Suv ostida sho'ng'in - Underwater diving

Suv osti ish joyiga sahnaga chiqish uchun sirt bilan ta'minlangan g'avvoslar

Suv ostida sho'ng'in, inson faoliyati sifatida atrof-muhit bilan ta'sir o'tkazish uchun suv sathidan pastga tushish amaliyotidir.Suvdagi immersiya va atrof-muhitning yuqori bosimiga ta'sir qilish fiziologik ta'sirga ega bo'lib, chuqurlik va davomiylikni cheklaydi atrof-muhit bosimi sho'ng'in Odamlar fiziologik va anatomik jihatdan sho'ng'inning atrof-muhit sharoitlariga mos kelmagan va odamlarning sho'ng'in chuqurligi va davomiyligini oshirish uchun turli xil uskunalar ishlab chiqilgan va har xil turdagi ishlarni bajarishga imkon beradi.

Atrofdagi bosimga sho'ng'ishda sho'ng'in to'g'ridan-to'g'ri atrofdagi suv bosimiga ta'sir qiladi. Atrof-muhit bosimi sho'ng'inchisi nafasni ushlab turishga sho'ng'ishi yoki nafas olish moslamalarini ishlatishi mumkin akvalang yordamida suv ostida suzish yoki sho'ng'in, va to'yinganlik sho'ng'in texnika xavfini kamaytiradi dekompressiya kasalligi (DCS) uzoq muddatli chuqur sho'ng'inlardan so'ng. Atmosfera sho'ng'in kostyumlari (ADS) diverni atrof-muhitning yuqori bosimidan ajratish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin. Ekipaj suv osti kemalari chuqurlik oralig'ini kengaytirishi va masofadan boshqariladigan yoki robotlashtirilgan mashinalar odamlar uchun xavfni kamaytirishi mumkin.

Atrof-muhit g'avvosni turli xil xavf-xatarlarga duchor qiladi, ammo xatarlar asosan tegishli tomonidan nazorat qilinadi sho'ng'in qobiliyatlari, trening, turlari uskunalar va nafas olish gazlari sho'ng'in rejimi, chuqurligi va maqsadiga qarab ishlatiladi, bu nisbatan xavfli faoliyat bo'lib qoladi. Sho'ng'in mashg'ulotlari sho'ng'in uchun maksimal sho'ng'in uchun taxminan 40 metr (130 fut), tijorat bilan to'yingan sho'ng'in uchun 530 metr (1,740 fut) va atmosfera kostyumlari bilan 610 metr (2000 fut) gacha cheklangan. Sho'ng'in ham xavfli bo'lmagan sharoitlarda cheklangan, ammo qabul qilinadigan xavf darajasi har xil bo'lishi mumkin.

Dam olish uchun sho'ng'in (ba'zida sportga sho'ng'in yoki subakuatika deb ham atashadi) - bu bo'sh vaqtni ommalashtirish. Texnik sho'ng'in ayniqsa qiyin sharoitlarda sho'ng'in sho'ng'in shakli. Professional sho'ng'in (tijorat bilan sho'ng'in qilish, tadqiqot maqsadida yoki moliyaviy maqsadlar uchun sho'ng'in qilish) suv ostida ishlashni o'z ichiga oladi. Jamoat xavfsizligi sho'ng'in bu huquqni muhofaza qilish idoralari, yong'indan qutqarish va suv ostida qidirish va tiklash sho'ng'in jamoalari. Harbiy sho'ng'in jangovar sho'ng'in, sho'ng'in sho'ng'in va kemachilik.Chuqur dengizga sho'ng'in suv osti sho'ng'inidir, odatda er usti jihozlari bilan ta'minlanadi va ko'pincha ulardan foydalanishni anglatadi sho'ng'in uchun standart kiyim an'anaviy mis dubulg'a bilan. Qattiq shapka sho'ng'in - a bilan sho'ng'ishning har qanday shakli dubulg'a, shu jumladan standart mis dubulg'asi va boshqa shakllari erkin oqim va talabga javob beradigan engil dubulg'alar.Nafas olish bilan sho'ng'in tarixi hech bo'lmaganda mumtoz davrlarga borib taqaladi va tarixdan oldingi dalillar mavjud ov qilish va yig'ish suv ostida suzish bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan dengiz maxsulotlari. Yaqinda suv ostida g'avvosni atrof-muhit bosimi ostida nafas olish gazi bilan ta'minlashga imkon beradigan texnik yutuqlar va o'z-o'zidan ta'minlangan nafas olish tizimlari quyidagi tezlashtirilgan tezlikda rivojlandi. Ikkinchi jahon urushi.

Sho'ng'in bo'yicha fiziologik cheklovlar

Suvga cho'mish va sovuq suvga ta'sir qilish va yuqori bosim g'avvosga fiziologik ta'sir ko'rsatadi, bu esa atrofdagi bosimga sho'ng'ishda chuqurlik va davomiylikni cheklaydi. Nafasni ushlab turish chidamliligi jiddiy cheklovdir va atrof muhitning yuqori bosimida nafas olish bevosita va bilvosita qo'shimcha asoratlarni keltirib chiqaradi. Texnologik echimlar ishlab chiqilgan bo'lib, ular atrofdagi odamlarga bosim ostida sho'ng'in chuqurligi va davomiyligini ancha kengaytirishi va suv ostida foydali ish olib borishiga imkon beradi.^[1]

Suvga cho'mish

Inson tanasining suvga botishi ta'sir qiladi tiraj, buyrak tizimi, suyuqlik muvozanati va nafas olish, chunki tashqi gidrostatik bosim suv qonning ichki gidrostatik bosimiga qarshi yordam beradi. Bu sabab bo'ladi qon siljishi dan ekstravaskulyar oyoq-qo'llarining to'qimalari ko'krak bo'shlig'iga,^[2] va ma'lum bo'lgan suyuqlik yo'qotishlari immersion diurez suvga cho'mgandan keyin tez orada gidratlangan predmetlarda qon siljishini qoplash.^[3][2] Cho'kishdan boshlangan tanadagi gidrostatik bosim salbiy bosimni keltirib chiqaradi va bu qonning siljishiga yordam beradi.^[3]

Qon siljishi nafas olish va yurak ishlarining ko'payishiga olib keladi. Qon tomirlari hajmiga immersiya yoki atrofdagi bosimning o'zgarishi katta ta'sir ko'rsatmaydi, ammo yurak urishini sekinlashtirdi umumiy yurak faoliyatini pasaytiradi, ayniqsa sho'ng'in refleksi yilda sho'ng'in.^[2] Qorin bo'shlig'ini gidrostatik bosimdan kranial siljishi tufayli o'pka hajmi tik holatida pasayadi va o'pka hajmining pasayishi tufayli havo yo'llarida havo oqimiga qarshilik kuchayadi.^[3] O'rtasida bog'liqlik bor ko'rinadi o'pka shishi va o'pkada qon oqimi va bosimining oshishi, bu esa kapillyar qo'shilishiga olib keladi. Bu suvga botganda yoki suvga cho'mganda yuqori intensiv mashqlar paytida yuz berishi mumkin.^[2]

Chalinish xavfi

Sovuq shokka javob bo'ladi fiziologik organizmlarning to'satdan sovuqqa, ayniqsa sovuq suvga bo'lgan munosabati va juda sovuq suvga cho'mish natijasida o'limning keng tarqalgan sababi,^[4] masalan, ingichka muzdan tushish orqali. Sovuqning darhol zarbasi beixtiyor nafas olishni keltirib chiqaradi, agar suv ostida cho'kib ketishi mumkin bo'lsa. Sovuq suv vazokonstriksiya tufayli yurak xurujiga ham sabab bo'lishi mumkin;^[5] butun vujudga bir xil miqdordagi qon quyish uchun yurak ko'proq ishlashi kerak va yurak xastaligi bo'lgan odamlar uchun bu qo'shimcha ish yuki yurakni hibsga olishga olib kelishi mumkin. Sovuq suvga tushgandan keyin dastlabki daqiqada omon qolgan odam, cho'kib ketmaslik sharti bilan kamida o'ttiz daqiqa omon qolishi mumkin. Suvda qolish qobiliyati taxminan o'n daqiqadan so'ng pasayadi, chunki sovutilgan mushaklar kuchini va koordinatsiyasini yo'qotadi.^[4]

