sparked numerous fitna nazariyalari. It was alleged that the RAF members did not kill themselves, but instead were killed by the German authorities, the BND, Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va NATO. These theories were spread by RAF supporters and sympathizers; some of them even taken up by the mainstream press. Available evidence shows that these suicides were planned and prepared for a long time by the RAF members.[45][46]

On the very same day, Hanns-Martin Schleyer was shot to death by his captors en route to Myulxaus, Frantsiya. On 19 October, Schleyer's kidnappers announced that he had been "executed" and pinpointed his location. His body was recovered later that day in the trunk of a green Audi 100 on Rue Charlz Péguy. The French newspaper Ozodlik received a letter declaring:

After 43 days we have ended Hanns-Martin Schleyer's pitiful and corrupt existence... His death is meaningless to our pain and our rage... The struggle has only begun. Freedom through armed, anti-imperialist struggle.

RAF since the 1980s

The Sovet Ittifoqining tarqatib yuborilishi in late December 1991 was a serious blow to Leninist groups, but well into the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name RAF. Among these were the killing of Ernst Zimmermann, CEO of MTU Aero dvigatellari, a German engineering company; another bombing at the AQSh havo kuchlari Reyn-Main aviabazasi (yaqin Frankfurt ), which targeted the base commander and killed two bystanders; a avtomashinada bomba attack that killed Simens ijro etuvchi Karl-Heinz Beckurts and his driver; va tortishish Gerold fon Braunmuhl, a leading official at Germany's foreign ministry.On 30 November 1989, Deutsche Bank rais Alfred Xerxauzen was killed with a highly complex bomb when his car triggered a photo sensor in Yomon Gomburg. On 1 April 1991, Detlev Karsten Rohvedder, leader of the government Treuhand organization responsible for the privatization of the Sharqiy nemis state economy, was shot and killed. The assassins of Zimmermann, von Braunmühl, Herrhausen, and Rohwedder were never reliably identified.

Keyin Germaniyaning birlashishi in 1990, it was confirmed that the RAF had received financial and logistic support from the Stasi, the security and intelligence organization of Sharqiy Germaniya, which had given several members (who had chosen to leave the group) shelter and new identities. This was already generally suspected at the time.[47][48] In 1978 part of the group was exfiltrated through Yugoslaviya ga kommunistik Polsha to avoid a manhunt in Germany. Brigitte Mohnhaupt, Peter Boock, Rolf Wagner, and Sieglinde Hoffmann spent most of the year in SB inshootlar Mazuriy district, where they were also going through series of training programs along with others from Arab countries.[49]

In 1992, the German government assessed that the RAF's main field of engagement now was missions to release imprisoned RAF members. To weaken the organization further the government declared that some RAF inmates would be released if the RAF refrained from violent attacks in the future. Subsequently, the RAF announced their intention to "de-escalate" and refrain from significant activity.

The last action taken by the RAF took place in 1993 with a bombing of a newly built prison in Weiterstadt by overcoming the officers on duty and planting explosives. Although no one was seriously injured, this operation caused property damage amounting to 123 million Deutschmarks (over 50 million euros).

The last big action against the RAF took place on 27 June 1993. A Verfassungsschutz (internal secret service) agent named Klaus Shtaynets had infiltrated the RAF. Natijada, Birgit Xogefeld va Volfgang grammlari ushlangan Yomon Klaynen. Gramlar va GSG 9 ofitser Maykl Newrzella died during the mission. Due to a number of operational mistakes involving the various police services, German Minister of the Interior Rudolf Seiters took responsibility and resigned from his post.

Eritish

On 20 April 1998, an eight-page typewritten letter in German was faxed to the Reuters news agency, signed "RAF" with the machine-gun red star, declaring the group dissolved:

Almost 28 years ago, on 14 May 1970, the RAF arose in a campaign of liberation. Today we end this project. The urban guerrilla in the shape of the RAF is now history.[7] (Nemis: Vor fast 28 Jahren, am 14. Mai 1970, entstand in einer Befreiungsaktion die RAF. Heute beenden wir dieses Projekt. Die Stadtguerilla in Form der RAF ist nun Geschichte.)

In response to this statement, former BKA Prezident Horst Herold said, "With this statement the Red Army Faction has erected its own tombstone."[50]

Meros

Xorst Maler, a founding RAF member, is now a vocal Neo-natsist va Holokostni rad qiluvchi.[51] In 2005, he was sentenced to six years in prison for irqiy nafratni qo'zg'atish yahudiylarga qarshi.[52] He is on record as saying that his beliefs have not changed: Der Feind ist der Gleiche (The enemy is the same).[53]

In 2007, amidst widespread media controversy, Germaniya prezidenti Xorst Koxler considered pardoning RAF member Kristian Klar, who had filed a pardon application several years before. On 7 May 2007, pardon was denied; muntazam[e] parole was later granted on 24 November 2008.[54] RAF a'zosi Brigitte Mohnhaupt was granted release on five-year parole by a German court on 12 February 2007 and Eva Xule was released 17 August 2007.

In 2011, the last imprisoned RAF member Birgit Xogefeld was released on parole.[55]

Police in Europe investigating the whereabouts of Ernst-Volker Staub, Burkhard Garweg and Daniela Klette stated that a search has been made in Spain, France and Italy[56] after initial reports suggested that they could be hiding in the Netherlands in 2017 after being suspected for masterminding robberies in supermarkets and cash transit vehicles in Volfsburg, Bremen va Cremlingen 2011 yildan 2016 yilgacha.[57][58][59]

List of assaults attributed to the RAF

Shuningdek qarang: Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasi a'zolari va Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasi (Baader-Meinhof) suiqasdlari ro'yxati
SanaJoyAmalIzohlarSurat
22 October 1971GamburgPolice officer killedRAF members Irmgard Möller and Gerhard Müller attempted to rescue Margrit Shiller who was being arrested by the police for engaging in a shootout.[60] Police sergeant Heinz Lemke was shot in the foot, while Sergeant Norbert Schmid, 33, was killed, becoming the first murder to be attributed to the RAF.[61]
1971 yil 22-dekabrKaiserslauternPolice officer killedGerman Police officer Herbert Schoner, 32, was shot by members of the RAF in a bank robbery. The four militants escaped with 134,000 Deutschmarks.
1972 yil 11-mayFrankfurt am MainBombing of US Army V Corps headquarters and the officers' mess Teras klubi[62]US Army LTC Pol A. Bloomquist o'ldirilgan,

13 wounded

Terrace Club Frankfurt Germaniya 1972 V. Corps.png
12 May 1972Augsburg va MyunxenBombing of a police station in Augsburg and the Bavarian State Criminal Investigations Agency in Munich5 police-officers wounded. Tomonidan da'vo qilingan Tommy Weissbecker Komando.
1972 yil 16-mayKarlsrueBombing of the car of the Federal Judge BuddenbergHis wife Gerta was driving the car and was wounded. Tomonidan da'vo qilingan Manfred Grashof komando.
1972 yil 19-mayGamburgBombalash Axel Springer Verlag. The building was not evacuated even though warnings about the bombing were made by the RAF.17 kishi yaralangan. Ilse Stachowiak was involved in the bombing.
24 May 1972 18:10CETGeydelbergBombing outside of Officers' Club followed by a second bomb moments later in front of Army Security Agency (ASA), U.S. Army in Europe (HQ USAREUR ) da Kempbell kazarmasi. Known involved RAF members: Irmgard Möller and Angela Luther, Andreas Baader, Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin, Holger Meins, Jan-Carl Raspe.3 dead (Ronald A. Woodward, Charles L. Peck and Kapitan Clyde R. Bonner), 5 wounded. Claimed by 15 July Commando (in honour of Petra Schelm ). Tomonidan ijro etilgan Irmgard Moeller.
24 April 1975Stokgolm, ShvetsiyaG'arbiy Germaniya elchixonasini qamal qilish, murder of Andreas von Mirbach and Dr. Heinz Hillegaart4 dead, of whom 2 were RAF members.
1976 yil 7-maySprendlingen yaqin OffenbaxPolice officer killed22-year-old Fritz Sippel[63] was shot in the head when checking an RAF member's identity papers.
4 yanvar 1977 yilGissenAttack against US 42nd Field Artillery Brigade at GiessenIn a failed attack against the Giessen army base, the RAF sought to capture or destroy nuclear weapons present.[64] A diversionary bomb attack on a fuel tank failed to fully ignite the fuel.[65]
7 April 1977KarlsrueAssassination of the federal prosecutor-general Zigfrid BubakThe driver and another passenger were also killed. Claimed by the Ulrike Meinhof Commando. This murder case was brought up again after the 30-year commemoration in April 2007 when information from former RAF member Piter-Yurgen Book surfaced in media reports.
30 July 1977Oberursel (Taunus )Qotillik Yurgen PontoDirektori Dresdner banki, Yurgen Ponto, is shot in his home during an attempted kidnapping. Ponto later dies from his injuries.
5 sentyabr 1977 yil

1977 yil 18 oktyabr

Kyoln resp.