The sho'ng'in refleksi asosiy gomeostatikani bekor qiladigan immersiyaga javobdir reflekslar.^[6][7] Bu optimallashtiradi nafas olish yurak va miyaga kislorod zaxiralarini imtiyozli ravishda tarqatish orqali suv ostida uzoq vaqt yurish mumkin. U kuchli namoyish etiladi suvda yashovchi sutemizuvchilar (muhrlar,^[8] suvarilar, delfinlar va mushkratlar ),^[9] va boshqa sutemizuvchilarda, shu jumladan mavjud odamlar. Sho'ng'in qushlar, kabi pingvinlar, shunga o'xshash sho'ng'in refleksiga ega.^[6] Sho'ng'in refleksi yuzni sovutish va nafasni ushlab turish bilan boshlanadi.^[6][10] Yurak-qon tomir tizimi periferik qon tomirlarini toraytiradi, pulsning tezligini pasaytiradi, qonni kislorodni tejash uchun muhim organlarga yo'naltiradi, tarkibida joylashgan qizil qon hujayralarini chiqaradi. taloq, va odamlarda yurak ritmining buzilishini keltirib chiqaradi.^[6] Suvda yashovchi sutemizuvchilar suv ostida cho‘kish paytida kislorodni tejash uchun fiziologik moslashuvlarni rivojlantirdilar, ammo apnea, pulsning pasayishi va vazokonstriksiya quruqlikdagi sutemizuvchilar bilan bo‘lishadi.^[7]

Gipotermiya tana ishlab chiqargandan ko'ra ko'proq issiqlik yo'qotganda sodir bo'ladigan tana harorati pasayadi.^[11] Hipotermiya - bu sovuq suvda suzish yoki sho'ng'ishning asosiy cheklovi.^[12] Og'riq yoki uyqusizlik tufayli barmoqlarning qobiliyatining pasayishi umumiy xavfsizlik va ish qobiliyatini pasaytiradi, bu esa boshqa jarohatlar xavfini oshiradi.^[12][13] Tana issiqligi suvda havoga qaraganda tezroq yo'qoladi, shuning uchun tashqi havo harorati ko'tarilishi mumkin bo'lgan suv harorati gipotermiyaga olib kelishi mumkin, bu esa etarli darajada himoyalanmagan g'avvoslarda boshqa sabablarga ko'ra o'limga olib kelishi mumkin.^[12]

Nafas olishni cheklash

Havodan nafas oluvchi hayvonlar tomonidan nafasni ushlab turuvchi sho'ng'in mavjud bo'lgan kislorodga sho'ng'inni fiziologik qobiliyati bilan cheklanadi, u yangi nafas oladigan gaz manbasiga, odatda er usti havosiga qaytguncha. Ushbu ichki kislorod ta'minoti kamayganligi sababli, hayvon tufayli nafas olish istagi kuchaymoqda karbonat angidridning ko'payishi va laktat qonda,^[14] tufayli ongni yo'qotish markaziy asab tizimining gipoksiyasi. Agar bu suv ostida sodir bo'lsa, u g'arq bo'ladi.^[15]

Ozodlik berishda o'chirish ongni yo'qotishiga olib keladigan kislorodning qisman bosimini kamaytirish uchun metabolik faollik uchun nafasni uzoq ushlab turganda paydo bo'lishi mumkin. Bu kislorodni tezroq ishlatadigan kuch bilan yoki qondagi karbonat angidrid darajasini pasaytiradigan giperventiliya bilan tezlashadi. Karbonat angidridning past darajasi kislorod-gemoglobin yaqinligini oshiradi va sho'ng'in oxiriga kelib miya to'qimalarida kislorod mavjudligini kamaytiradi (Bor ta'siri ); ular shuningdek, nafas olish ishtiyoqini bostiradi, shu bilan nafasni qorayguncha ushlab turishni osonlashtiradi. Bu har qanday chuqurlikda sodir bo'lishi mumkin.^[16][17]

Ko'tarilishdan kelib chiqadigan gipoksiya atrof-muhit bosimi pasayganligi sababli kislorod qisman bosimining pasayishi natijasida yuzaga keladi. Chuqurlikdagi kislorodning qisman bosimi ongni ushlab turish uchun etarli bo'lishi mumkin, lekin faqat shu chuqurlikda va sirtga yaqin bosimning pasayishida emas.^[15][17][18]

Atrof muhit bosimi o'zgaradi

Niqob siqishidan kelib chiqqan dalgıçka engil barotravma

Barotrauma, misol disbarizm, bu farq tufayli tana to'qimalariga jismoniy zarar etkazishdir bosim ichidagi yoki tanaga tegib turgan gaz bo'shlig'i bilan atrofdagi gaz yoki suyuqlik o'rtasida.^[19] Odatda organizm atrof-muhit bosimining katta o'zgarishiga duch kelganida, masalan, sho'ng'in ko'tarilganda yoki tushganda paydo bo'ladi. Sho'ng'in paytida barotravmani keltirib chiqaradigan bosim farqlari gidrostatik bosimning o'zgarishi hisoblanadi.^[20]

Dastlabki zarar, odatda, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yopiq kosmosda gazning kengayishi yoki to'qima orqali gidrostatik ravishda uzatiladigan bosim farqi tufayli to'qimalarni keskinlik yoki siljish paytida haddan tashqari cho'zish natijasida yuzaga keladi.^[19]

Barotrauma odatda sinus yoki o'rta quloq effekti, DCS, o'pkaning haddan tashqari kengayishi va tashqi siqilish natijasida paydo bo'ladigan shikastlanishlar kabi namoyon bo'ladi.^[19] Barotravmalar tushkunlikka tushadigan yopiq kosmosdagi gaz hajmining erkin o'zgarishini oldini olish natijasida kelib chiqadi, natijada to'qimalar va gaz bo'shlig'i o'rtasida bosim farqi paydo bo'ladi va bu bosim farqi tufayli muvozanatsiz kuch deformatsiyani keltirib chiqaradi. hujayralar yorilishiga olib keladigan to'qimalar.^[19] Ko'tarilish barotravmalari, shuningdek, g'avvos bilan aloqa qilganda yopiq kosmosdagi gaz hajmining erkin o'zgarishi oldini olganda ham yuzaga keladi. Bunday holda bosim farqi atrofdagi to'qimalarda keskinlikni keltirib chiqaradi va bu ularning tortishish kuchidan oshib ketadi. Haddan tashqari bosim to'qimalarning yorilishidan tashqari, gazlarning to'qimalarga kirib ketishiga va qon aylanish tizimi orqali uzoqlashishiga olib kelishi mumkin. Bu uzoqdagi joylarda qon aylanishini to'sib qo'yishi yoki uning mavjudligi bilan organning normal ishlashiga xalaqit berishi mumkin.^[19]

Bosim ostida nafas olish

Atrofdagi bosim ostida nafas olish gazi bilan ta'minlanish sho'ng'in vaqtini ancha uzaytirishi mumkin, ammo bu texnologik echim natijasida boshqa muammolar ham bo'lishi mumkin. Metabolik inert gazlarning yutilishi vaqt va bosim ta'sirida kuchayadi va ularning ikkalasi ham darhol istalmagan ta'sirlarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin, masalan, eritilgan holatdagi to'qimalarda ularning mavjudligi. azotli narkoz va yuqori bosimli asab sindromi,^[21][22] yoki to'qima ichidagi eritmadan chiqishda muammolarni keltirib chiqaradi dekompressiya.^[23]

Metabolik faol gazlarning kontsentratsiyasi oshganda boshqa muammolar paydo bo'ladi. Ular orasida kislorodning toksik ta'siri yuqori qisman bosim ostida,^[24] orqali karbonat angidridning ko'payishi ortiqcha nafas olish ishi tufayli, ko'paygan o'lik bo'shliq,^[25] yoki yuqori bosimda konsentratsiyaning oshishi sababli nafas olayotgan gaz tarkibidagi ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning toksik ta'sirini kuchayishiga qadar samarasiz olib tashlash.^[26] O'pka ichki qismi va nafas olish gazini etkazib berish o'rtasidagi gidrostatik bosim farqlari, atrof-muhit bosimi tufayli nafas olish gazining zichligi oshishi va yuqori nafas olish tezligi tufayli oqim qarshiligining ortishi sabab bo'lishi mumkin. nafas olish ishi va nafas olish mushaklarining charchashi.^[2]