Myulxaus, Frantsiya

Xanns Martin Shleyer, raisi Germaniya ish beruvchilar uyushmasi, is kidnapped and later shot3 police-officers and the driver are also killed during the kidnapping.
1977 yil 22 sentyabrUtrext, NiderlandiyaPolice officer killedArie Kranenburg (46), Dutch policeman, shot and killed by RAF Knut Folkerts outside a bar.
1978 yil 24 sentyabrYaqin o'rmon Dortmund[66]Police officer killedThree RAF members (Angelika Speitel, Verner Lotze, Maykl Knol ) were engaged in target practice when they were confronted by police. A shootout followed where one policeman (Hans-Wilhelm Hans, 26)[67] was shot dead, and one of the RAF members (Knoll) was wounded so badly that he would later die from his injuries.[68]
1978 yil 1-noyabrKerkrade, Niderlandiya[69]Gun-battle with four Dutch custom officialsDionysius de Jong (19) was shot to death, and Johannes Goemanns (24) later died of his wounds, when they were involved in a gunfight with RAF members Adelheid Schulz va Rolf Xeysler[70] who were trying to cross the Dutch border illegally.[67]
1979 yil 25 iyunMons, BelgiyaAleksandr Xeyg, Oliy ittifoq qo'mondoni ning NATO, escapes an assassination attemptA land mine blew up under the bridge on which Haig's car was traveling, narrowly missing Haig's car and wounding three of his bodyguards in a following car.[71] In 1993 a German Court sentenced Rolf Klemens Vagner, suiqasd uchun sobiq RAF a'zosi, umrbod qamoq jazosiga hukm qilindi.[71]
1981 yil 7-avgustKaiserslautern, GermaniyaUSAF Security Police Officer Sgt. John Toffton was attacked in KaiserslauternA USAF Security Police Officer John Toffton was on his way to work from his residence on Malzstrasse near Eisenbahnstrasse and Mozartstrasse riding a bicycle when he was attacked. The officer survived the attack with little injury. Mohnhaupt, the driver and Klar fled the scene in a green VW Fast Back with German plates. Unknown third party swinging a club was injured or killed. A large amount of blood and broken eyeglasses was found at the scene, none of the blood was from the victim.
1981 yil 31-avgustReynland-Pfalts, GermaniyaLarge car-bomb exploded in the HQ USAFE and HQ 4th ATAF parking lot of Ramshteyn aviabazasi
1981 yil 15 sentyabrGeydelbergUnsuccessful rocket propelled grenade attack against the car carrying the US Army's West German Commander Frederik J. Kroesen. Known involved RAF members: Brigitte Mohnhaupt, Christian Klar.
2 iyul 1982 yilNürnbergUnsuccessful sniper attack against US Army Nuclear Storage Site NATO-23. Four civilians (two adults and two children) were killed the next day in an accidental shooting by American troops who had been placed on high alert after the attack. Known involved RAF members: Christian Klar.A family of four who were out hunting mushrooms, made their way through a broken fence the day after the sniper incident, and were killed by members of the 3/17th Field Artillery Battalion, who were on high alert. They were guarding the NATO 2–3 Nuclear storage site at the time, and had been fired upon several times the night before by Christian Klar, when two US soldiers had been slightly wounded and one killed.[iqtibos kerak ]
1984 yil 18-dekabrOberammergau, G'arbiy GermaniyaUnsuccessful attempt to bomb a school for NATO officers. The car bomb was discovered and defused.A total of ten incidents followed over the next month, against US, British, and French targets.[72]
1985 yil 1-fevralGautingOtishErnst Zimmerman, head of the MTU is shot in the head in his home. Zimmermann died twelve hours later. The assassination was claimed by the Patsi O'Hara Komando.[iqtibos kerak ]
8 August 1985Reyn-Main aviabazasi (yaqin Frankfurt )A Volkswagen Passat exploded in the parking lot across from the base commander's buildingTwo people killed: Airman First Class Frank Scarton and Becky Bristol, a U.S. civilian employee who also was the spouse of a U.S. Air Force enlisted man. A granite monument marks the spot where they died. Twenty people were also injured. Army Spec. Edvard Pimental was kidnapped and killed the night before for his military ID card which was used to gain access to the base. The French revolutionary organization Action Directe is suspected to have collaborated with the RAF on this attack. Birgit Xogefeld va Eva Xule have been convicted for their involvement in this event.
9 iyul 1986 yilStrasslach (yaqin Myunxen )Shooting of Siemens manager Karl Heinz Beckurts and driver Eckhard Groppler
10 oktyabr 1986 yilBonnQotillik Gerold BraunmuhlThe senior diplomat of the German Foreign Office was shot by two people in front of his residence on Buchholzstraße.
1989 yil 30-noyabrBad Homburg vor der HöheBombing of the car carrying the chairman of Deutsche Bank Alfred Xerxauzen (o'ldirilgan)The case remained open for a long time, as the advanced explosive method employed baffled German prosecutors, as it could not have been the work of guerrillas like the RAF. Also, all suspects of the RAF were not charged due to alibis. However, the case received new light in late 2007 when German authorities learned that the Stasi, the former East German secret police, may have played a role in the assassination of Herrhausen, as the bombing method was exactly the same as one that had been developed by the Stasi.
1991 yil 13 fevralBonnSniper attack on U.S. embassyThree Red Army Faction members fired a G1 automatic rifle from across the Reyn River at the U.S. Embassy Chancery. Hech kim jabrlanmagan.[73]
1991 yil 1 aprelDyusseldorfSuiqasd Detlev Karsten Rohvedder, at his house in DüsseldorfRohwedder was the chief of the Treuhandanstalt, the agency that privatized the former East German enterprises after the Germaniyaning birlashishi.
1993 yil 27 martWeiterstadtVaytshtadt qamoqxonasida portlash: Attacks with explosives at the construction site of a new prisonLed to the capture of two RAF members three months later at a train station, and a shoot-out between RAF member Volfgang grammlari va a GSG 9 otryad; GSG9 officer Maykl Newrzella was killed before Grams allegedly was shot, while Birgit Xogefeld hibsga olingan. Damage totaling 123 million Deutschmarks (over 50 million evro ). The attack caused a four-year delay in the completion of the site that was planned to open in 1993.JVA Weiterstadt.jpg