Sensor buzilishi

Suv ustida va pastda tekis niqob orqali ko'rish

Suv ostida ko'rish aniqligi va ta'sir qiladi sinish ko'rsatkichi o'rta. Suv ostida ko'rinish kamayadi, chunki suvdan o'tgan yorug'lik masofa bilan tez susayib, tabiiy yorug'likning past darajalariga olib keladi. Suv ostidagi narsalar, shuningdek, ob'ekt va tomoshabin o'rtasida yorug'likning tarqalishi bilan xiralashadi, natijada kontrast past bo'ladi. Ushbu effektlar yorug'likning to'lqin uzunligiga qarab o'zgaradi va rang va loyqalik suv. Inson ko'zi havoni ko'rish uchun optimallashtirilgan va u suv bilan bevosita aloqada bo'lganida, ko'rish keskinligi suv va havo o'rtasidagi sinish ko'rsatkichi farqiga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda. Shox parda va suv o'rtasida havo maydonini ta'minlash kompensatsiyani qoplashi mumkin, ammo o'lchov va masofani buzilishiga olib keladi. Sun'iy yorug'lik qisqa masofada ko'rinishni yaxshilashi mumkin.^[27] Stereoskopik keskinlik, turli xil narsalarning nisbiy masofalarini aniqlash qobiliyati suv ostida sezilarli darajada kamayadi va bunga ko'rish sohasi ta'sir qiladi. Kichkina ko'rinish oynasi zarbdan kelib chiqqan tor ko'rish maydoni stereoakutni sezilarli darajada pasayishiga olib keladi,^[27] va bosh siljiganida harakatsiz narsaning ko'rinadigan harakati.^[28] Ushbu effektlar qo'l-ko'zni yomonroq muvofiqlashtirishga olib keladi.^[27]

Suv boshqacha akustik xususiyatlar havodan. Suv osti manbasidan chiqadigan tovush tana to'qimalari orqali nisbatan erkin tarqalishi mumkin, bu erda akustik xususiyatlari o'xshash. Bosh suvga ta'sir qilganda, ba'zi tovushlar quloq pardasi va o'rta quloq orqali uzatiladi, ammo muhim qismi kokleaga mustaqil ravishda, suyak o'tkazuvchanligi orqali etib boradi.^[29][30] Biroz tovushni lokalizatsiya qilish qiyin bo'lsa-da, mumkin.^[29] Suv ostida odamning eshitish qobiliyati, g'avvosning qulog'i nam bo'lgan hollarda, havoga nisbatan sezgir emas.^[29] Suv ostida chastota sezgirligi ham havodan farq qiladi, suv ostida eshitishning doimiy yuqori chegarasi mavjud; yuqori chastotali tovushlarga nisbatan sezgirlik eng past darajada kamayadi.^[29] Bosh kiyimining turi shovqin sezgirligi va shovqin xavfiga ta'sir qiladi, chunki uning uzatilishi nam yoki quruq.^[29] Odamning suv ostida eshitishlari nam quloqlarga nisbatan havodan kam sezgir va neoprenli kapot sezilarli darajada susayadi. Dubulg'a kiyganda eshitish sezgirligi er usti havosiga o'xshaydi, chunki unga nafas oluvchi gaz yoki kameralar atmosferasi tarkibi yoki bosimi katta ta'sir ko'rsatmaydi.^[29] Chunki ovoz havodan, ovozdan ko'ra, gelioksda tezroq tarqaladi formants ko'tarilib, g'avvoslarning nutqini baland va buzuq qilib, unga odatlanmagan odamlar uchun tushunish qiyin.^[31] Bosim ostida nafas olish gazlarining zichligi oshishi shunga o'xshash va qo'shimcha ta'sirga ega.^[32]

Dalgıçlarda sensorli sensorli hislar atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish kostyumi va past harorat tufayli buzilishi mumkin. Suvning inertsional va yopishqoq ta'siridan beqarorlik, uskunalar, neytral suzish va harakatga qarshilikning kombinatsiyasi g'avvosni qamrab oladi. Sovuq hissiy va motor funktsiyalarida yo'qotishlarni keltirib chiqaradi va kognitiv faoliyatni chalg'itadi va buzadi. Katta va aniq kuch ishlatish qobiliyati pasayadi.^[33]

Balans muvozanat vestibulyar funktsiyaga va muvozanatni ta'minlash uchun markaziy asab tizimi tomonidan qayta ishlanadigan vizual, organik, teri, kinestetik va ba'zan eshitish sezgilarining ikkinchi darajali kiritilishiga bog'liq. Suv ostida ushbu ma'lumotlarning ba'zilari yo'q bo'lishi yoki kamayishi mumkin, shuning uchun qolgan ko'rsatmalar muhimroq bo'ladi. Qarama-qarshi kirish vertigo, yo'nalishni buzish va harakat kasalligi. Vestibulyar tuyg'u ushbu sharoitda tez, murakkab va aniq harakat qilish uchun juda muhimdir.^[33] Proprioseptiv idrok qilish vestibulyar va vizual kirish bilan birgalikda g'avvosni shaxsiy pozitsiyasi va harakati to'g'risida xabardor qiladi va suvda jismoniy muvozanat va muvozanatni saqlashda g'avvosning samarali ishlashiga imkon beradi.^[33] Suvda neytral suzishda pozitsiyaning proprioseptiv belgilari kamayadi yoki yo'q. G'avvosning kostyumi va boshqa jihozlari bu ta'sirni kuchaytirishi mumkin.^[33]

Taste va hidi suvdagi g'avvos uchun juda muhim emas, balki turar joy kameralarida bo'lganida to'yinganlik uchun juda muhimdir. Uzoq vaqt davomida bosim ostida ta'm va hid hidi chegarasi biroz pasayganligi haqida dalillar mavjud.^[33]

Sho'ng'in rejimlari

Ga asoslangan sho'ng'inning bir nechta usullari mavjud sho'ng'in uskunalari ishlatilgan.

Ozodlik

Qisqichbaqasimon va qisqichbaqasimon baliqlarni yig'ish uchun mos keladigan suzib yuradigan va ushlab turadigan sumkalari bo'lgan asosiy jihozlarda dam oladigan dam oluvchilar

Nafasni ushlab turgan holda suv ostida sho'ng'in va suzish qobiliyati foydali favqulodda vaziyat mahorati, suv sporti va dengiz floti xavfsizligi mashg'ulotlarining muhim qismi va bo'sh vaqtni yoqimli o'tkazish deb hisoblanadi.^[34] Nafas olish apparati bo'lmagan suv osti sho'ng'inlari suv ostida suzish, snorkeling va ozod qilish. Ushbu toifalar bir-biriga juda mos keladi. Bir nechta raqobatdosh suv osti sport turlari nafas olish apparatlarisiz mashq qilinadi.^{[35][36][37][38][39]}

Freediving tashqi nafas olish moslamalarini ishlatishni istisno qiladi va g'avvoslarning nafas olishlari qayta tiklanguniga qadar ushlab turish qobiliyatiga tayanadi. Texnika oddiy nafas olish bilan sho'ng'ishdan raqobatbardoshgacha apnea sho'ng'in. Fins va sho'ng'in niqobi tez-tez ko'rishni yaxshilash va yanada samarali harakatlanishni ta'minlash uchun bepul sho'ng'in paytida ishlatiladi. Shnorkel deb nomlangan qisqa nafas olish naychasi, sho'ng'in yuzga cho'milganda sirt ustida nafas olishiga imkon beradi. Snorkelling sho'ng'in niyatisiz suv yuzida mashhur suv sporti va ko'ngil ochish mashg'ulotlari mavjud.^[34][40]

Akvalang yordamida suv ostida suzish

Ochiq tutashuv va qayta tiklash rejimlarida suv osti sho'ng'inlari

Ochiq kontaktlarning zanglashiga sho'ng'in sho'ng'inlari

Portlovchi moddalarni yo'q qilish g'avvoslar qayta tiklanadigan vositalardan foydalanadilar

Sho'ng'in sho'ng'in - a suv osti nafas olish apparati, bu sirt ta'minotidan butunlay mustaqil. Scuba sho'ng'in harakatchanligini va gorizontal diapazonni sirt bilan ta'minlanadigan sho'ng'in uskunasiga (SSDE) biriktirilgan kindik shlangidan ancha uzoqroqqa beradi.^[41]Qurolli kuchlarning yashirin operatsiyalari bilan shug'ullanadigan akvatorlar deb atash mumkin qurbaqalar, g'avvoslarga qarshi kurash yoki suzuvchilarga hujum qilish.^[42]