RAF qo'mondonlari

The following is a list of all known RAF Commando Units.[74] Most RAF units were named after deceased RAF members, while others were named after deceased members of international militant left-wing groups such as the Qora panteralar, Irlandiya milliy ozodlik armiyasi, va Qizil brigadalar.

Filmlar

Numerous West German film and TV productions have been made about the RAF. These include Klaus Lemke's telefeature Brandstifter (Yong'inchilar) (1969); Volker Schloendorff va Margarethe fon Trotta 's co-directed Katarina Blumning yo'qolgan sharafi (a 1978 adaptation of Geynrix Böll roman Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum ); Germaniya kuzda (1978), co-directed by 11 directors, including Aleksandr Kluge, Volker Schloendorff, Rayner Verner Fassbinder va Edgar Reyts; Fassbinder's Die dritte Generation (Uchinchi avlod ) (1979); Margarethe fon Trotta "s Die bleierne Zeit (Germaniyalik opa-singillar/Marianne va Juliane) (1981); va Reynxard Xauff "s Stammxaym (1986). Post-reunification German films include Xristian Petzold "s Die innere Sicherheit (The State I Am In ) (2000); Kristina Konrad "s Grosse Freiheit, Kleine Freiheit (Greater Freedom, Lesser Freedom (2000); and Christopher Roth's Baader (2002).

The best known recent film was Uli Edel 2008 yil Baader Meinhof majmuasi (Nemischa: Der Baader Meinhof Komplex), based on the bestselling book by Stefan Ost. The film was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film in both the 81-chi Oskar mukofotlari va 66-Oltin globus mukofotlari.

Outside Germany, films include Swiss director Markus Imxof "s Die Reise (Sayohat) (1986). On TV, there was Heinrich Breloer's Todesspiel (Death Game) (1997), a two-part docu-drama, and Volker Schloendorff's Die Stille nach dem Schuss (The Legend of Rita) (2000).