Ochiq tutashuvli suvosti tizimlari nafas olayotgan gazni atrofga chiqarganda atrofga chiqarib yuboradi va bir yoki bir nechtasidan iborat sho'ng'in tsilindrlari yuqori bosim ostida nafas oluvchi gazni o'z ichiga oladi, u sho'ng'inchiga a orqali beriladi sho'ng'in regulyatori. Ular dekompressiya gazi yoki favqulodda nafas olish gazi uchun qo'shimcha tsilindrlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.^[43]

Yopiq yoki yarim yopiq elektron qayta tiklanadigan suv osti tizimlari ekshalatsiyalangan gazlarni qayta ishlashga imkon beradi. Ishlatiladigan gaz hajmi ochiq elektronga nisbatan kamayadi, shuning uchun ekvivalent sho'ng'in davomiyligi uchun kichikroq silindr yoki silindrlardan foydalanish mumkin. Ular suv ostida o'tkazadigan vaqtni bir xil gaz sarfi bilan taqqoslaganda ancha uzaytiradilar. Qayta nafas oluvchilar balg'amga qaraganda kamroq pufakchalar va kamroq shovqin hosil qiladilar, bu ularni yashirin harbiy g'avvoslarni jozibador qiladi, ularni aniqlashdan saqlanish uchun ilmiy g'avvoslar, dengiz hayvonlarini bezovta qilmaslik uchun va ommaviy axborot vositalarining sho'ng'inidan xalos bo'lish uchun.^[44]

Dalgıç suv ostida suv ostida harakat qiladi qanotlari oyoqlarga bog'langan;^[45] tashqi qo'zg'alish a tomonidan ta'minlanishi mumkin dalgıç qo'zg'atuvchi vosita yoki a evakuator yuzadan tortib olingan. Boshqa uskunalar a ni o'z ichiga oladi sho'ng'in niqobi yaxshilash suv ostida ko'rish, himoya sho'ng'in kostyumi, suzishni boshqarish uchun uskunalar va sho'ng'inning o'ziga xos holatlari va maqsadlari bilan bog'liq uskunalar.^[46] Akvalang akvatorlari protseduralar va ko'nikmalar tegishli o'qituvchilar tomonidan ularning sertifikatlash darajasiga mos keladi dalgıç sertifikatlash tashkilotlari qaysi bularni chiqaradi dalgıç sertifikatlari. Bularga uskunadan foydalanish va umumiy ish bilan ishlashning standart operatsion protseduralari kiradi suv osti muhitining xavfliligi, va o'z-o'ziga yordam berish uchun favqulodda protseduralar va yordam muammolarga duch keladigan xuddi shunday jihozlangan g'avvos. Ning minimal darajasi fitness va sog'liq aksariyat o'quv tashkilotlari tomonidan talab qilinadi va ba'zi ilovalar uchun yuqori darajadagi fitness talab qilinishi mumkin.^[47]

Yuzaki sho'ng'in

Yuzaga yo'naltirilgan va to'yinganlik rejimlarida sirt bilan ta'minlanadigan sho'ng'in

Suvga kiradigan sirtga yo'naltirilgan g'avvos

Diver-transfer kapsulasi deb ham ataladigan yopiq sho'ng'in qo'ng'irog'i

Shaxsiy nafas olish tizimlariga alternativa shlang orqali yuzadan nafas olish gazlarini etkazib berishdir. Aloqa kabeli, pnevmofatometr shlangi va xavfsizlik chizig'i bilan birlashtirilganda u deyiladi g'avvosning kindigi Bu isitish uchun issiq suv shlangini, video kabelni va gazni qayta tiklash liniyasini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Faqatgina havo shlangidan foydalanadigan asosiy uskunalar "an" deb nomlanadi aviakompaniya yoki kalxat tizimi.^[48][46][49] Bu g'avvosga silindr yoki kompressordan sirtdagi havo ta'minot shlangi yordamida nafas olishga imkon beradi. Nafas olish gazi og'iz orqali ushlab turiladigan talab valfi yoki yuzga engil niqob orqali etkazib beriladi. U korpusni tozalash va arxeologik tadqiqotlar, qisqichbaqasimonlarni yig'ish va boshqalar kabi ishlar uchun ishlatiladi snuba, odatda sayyohlar va akvator sertifikati bo'lmaganlar tomonidan qo'llaniladigan sayoz suv faoliyati.^[49][50][51]

Doygunlik sho'ng'in professional g'avvoslar bir necha kun yoki bir necha hafta bosim ostida yashashlari va ishlashlariga imkon beradi. Suvda ishlagandan so'ng, g'avvoslar quruq bosim ostida dam olishadi va yashashadi suv osti yashash muhiti pastki qismida yoki a pastki qismida bosim kameralarining to'yingan hayotni qo'llab-quvvatlash tizimi sho'ng'inni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi idish, neft platformasi yoki ish chuqurligiga o'xshash bosim ostida boshqa suzuvchi platforma. Ular bosim ostida yopiq holda er usti turar joylari va suv osti ish joylari o'rtasida o'tkaziladi sho'ng'in qo'ng'irog'i. Sho'ng'in oxirida dekompressiya ko'p kunlarni talab qilishi mumkin, ammo bu har bir qisqa ta'sirdan keyin emas, balki uzoq vaqt davomida bir marotaba amalga oshirilganligi sababli, sho'ng'in uchun dekompressiya shikastlanishining umumiy xavfi va dekompressiyani o'tkazishga sarflangan umumiy vaqt kamayadi. Ushbu turdagi sho'ng'in ish samaradorligi va xavfsizligini oshirishga imkon beradi.^[52]

Tijorat g'avvoslari sho'ng'in ishlarini boshlaydigan va sho'ng'in ishlarini atmosfera bosimida tugatadigan sho'ng'in operatsiyalariga murojaat qilishadi sirtga yo'naltirilgan yoki sho'ng'in sho'ng'in.^[53] G'avvos qirg'oqdan yoki sho'ng'inni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi kemadan joylashtirilishi va sho'ng'in bilan tashilishi mumkin bosqich yoki sho'ng'in qo'ng'irog'ida. Yuzaki suv bilan ta'minlangan dalgıçlar deyarli har doim kiyishadi sho'ng'in dubulg'asi yoki to'liq yuzga sho'ng'in maskalari. Pastki gaz havo bo'lishi mumkin, nitroks, heliox yoki trimiks; dekompressiya gazlari o'xshash bo'lishi mumkin yoki toza kislorodni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.^[54] Dekompressiya protseduralariga suv ichidagi dekompressiya yoki kiradi sirt dekompressiyasi a pastki palatasi.^[55]

A ho'l qo'ng'iroq gaz bilan to'ldirilgan gumbaz sahnadan ko'ra ko'proq qulaylik va boshqaruvni ta'minlaydi va suvda uzoq vaqt bo'lishiga imkon beradi. Nam qo'ng'iroqlar havo va aralash gaz uchun ishlatiladi va g'avvoslar kislorodni 12 metr (40 fut) da siqib chiqarishi mumkin.^[54] Kichik yopiq qo'ng'iroq osonlikcha harakatga keltiriladigan tizimlar ishlab chiqilgan bo'lib, unga ikki kishilik qo'ng'iroq, ishlov berish ramkasi va bosim ostida o'tkazilgandan keyin dekompressiya uchun kamera kiradi (TUP). G'avvoslar pastki qismida havo yoki aralash gaz bilan nafas olishlari mumkin va odatda havo bilan to'ldirilgan kamera bilan tiklanadi. Ular dekompressiyaning oxiriga kelib o'rnatilgan nafas olish tizimlari (BIBS) orqali etkazib beriladigan kislorodni siqib chiqaradilar. Kichik qo'ng'iroq tizimlari pog'ona sho'ng'inini 120 metrgacha (390 fut) pastga va pastki soatlarda 2 soatgacha qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.^[54]

Birlamchi va zaxira gaz uchun yuqori bosimli gaz ballonlaridan foydalanadigan, ammo pnevmofatometr va ovozli aloqa bilan to'la dayverning kindik tizimidan foydalanadigan nisbatan ko'chma sirt gazini etkazib berish tizimi sohada "akvariumni almashtirish" nomi bilan mashhur.^[56]

Kompressor bilan sho'ng'in kabi ba'zi tropik mintaqalarda ishlatiladigan suv bilan sho'ng'inning ibtidoiy usuli Filippinlar va Karib dengizi. Dalgıçlar yarim niqob va suzgichlar bilan suzishadi va sanoat past bosimli havo bilan ta'minlanadi havo kompressori plastik naychalar orqali qayiqda. Kamaytirish valfi yo'q; g'avvos shlang uchini og'ziga talab valfi bo'lmagan holda ushlab turadi og'iz va lablar orasidan ortiqcha havoning to'kilishiga imkon beradi.^[57]

Atmosfera bosimiga sho'ng'ish

Atmosfera bosimi va uchuvchisiz sho'ng'in usullari

AQSh dengiz flotining sho'ng'in tizimi (ADS)

ROV suv osti inshootida ishlaydi

Suv osti kemalari va qattiq atmosfera sho'ng'in kostyumlari (ADS) sho'ng'inni quruq muhitda normal atmosfera bosimida o'tkazishga imkon beradi. ADS - bu a ga o'xshash kichik bir kishilik bo'g'inli suvosti zirh, bir atmosferaning ichki bosimini ushlab turganda, egilishga imkon beradigan murakkab bo'g'inlar bilan. ADS dan 700 metrgacha (2300 fut) sho'ng'ish uchun ko'p soat davomida foydalanish mumkin. Bu chuqur sho'ng'in bilan bog'liq fiziologik xavflarning aksariyatini yo'q qiladi - yo'lovchining dekompressiyasi kerak emas, maxsus gaz aralashmalariga ehtiyoj yo'q va xavfi yo'q azotli narkoz - yuqori narx, murakkab logistika va epchillikni yo'qotish hisobiga.^[58][59]

Uchuvchisiz sho'ng'in

Avtonom suv osti transport vositalari (AUV) va masofadan boshqariladigan suv osti transport vositalari (ROV) g'avvoslarning ba'zi funktsiyalarini bajarishi mumkin. Ular ko'proq chuqurlikda va xavfli sharoitlarda joylashtirilishi mumkin. AUV - bu operatordan real vaqtda kirishni talab qilmasdan suv ostida harakatlanadigan robot. AUVlar uchuvchisiz dengiz osti tizimlarining katta guruhining bir qismini tashkil etadi, bu avtonom bo'lmagan ROVlarni o'z ichiga oladi, ular operator yoki uchuvchi tomonidan kindik orqali yoki masofadan boshqarish pulti yordamida boshqariladi va quvvatlanadi. Harbiy dasturlarda AUV ko'pincha uchuvchisiz dengiz osti transport vositalari (UUV) deb nomlanadi.^[60][61]

Sho'ng'in ishlari

Sho'ng'in ishlari

Kemalarni ta'mirlash ishlari o'z ichiga olishi mumkin suv ostida payvandlash

Suv osti fotosuratlari dam olish va professional g'avvoslar tomonidan amalga oshiriladi.

Odamlar turli sabablarga ko'ra sho'ng'ishlari mumkin, ham shaxsiy, ham professional. Dam olish uchun sho'ng'in faqat lazzatlanish uchun mo'ljallangan va bir nechta ixtisoslarga ega va texnik fanlar kabi mutaxassislar tayyorlashni taklif qilish mumkin bo'lgan turli xil tadbirlar uchun ko'proq imkoniyatlarni taqdim etish g'orga sho'ng'ish, halokat sho'ng'in, muzga sho'ng'ish va chuqur sho'ng'in.^[62][63] Bir nechta suv osti sport turlari jismoniy mashqlar va raqobat uchun mavjud.^[64]

Ning turli jihatlari mavjud professional sho'ng'in bu yarim kunlik ishdan tortib, umrbod karyeraga qadar. Sho'ng'in sho'ng'in sanoati mutaxassislari o'qituvchi murabbiylar, sho'ng'in bo'yicha instruktorlar, yordamchi instruktorlar, divemasters, sho'ng'in bo'yicha qo'llanma va akvatorlar. A suv osti sho'ng'in sayyohligi sanoat mashhur sho'ng'in joylari bo'lgan mintaqalarda sho'ng'in sho'ng'inlariga xizmat ko'rsatish uchun rivojlangan. Tijorat sho'ng'in sanoat bilan bog'liq va o'z ichiga oladi qurilish ishi kabi vazifalar neftni qidirish, offshor qurilish, to'g'onni ta'mirlash va bandargoh ishlari. Tijorat dalgıçları, masalan, dengiz faoliyati bilan bog'liq vazifalarni bajarish uchun jalb qilinishi mumkin dengizga sho'ng'in qayiq va kemalarni ta'mirlash va tekshirishni o'z ichiga olgan, dengizni qutqarish yoki akvakultura.^[65][66][67]

Sho'ng'inning boshqa maxsus yo'nalishlari kiradi harbiy sho'ng'in, uzoq yillik harbiy tarixga ega qurbaqalar turli rollarda. Ular to'g'ridan-to'g'ri jang, razvedka, dushman saflari ortiga kirib borish, minalarni joylashtirish, shu jumladan rollarni bajarishi mumkin. bomba yo'q qilish yoki muhandislik operatsiyalari.^[68]

Fuqarolik operatsiyalarida, politsiya sho'ng'in bo'linmalar qidiruv-qutqaruv ishlarini olib boradi va dalillarni tiklaydi. Ba'zi hollarda dalgıç qutqarish jamoalar ham a tarkibiga kirishi mumkin o't o'chirish bo'limi, tibbiyot xizmati, dengizni qutqarish yoki Qutqaruvchi birlik, va bu quyidagicha tasniflanishi mumkin jamoat xavfsizligi sho'ng'in.^[69][70] Kabi professional g'avvoslar ham mavjud suv osti fotograflari va videograflar, suv osti dunyosini yozib olgan va ilmiy g'avvoslar suv osti muhitini o'z ichiga olgan o'rganish sohalarida, shu jumladan dengiz biologlari, geologlar, gidrologlar, okeanograflar va suv osti arxeologlari.^[71][67][72]

Suv osti sho'ng'in uskunalari va suv osti sho'ng'in uskunalari o'rtasida tanlov ham qonuniy, ham moddiy-texnik cheklovlarga asoslanadi. G'avvos harakatchanlik va katta harakatlanishni talab qiladigan joyda, xavfsizlik va qonuniy cheklovlar imkon bersa, odatda suv osti suvi tanlovidir. Xavf darajasi yuqori bo'lgan ishlar, xususan tijorat sho'ng'inlari, qonunchilik va amaliyot qoidalari bilan er usti jihozlari bilan cheklanishi mumkin.^[48][72][73]

Tarix

Sho'ng'in tarixi

XVI asr Islom rasmlari ning Buyuk Aleksandr shisha sho'ng'in qo'ng'irog'iga tushirildi

Ikkita g'avvos, biri kiygan Tritoniya ADS va boshqa standart sho'ng'in kiyimi, vayronagarchilikni o'rganishga tayyorlanmoqda RMS Lusitaniya, 1935

Ozodlik ov qilish va yig'ishning keng tarqalgan vositasi sifatida, ham oziq-ovqat, ham boshqa qimmatbaho manbalar uchun marvaridlar va mercan, miloddan avvalgi 4500 yilgacha bo'lgan.^[74] By klassik yunoncha va Rim marta savdo sho'ng'in kabi ilovalar shimgichni sho'ng'in va dengizni qutqarish tashkil etildi.^[75] Harbiy sho'ng'in hech bo'lmaganda orqaga qaytadi Peloponnes urushi,^[76] dam olish va sport ilovalar so'nggi rivojlanish. Texnologik rivojlanish atrof-muhit bosimi sho'ng'in tosh og'irliklari bilan boshlangan (skandalopetra ) tez tushish uchun.^[75] Sho'ng'in qo'ng'irog'i suv osti ishlari va qidiruv ishlari uchun eng qadimgi jihozlardan biridir.^[77] Uning ishlatilishi birinchi tomonidan tasvirlangan Aristotel miloddan avvalgi IV asrda.^[78] Milodiy 16-17 asrlarda, sho'ng'in qo'ng'iroqlari G'avvosga qayta tiklanadigan havo ta'minoti chuqurlik bilan ta'minlanganda yanada foydali bo'ldi,^[79] va oldinga siljiydi sho'ng'in dubulg'a - aslida g'avvosning boshini yopadigan va siqilgan havo bilan ta'minlangan miniatyura sho'ng'in qo'ng'iroqlari qo'lda ishlaydigan nasoslar - bu suv o'tkazmaydigan kostyumni dubulg'aga yopishtirish orqali yaxshilandi.^[79][80] 19-asrning boshlarida ular sho'ng'in uchun standart kiyim,^[79] bu dengiz fuqarolik muhandisligi va qutqaruv loyihalarining ancha keng doirasini amalga oshirdi.^[79][81][82]