There have been several documentaries: Im Fadenkreuz – Deutschland & die RAF (1997, several directors); Gerd Conradt's Starbuck Holger Meins (2001); Andres Vayl "s Qora quti BRD (2001);[75] Klaus Stern's Andreas Baader – Der Staatsfeind (Davlat dushmani) (2003); Ben Lewis's In Love With Terror, uchun BBC to'rtligi (2003);[76] va Ulrike Meinhof – Wege in den Terror (Ways into Terror) (2006).

The 2010 feature documentary Inqilob bolalari tells Ulrike Meinhof's story from the perspective of her daughter, journalist and historian Bettina Röhl, esa Andres Vayl 's 2011 feature film Biz bo'lmasak, kim? provides a context for the RAF's origins through the perspective of Gudrun Ensslin's partner Bernward Vesper. In 2015, Jean-Gabriel Périot released his feature-length, found-footage documentary Nemis yoshi on the Red Amy Faction.[77]

2018 yilgi qayta tuzish Suspiriya features a secondary character attempting to run away to join the Red Army Faction, serving as a catalyst for the later events of the film.[78]

Badiiy adabiyot va san'at

  • Geynrix Böll kitobi Katarina Blumning yo'qolgan sharafi (1974) describes the political climate in West Germany during the active phase of the RAF in the seventies. Schlöndorff and Trotta (who knew the leading RAF cadre) filmed the book in 1975.
  • Professionallar 1978 episode "Close Quarters" featured a German terrorist organization known as the "Meyer-Helmut Group", and was possibly inspired by Baader-Meinhof.
  • Kabare Volter, the industrial band from Sheffield, England, recorded a song called "Baader-Meinhof" that pondered the group's importance in history and their motivations.
  • The Norwegian painter G'alati Nerdrum made a painting called Andreas Baaderning qotilligi in 1977–1978, that shows Nerdrum's personal commentary to the events in the Stammheim prison.
  • In the mid-1980s, an Italian band called RAF Punk named themselves after this organization.
  • Gerxard Rixter, a German painter whose series of works entitled 1977 yil 18 oktyabr (1988) repainted photographs of the Faction members and their deaths.
  • 1990 yilda albom Slap! by the influential British anarxo-pank guruh Chumbavamba featured a song titled "Ulrike", about Ulrike Meinhof va RAF.
  • Tom Klensi 1991 yilgi roman Barcha qo'rquvlarning yig'indisi features the arrest of RAF members in former Sharqiy blok countries with the cooperation of the democratized Soviet Union da sovuq urush tugashi as a major plot point. In the book, embittered RAF terrorists ally with the Falastinni ozod qilish uchun demokratik front to procure a lost Israeli atomic bomb to start a yadro urushi.
  • Kristof Xeyn roman Kindheit eart Garten tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan (In His Early Childhood, a Garden) deals with a fictionalized aftermath of the Grams shooting in 1993.
  • Josef Láček, a Czech painter created a series of paintings entitled Yo'qotilgan kosmosda qidirish 1993 yil[79] that were inspired by events that had occurred in 1993 in Yomon Klaynen.
  • In 1996, British singer songwriter Lyuk Xayns released a 9-track album under the Baader Meinhof moniker. In this concept album, all songs are a romanticized retelling of the RAF actions.
  • Bryus LaBruc 2004 yilgi film Malinali reyx is an erotic satire of the RAF and of terror chic.
  • 2003 yilda, Uzoq qish released the song "Cinnamon," about the Baader-Meinhof gang.
  • In 2004, Canadian singer songwriter Nil Leyton composed and released a song entitled "Ingrid Shubert."
  • Australian-British playwright Van Badham o'yin Qora qo'llar / o'lik qism provides a fictionalized account of the actions and lives of key members of the RAF. Bu g'alaba qozondi Queensland Premier's Literary Awards 2005 yilda.
  • The 2005 feature film Regis Debrayda ko'rishguncha, written and directed by CS Leigh tells the story of the time Andreas Baader spent hiding in the apartment of Régis Debray in Paris in 1969.
  • The 2011 album Amok nemis guruhi tomonidan Vena Morloch features the song "Die Nacht der Stumpfen Messer" which deals with Andreas Baader va Gudrun Ensslin 's suicide in prison.