Yuzaki ta'minlangan tizimlarning harakatlanishidagi cheklovlar ikkalasining rivojlanishiga turtki bo'ldi ochiq elektron va yopiq elektron akvarium 20-asrda, bu g'avvosga juda katta avtonomiya beradi.^[83][84][85] Ular davomida mashhur bo'ldi Ikkinchi jahon urushi uchun yashirin harbiy harakatlar va urushdan keyin ilmiy, qidiruv va qutqarish, ommaviy sho'ng'in, dam olish va texnik sho'ng'in. Og'ir erkin oqim oqimi bilan ta'minlangan mis dubulg'alari rivojlanib ketdi talabga javob beradigan engil dubulg'alar,^[79] nafas olish gazi bilan tejamkor bo'lgan, qimmatroq foydalanib chuqurroq sho'ng'in uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega geliy asosidagi nafas olish aralashmalari. Doygunlik sho'ng'in chuqur va uzoq vaqt ta'sir qilish uchun DCS xavfini kamaytirdi.^[68][86][79]

Muqobil yondashuv - bu mexanik murakkablik va cheklangan epchillik evaziga sho'ng'inni chuqurlikdagi bosimdan ajratib turadigan ADS yoki zirhli kostyum. Texnologiya birinchi bo'lib 20-asrning o'rtalarida amaliy bo'ldi.^[59][87] G'avvosni atrof-muhitdan ajratish yanada rivojlanish yo'li bilan amalga oshirildi masofadan boshqariladigan suv osti transport vositalari 20-asr oxirida operator ROVni sirtdan boshqaradigan va avtonom suv osti transport vositalari, bu operatordan butunlay voz kechadi. Ushbu rejimlarning barchasi hanuzgacha qo'llanilmoqda va ularning har biri boshqalarga nisbatan afzalliklarga ega bo'lgan bir qator dasturlarga ega, ammo sho'ng'in qo'ng'iroqlari asosan suv bilan ta'minlangan g'avvoslar uchun transport vositasiga o'tkazilgan. Ba'zi hollarda kombinatsiyalar ayniqsa samarali bo'ladi, masalan, bir vaqtning o'zida sirtga yo'naltirilgan yoki to'yinganlik bilan ta'minlanadigan sho'ng'in uskunalari va masofadan turib ishlaydigan transport vositalarini yoki kuzatuv sinfini.^[82][88]

Fiziologik kashfiyotlar

John Scott Haldane, 1902 yil

19-asrning oxiriga kelib, qutqarish operatsiyalari chuqurlashib borgan sari, tushunarsiz xastalik g'avvoslarni qiynay boshladi; ular nafas olishda, bosh aylanishida, bo'g'imlarda og'riq va falajda qiynalib, ba'zida o'limga olib borar edilar. Ushbu muammo bosim ostida ishlaydigan tunnel va ko'prik poydevorlarini qurayotgan ishchilar orasida yaxshi ma'lum bo'lgan kessonlar va dastlab chaqirilgan kesson kasalligi; keyinchalik uning nomi o'zgartirildi egilishlar chunki og'riyotgan og'riqlar odatda azob chekuvchiga sabab bo'lgan egilish. O'sha paytda kasallik haqida dastlabki xabarlar berilgan edi Charlz Pasli qutqarish operatsiyasi, ammo olimlar hali ham uning sabablarini bilmas edilar.^[82]

Frantsuz fiziolog Pol Bert birinchi bo'lib uni DCS deb tushundi. Uning ishi, La Pression barométrique (1878), odatdagidan yuqori va pastroq bo'lgan havo bosimining fiziologik ta'siriga oid keng qamrovli tekshiruv edi.^[89] U bosim ostida bo'lgan havoni nafas olish sabab bo'lganligini aniqladi azot erimoq qon oqimi; tez bosimning pasayishi natijasida azot gaz holatiga tushib, blokirovka qilishi mumkin bo'lgan pufakchalar hosil bo'ladi qon aylanishi va falaj yoki o'limga olib kelishi mumkin. Markaziy asab tizimi kislorod toksikligi birinchi bo'lib ushbu nashrda tasvirlangan va ba'zida "Pol Bert effekti" deb nomlanadi.^[89][90]

Jon Skott Xoldeyn ishlab chiqilgan a dekompressiya kamerasi 1907 yilda va u birinchi ishlab chiqargan dekompressiya jadvallari uchun Qirollik floti 1908 yilda hayvonlar va inson mavzularidagi keng tajribalardan so'ng.^[91][92][93] Ushbu jadvallar dekompressiya usulini bosqichma-bosqich o'rnatgan - bu hozirgi kungacha dekompressiya usullari uchun asos bo'lib qolmoqda. Haldane tavsiyasidan so'ng, g'avvoslar uchun maksimal xavfsiz ishlash chuqurligi 61 metrgacha (200 fut) uzaytirildi.^[68]

AQSh dengiz kuchlari dekompressiya bo'yicha tadqiqotlarni davom ettirdi va 1915 yilda birinchi Qurilish va ta'mirlash byurosi dekompressiya jadvallari frantsuz va Stilson tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan.^[94] 1930-yillarda eksperimental sho'ng'inlar o'tkazilib, 1937-yilgi AQSh dengiz kuchlarining havo dekompressiya jadvallari uchun asos yaratildi. Yuzaki dekompressiya va kisloroddan foydalanish 1930-yillarda ham o'rganilgan. AQSh dengiz flotining 1957 yil jadvallari 1937 yil jadvallarida uchragan muammolarni tuzatish uchun ishlab chiqilgan.^[95]

1965 yilda Xyu LeMessyur va Brayan Endryu Xills o'z maqolalarini nashr etdi, A termodinamik yondashuv Torres Boğazı'nda sho'ng'in texnikasi bo'yicha olib borilgan tadqiqotdan kelib chiqadi, odatdagi modellarga asoslanib dekompressiyani jadvallar asosida asemptomatik pufakchani hosil bo'lishiga olib keladi, keyin uni yo'q qilishdan oldin dekompressiya to'xtash joyida qayta eritib turish kerak. Bu gazni eritishda bo'lganida yo'q qilishga imkon berishdan ko'ra sekinroq va samarali dekompressiya uchun ko'pikli fazali gazni minimallashtirish muhimligini ko'rsatadi.^[96][97]

M.P. Spenser Dopler ultratovush usullari asemptomatik sho'ng'inlarda venoz pufakchalarni aniqlay olishini ko'rsatdi,^[98] va doktor Endryu Pilmanis xavfsizlik pufakchalar hosil bo'lishining kamayishini to'xtatishini ko'rsatdi.^[95] 1981 yilda D.E. Yount tasvirlangan Turli xil o'tkazuvchanlik modeli, qabariq hosil bo'lish mexanizmini taklif qilish.^[99] Yana bir nechtasi qabariq modellari ergashdi. DCS patofiziologiyasi hali to'liq tushunilmagan, ammo dekompressiya amaliyoti xavf juda past bo'lgan bosqichga etib keldi va aksariyat holatlar muvaffaqiyatli davolanadi terapevtik rekompressiya va giperbarik kislorod terapiyasi. Aralashgan nafas olish gazlari giperbarik muhitning atrof-muhit bosimi dalgıçlarına ta'sirini kamaytirish uchun ishlatiladi.^{[95][100][101]}

Sho'ng'in muhiti

Muzga sho'ng'ish

Sho'ng'in muhiti kirish va xavf bilan cheklangan, ammo suv va vaqti-vaqti bilan boshqa suyuqliklarni o'z ichiga oladi. Aksariyat suv osti sho'ng'inlari okeanlarning sayozroq qirg'oq qismlarida va ko'llar, to'g'onlar, karerlar, daryolar, buloqlar, suv bosgan g'orlar, suv omborlari, tanklar, suzish havzalari va kanallarni o'z ichiga olgan chuchuk suv havzalarida amalga oshiriladi. katta teshikli kanalizatsiya va kanalizatsiya, elektr stantsiyasining sovutish tizimlarida, yuk va balastli tanklar kemalar va suyuqlik bilan to'ldirilgan sanoat uskunalari. Atrof-muhit tishli uzatmalar konfiguratsiyasiga ta'sir qilishi mumkin: masalan, chuchuk suv sho'r suvga qaraganda kamroq zichroq, shuning uchun chuchuk suvga sho'ng'ishda neytral suzishga erishish uchun ozroq og'irlik kerak bo'ladi.^[102] Suv harorati, ko'rinish va harakat shuningdek, g'avvos va sho'ng'in rejasiga ta'sir qiladi.^[103] Suvdan tashqari suyuqlikda sho'ng'in sho'ng'in uskunasining zichligi, yopishqoqligi va kimyoviy muvofiqligi hamda sho'ng'in guruhi uchun yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan ekologik xavf tufayli maxsus muammolarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.^[104]

Xavfsiz sharoitlar, ba'zan ularni cheklangan suv deb ham atashadi, bu xavf ostida bo'lgan muhitdir, bu erda g'avvosning adashib qolishi yoki tuzoqqa tushishi yoki asosiy suv osti muhitidan tashqari boshqa xavf-xatarlarga duchor bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq yoki imkonsizdir. These conditions are suitable for initial training in the critical survival skills, and include swimming pools, training tanks, aquarium tanks and some shallow and protected shoreline areas.^[105]

Open water is unrestricted water such as a sea, lake or flooded quarry, where the diver has unobstructed direct vertical access to the surface of the water in contact with the atmosphere.^[106] Ochiq suvda sho'ng'in implies that if a problem arises, the diver can directly ascend vertically to the atmosphere to breathe air.^[107] Wall diving is done along a near vertical face. Moviy suvga sho'ng'ish amalga oshiriladi o'rta suv where the bottom is out of sight of the diver and there may be no fixed visual reference.^[108] Qora suvga sho'ng'ish is mid-water diving at night, particularly on a moonless night.^[109][110]

An overhead or penetration diving environment is where the diver enters a space from which there is no direct, purely vertical ascent to the safety of breathable atmosphere at the surface. G'orga sho'ng'ish, halokat sho'ng'in, muzga sho'ng'ish and diving inside or under other natural or artificial underwater structures or enclosures are examples. The restriction on direct ascent increases the risk of diving under an overhead, and this is usually addressed by adaptations of procedures and use of equipment such as redundant breathing gas sources and guide lines to indicate the route to the exit.^{[72][104][103]}

Tungi sho'ng'in can allow the diver to experience a different suv osti muhiti, because many dengiz hayvonlari bor tungi.^[111] Balandlikka sho'ng'ish, for example in mountain lakes, requires modifications to the decompression schedule because of the reduced atmospheric pressure.^[112][113]

Depth range

A technical diver using a closed circuit qayta tiklanadigan with open circuit bailout cylinders returns from a 600-foot (180 m) dive.

The recreational diving depth limit set by the EN 14153-2 / ISO 24801-2 level 2 "Autonomous Diver" standard is 20 metres (66 ft).^[114] The recommended depth limit for more extensively trained recreational divers ranges from 30 metres (98 ft) for PADI divers,^[115] (this is the depth at which nitrogen narcosis symptoms generally begin to be noticeable in adults), 40 metres (130 ft) specified by Dam olish uchun akkvalayerlarni tayyorlash bo'yicha kengash,^[115] 50 metres (160 ft) for divers of the British Sub-Aqua Club va Sub-Aqua uyushmasi breathing air,^[116] and 60 metres (200 ft) for teams of 2 to 3 French Level 3 recreational divers, breathing air.^[117]

For technical divers, the recommended maximum depths are greater on the understanding that they will use less narcotic gas mixtures. 100 metres (330 ft) is the maximum depth authorised for divers who have completed Trimix Diver certification with IANTD^[118] yoki bilan Advanced Trimix Diver sertifikati TDI.^[119] 332 metres (1,089 ft) is the world record depth on scuba (2014).^[120] Commercial divers using saturation techniques and heliox breathing gases routinely exceed 100 metres (330 ft), but they are also limited by physiological constraints. Keks Hydra 8 experimental dives reached a record open water depth of 534 metres (1,752 ft) in 1988.^[121] Atmospheric pressure diving suits are mainly constrained by the technology of the articulation seals, and a US Navy diver has dived to 610 metres (2,000 ft) in one.^[122][123]

Sho'ng'in saytlari

The Moviy teshik yilda Dahab, Egypt, a world-renowned recreational dive site

The common term for a place at which one may dive is a dive site. As a general rule, professional diving is done where the work needs to be done, and recreational diving is done where conditions are suitable. There are many recorded and publicised recreational dive sites which are known for their convenience, points of interest, and frequently favourable conditions. Diver training facilities for both professional and recreational divers generally use a small range of dive sites which are familiar and convenient, and where conditions are predictable and the risk is relatively low.^[124]

Sho'ng'in ishlari

Due to the inherent risks of the environment and the necessity to operate the equipment correctly, both under normal conditions and during incidents where failure to respond appropriately and quickly can have fatal consequences, a set of standard procedures are used in preparation of the equipment, preparation to dive, during the dive if all goes according to plan, after the dive, and in the event of a reasonably foreseeable contingency. The standard procedures are not necessarily the only course of action that will have a satisfactory outcome, but they are generally those procedures which have been found by experiment and experience to work well and reliably when applied in response to the given circumstances.^[125] All formal diver training is based on the learning of standard skills and procedures, and in many cases the over-learning of the skills until the procedures can be performed without hesitation even when distracting circumstances exist. Where reasonably practicable, nazorat ro'yxatlari may be used to ensure that preparatory procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and that no steps are inadvertently omitted.^{[126][127][128]}

Some procedures are common to all manned modes of diving, but most are specific to the mode of diving and many are specific to the equipment in use.^{[129][130][128]} Diving procedures are those which are directly relevant to diving safety and efficiency, but do not include task specific skills. Standard procedures are particularly helpful where communication is by hand or rope signal – the qo'l va line signals are examples of standard procedures themselves – as the communicating parties have a better idea of what the other is likely to do in response. Qaerda ovozli aloqa is available, standardised communications protocol reduces the time needed to convey necessary information and the error rate in transmission.^[131]

Diving procedures generally involve the correct application of the appropriate diving skills in response to the current circumstances, and range from selecting and testing equipment to suit the diver and the dive plan, to the rescue of oneself or another diver in a life-threatening emergency. In many cases, what might be a life-threatening emergency to an untrained or inadequately skilled diver, is a mere annoyance and minor distraction to a skilled diver who applies the correct procedure without hesitation. Professional diving operations tend to adhere more rigidly to standard operating procedures than recreational divers, who are not legally or contractually obliged to follow them, but the prevalence of diving accidents is known to be strongly correlated to human error, which is more common in divers with less training and experience.^[126] The Buni to'g'ri bajarish falsafasi texnik sho'ng'in is strongly supportive of common standard procedures for all members of a dive team, and prescribe the procedures and equipment configuration which may affect procedures to the members of their organisations.^[103]

Shartlar diving skills va diving procedures are largely interchangeable, but a procedure may require the ordered application of several skills, and is a broader term. A procedure may also conditionally branch or require repeated applications of a skill, depending on circumstances. Diver training is structured around the learning and practice of standard procedures until the diver is assessed as competent to apply them reliably in reasonably foreseeable circumstances, and the certification issued limits the diver to environments and equipment that are compatible with their training and assessed skill levels. The teaching and assessment of diving skills and procedures is often restricted to registered o'qituvchilar, who have been assessed as competent to teach and assess those skills by the certification or registration agency, who take the responsibility of declaring the diver competent against their baholash mezonlar. The teaching and assessment of other task oriented skills does not generally require a diving instructor.^[128]

There is considerable difference in the diving procedures of professional divers, where a diving team with formally appointed members in specific roles and with recognised competence is required by law, and recreational diving, where in most jurisdictions the diver is not constrained by specific laws, and in many cases is not required to provide any evidence of competence.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Sho'ng'in mashqlari