Izohlar

  1. ^ See the section "Ism "
  2. ^ The RAF described itself as a communist and antiimperialistik shahar partizanlari group engaged in armed qarshilik against what they deemed to be a fashist davlat. As such, members of the RAF generally used the Marksist-leninchi muddat "fraksiya " when they wrote in English.[1]
  3. ^ "24 June 1976: The West German parliament passes the Germaniya favqulodda aktlari which criminalizes 'supporting or participating in a terrorist organization,' into the Asosiy qonun." (Smith & Moncourt 2009, p. 601); "Dümlein Christine, ... Joined the RAF in 1980, ... the only crime she was guilty of was membership in a terrorist organization" (Smith & Moncourt 2009, p. 566).
  4. ^ In Leninist terminology a "fraction" is a subset of a larger communist movement. For example, the 12 July 1921 "Theses on the Structure of Communist Parties, submitted to the Third Congress of the Comintern" states that "to carry out daily party work every member should as a rule belong to a small working group, a committee, a commission, a fraction, or a cell." Cited in Louis Proyect, "The Comintern and the German Communist Party;" or the description of the "Bolshevik-Leninist Fraction" in the article Kommunistlar ligasi (Buyuk Britaniya, 1932).
  5. ^ In Germany, lifelong imprisoned convicts can apply for parole after 15 years – a period in this case extended by the court due to the amount of the crimes – which is to be granted whenever the convict's freedom is no longer dangerous to the public.

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/61/206.html.
  2. ^ "Baader-Meinhof Gang" at Baader-Meinhof.com. Arxivlandi 21 June 2008 at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  3. ^ "The other terrorists we have trouble naming | The Spectator". Tomoshabin. 2015 yil 11-iyul.
  4. ^ Passmore, L. (3 November 2011). Ulrike Meinhof and the Red Army Faction: Performing Terrorism. Springer. ISBN  9780230370777.
  5. ^ Bay, Charles Nord (1986). The Red Army Faction: Four Generations of Terror. Mudofaa texnik ma'lumot markazi.
  6. ^ IM.NRW.de Arxivlandi 2008 yil 2-dekabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, Innenministerium Nordrhein-Westfalen: Revolutionäre Zellen und Rote Zora.
  7. ^ a b "RAF-Auflösungserklärung" (nemis tilida).
  8. ^ Verfassungsschutzbericht Nordrhein-Westfalen 2001: "Rote Armee Fraktion", 2001, pp. 42 ff. (Arxivlandi 14 September 2004 at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi )
  9. ^ Scribner, Charity. "Buildings on Fire: The Situationist International and the Red Army Faction". Grey Room, 2007 yil qish
  10. ^ a b Taunsend, Charlz. Terrorism, A Very Short Introduction. Oksford universiteti matbuoti ISBN  978-0-19-280168-5.
  11. ^ Mary Lean, "One Family's Berlin" Arxivlandi 23 Noyabr 2010 da Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, O'zgarishlar tashabbuslari, 1 August 1988; The Sovietization of East German, Czech, and Polish Higher Education, 1945–1956 Arxivlandi 2007 yil 9-iyun kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi. (Denazification varied greatly across occupied/post-occupied Europe.)
  12. ^ a b Center for History, "Allianz in the Years 1933–1945 – Limits of denazification" Arxivlandi 2009 yil 6-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi; Lord Paddy Ashdown, "Winning the Peace" Arxivlandi 8 August 2007 at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, BBC World Service Website.
  13. ^ Major, Patrick (1997). The Death of the KPD: Communism and Anti-Communism in West Germany, 1945–1956. Oksford universiteti matbuoti, AQSH. p. 16. ISBN  0198206933.
  14. ^ Garold Markuz, "The Revival of Holocaust Awareness in West Germany, Israel and the United States".
  15. ^ Arthur B. Gunlicks, "Civil Liberties in the German Public Service", Siyosat sharhi, Jild 53 No. 2, Spring 1991. (extract)
  16. ^ Harold Marcuse. Dachau merosi: Kontsentratsion lagerning ishlatilishi va suiiste'mollari, 1933-2001, Kembrij universiteti matbuoti, 2001,ISBN  978-0-521-55204-2, ISBN  978-0-521-55204-2. p. 314
  17. ^ Walter Benjamin and the Red Army Faction – Irving Wohlfarth in Radical Philosophy 152
  18. ^ Peter-Erwin Jansen, "Student Movements in Germany, 1968–1984", Salbiy (Elektron jurnal ), No. 3, Fall 1998.
  19. ^ ""State-Fetishism": some remarks concerning the Red Army Faction, by A. Grossman". Olingan 11 fevral 2015.
  20. ^ Scribner, Charity. "Buildings on Fire: The Situationist International and the Red Army Faction". Grey Room, Winter 2007, pp. 30–55.
  21. ^ Interview with Action Direct member Joelle Aubron Arxivlandi 2012 yil 5-dekabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi regarding early influences on European guerrilla groups – retrieved 31 August 2007.
  22. ^ Red Army Faction, "The Urban Guerilla Concept" (many of the documents of this period are ascribed to Ulrike Meinhof) (see also attached notes) retrieved 31 August 2007.; Peter-Erwin Jansen, "Student Movements in Germany, 1968–1984", Salbiy (Elektron jurnal ), No. 3, Fall 1998.
  23. ^ Michael A. Lebowitz, Kapitaldan tashqarida - Marksning ishchi sinfining siyosiy iqtisodiyoti, Palgrave 2003, p. 27. ISBN  978-0-333-96430-9.
  24. ^ "Kristofer Xitchens Baader Meinhof majmuasida". Vanity Fair. Olingan 11 fevral 2015.
  25. ^ "Yopiq materiallar protseduralari, Rudi Dutschke va King's". kingsreview.co.uk. 2013 yil 22 mart.
  26. ^ Joshua Keatingning so'zlaridan iqtibos keltirilgan: "Germaniyaning mashinalarini yoqish to'lqini Amerikaga keldimi?" Tashqi siyosat blogi http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/01/03/has_germanys_car_arson_wave_come_to_america
  27. ^ a b Nemislarni yoqib yuborgan o'yin tomonidan Fred Kaplan, The New York Times, 2009 yil 12-avgust
  28. ^ "" Qizil armiyani qurish "uchun terroristik chaqiriq (1970 yil 5-iyun)". Nemis tarixi hujjatlar va rasmlarda. Germaniya tarix instituti. Olingan 9 aprel 2017.
  29. ^ Karlos Marighella, Shahar partizanining minimanuali, da marxists.org
  30. ^ Marxists.org Arxivlandi 2007 yil 22-avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, Marksistlar internet arxivi. Marighella ta'siri haqida xulosa - 2007 yil 31 avgustda olingan; Kristofer C. Xarmon, "Umumiy hamkorlik: demokratiya va terrorizmga qarshi chiqish" Arxivlandi 2007 yil 14 avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, Qog'ozlar va tadqiqotlar, Bangladesh Xalqaro va Strategik tadqiqotlar instituti, 2002 yil iyul - 9-yozuv va unga tegishli matn bilan cheklangan kirish ushbu veb-saytga 2008 yil 21-iyun.
  31. ^ "Qizil armiyani barpo eting!", dastlab nemis tilida nashr etilgan 883 jurnal, 1970 yil 5-iyun.
  32. ^ Noaniq, T., 1963-1994 yillarda "Qizil Armiya fraktsiyasi" hikoyasi, Edinburg 1994, p. 51
  33. ^ Stern, 1975 yil 24-son[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]
  34. ^ Bosh prokuror Zigfrid Bubak bilan intervyu: Der Spiegel, 1976 yil 16-fevral
  35. ^ a b v d e f Ditfurth, Jutta (2007). Ulrike Meinhof: Die Biography. Ullshteyn. ISBN  978-3550087288.
  36. ^ Der Spiegel 1976 yil 19-may[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]
  37. ^ Stern 1973 yil 2-son[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]
  38. ^ Bakker Shut: Stammxaym. p. 569
  39. ^ texte der Raf 496-503 betlar
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Bibliografiya

  • Kraushaar, Volfgang (2006), Die RAF und der linke Terrorismus [RAF va chap tomondagi terrorizm] (nemis tilida), Men, Hamburger Edition HIS Verlagsges. mbH, ISBN  978-3-936 096-65-1
  • Terxoven, Petra (2013), Deutscher Herbst Evropada: Der Linksterrorismus der siebziger Jahre als transnationales Phänomen [Evropadagi nemis kuzi: 70-yillardagi terrorizm transmilliy hodisa sifatida] (nemis tilida), Valter de Gruyter, ISBN  9783486855586

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