Commercial diver training in a karer

Underwater diver training is normally given by a qualified o'qituvchi who is a member of one of many diver training agencies or is registered with a government agency. Basic diver training entails the learning of skills required for the safe conduct of activities in an underwater environment, and includes procedures and skills for the use of diving equipment, safety, emergency self-help and rescue procedures, dive planning, and use of dive tables.^[132][133] Sho'ng'in qo'l signallari are used to communicate underwater. Professional divers will also learn other methods of communication.^[132][133]

An entry level diver must learn the techniques of breathing underwater through a demand regulator, including clearing it of water and recovering it if dislodged from the mouth, and clearing the mask if it is flooded. These are critical survival skills, and if not competent the diver is at a high risk of drowning. A related skill is sharing breathing gas with another diver, both as the donor and the recipient. This is usually done with a secondary demand valve carried for this purpose. Technical and professional divers will also learn how to use a backup gas supply carried in an independent scuba set, known as the emergency gas supply or bailout cylinder.^[132][133]

To avoid injury during descent, divers must be competent at equalising the quloqlar, sinuses and mask; they must also learn not to hold their breath while ascending, to avoid barotrauma of the lungs. The speed of ascent must be controlled to avoid decompression sickness, which requires buoyancy control skills. Yaxshi suzishni boshqarish va qirqish also allow the diver to manoeuvre and move about safely, comfortably and efficiently, using suzuvchilar harakatlanish uchun.^[132][133]

Some knowledge of physiology and the physics of diving is considered necessary by most diver certification agencies, as the diving environment is alien and relatively hostile to humans. The physics and physiology knowledge required is fairly basic, and helps the diver to understand the effects of the diving environment so that informed acceptance of the associated risks is possible. The physics mostly relates to gases under pressure, suzish qobiliyati, heat loss, and yorug'lik suv ostida. The physiology relates the physics to the effects on the human body, to provide a basic understanding of the causes and risks of barotrauma, decompression sickness, gas toxicity, gipotermiya, g'arq bo'lish and sensory variations. More advanced training often involves first aid and rescue skills, skills related to specialised diving equipment, and underwater work skills.^[132][133] Further training is required to develop the skills necessary for diving in a wider range of environments, with specialised equipment, and to become competent to perform a variety of underwater tasks.^{[104][103][47][68]}

Medical aspects of diving

The medical aspects of diving and hyperbaric exposure include examination of divers to establish medical fitness to dive, diagnosis and treatment of sho'ng'in buzilishi, treatment by recompression and giperbarik kislorod terapiyasi, toxic effects of gases in a hyperbaric environment,^[1] and treatment of injuries incurred while diving which are not directly associated with depth or pressure.^[79]

Sho'ng'ish uchun fitnes

Medical fitness to dive is the medical and physical suitability of a diver to function safely in the underwater environment using underwater diving equipment and procedures. Depending on the circumstances it may be established by a signed statement by the diver that he or she does not suffer from any of the disqualifying conditions and is able to manage the ordinary physical requirements of diving, by a detailed medical examination by a physician registered as a medical examiner of divers following a prescribed procedural checklist, attested by a legal document of fitness to dive issued by the medical examiner and recorded on a national database, or by alternatives between these extremes.^[134][73]

Sho'ng'in uchun psixologik fitnes is not normally evaluated before recreational or commercial diver training, but can influence the safety and success of a diving career.^[135]

Sho'ng'in dori

Military and commercial divers are trained in the procedures for use of a siqish kamerasi davolamoq sho'ng'in buzilishi.

Sho'ng'in dori is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of conditions caused by exposing divers to the underwater environment. It includes the effects of pressure on gas filled spaces in and in contact with the body, and of partial pressures of breathing gas components, the diagnosis and treatment of conditions caused by marine hazards and how fitness to dive and the side effects of drugs used to treat other conditions affects a diver's safety. Giperbarik tibbiyot is another field associated with diving, since recompression in a hyperbaric chamber with hyperbaric oxygen therapy is the definitive treatment for two of the most important diving-related illnesses, dekompressiya kasalligi va arterial gaz emboliyasi.^[136][137]

Diving medicine deals with medical research on issues of diving, the prevention of sho'ng'in buzilishi, treatment of diving accident injuries and diving fitness. The field includes the effect on the human body of breathing gases and their contaminants under high pressure, and the relationship between the state of physical and psychological health of the diver and safety. In diving accidents it is common for multiple disorders to occur together and interact with each other, both causatively and as complications. Diving medicine is a branch of kasbiy tibbiyot va sport tibbiyoti, and first aid and recognition of symptoms of diving disorders are important parts of diver education.^[1]

Risks and safety

The international code flag "Alpha", meaning: "I have a diver down; keep well clear at slow speed" (top); muqobil "Diver down" flag in common use in the United States and Canada (bottom)

Risk is a combination of hazard, vulnerability and likelihood of occurrence, which can be the probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a hazard, or the combined probability of undesirable consequences of all the hazards of an activity.^[138]

The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident and its probable direct consequences.^{[139][140][141]}

Commercial diving operations may expose the diver to more and sometimes greater hazards than recreational diving, but the associated occupational health and safety legislation is less tolerant of risk than recreational, particularly technical divers, may be prepared to accept.^[139][140] Commercial diving operations are also constrained by the physical realities of the operating environment, and expensive engineering solutions are often necessary to control risk. A formal hazard identification and risk assessment is a standard and required part of the planning for a commercial diving operation, and this is also the case for offshore diving operations. The occupation is inherently hazardous, and great effort and expense are routinely incurred to keep the risk within an acceptable range. The standard methods of reducing risk are followed where possible.^{[139][140][142]}

Statistics on injuries related to commercial diving are normally collected by national regulators. Buyuk Britaniyada Sog'liqni saqlash va xavfsizlik bo'yicha ijroiya (HSE) is responsible for the overview of about 5,000 commercial divers; in Norway the corresponding authority is the Petroleum Safety Authority Norway (PSA), which has maintained the DSYS database since 1985, gathering statistics on over 50,000 diver-hours of commercial activity per year.^[143][144] The risks of dying during dam olish, ilmiy yoki savdo sho'ng'in are small, and for akvalang yordamida suv ostida suzish, deaths are usually associated with poor gas management, kambag'al suzishni boshqarish, equipment misuse, entrapment, rough water conditions and pre-existing health problems. Some fatalities are inevitable and caused by unforeseeable situations escalating out of control, but the majority of diving fatalities can be attributed to human error on the part of the victim.^[145] During 2006 to 2015 there were an estimated 306 million recreational dives made by US residents and 563 recreational diving deaths from this population. The fatality rate was 1.8 per million recreational dives, and 47 deaths for every 1000 emergency department presentations for scuba injuries.^[146]

Sho'ng'in bilan sho'ng'in halokati have a major financial impact by way of lost income, lost business, insurance premium increases and high litigation costs.^[145] Equipment failure is rare in open circuit scuba, and when the cause of death is recorded as g'arq bo'lish, it is usually the consequence of an uncontrollable series of events in which drowning is the endpoint because it occurred in water, while the initial cause remains unknown.^[147] Where the triggering event is known, it is most commonly a shortage of breathing gas, followed by buoyancy problems.^[148] Air embolism is also frequently cited as a cause of death, often as a consequence of other factors leading to an uncontrolled and badly managed ko'tarilish, occasionally aggravated by medical conditions. About a quarter of diving fatalities are associated with cardiac events, mostly in older divers. There is a fairly large body of data on diving fatalities, but in many cases the data are poor due to the standard of investigation and reporting. This hinders research which could improve diver safety.^[147][149]

Artisanal fishermen and gatherers of marine organisms in less developed countries may expose themselves to relatively high risk using diving equipment if they do not understand the physiological hazards, particularly if they use inadequate equipment.^[150]

Sho'ng'in xavfi

Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards include the aquatic environment, foydalanish breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, which include strong water movement and local pressure differentials, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions va personal behaviour and competence shaxsning. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.^[151][152]

Inson omillari

The major factors influencing diving safety are the environment, the diving equipment and the performance of the diver and the dive team. The underwater environment is alien, both physically and psychologically stressful, and usually not amenable to control, though divers can be selective of the conditions in which they are willing to dive. The other factors must be controlled to mitigate the overall stress on the diver and allow the dive to be completed in acceptable safety. The equipment is critical to diver safety for life support, but is generally reliable, controllable and predictable in its performance.^[139]

Inson omillari are the physical or kognitiv properties of individuals, or social behaviour specific to humans, which influence functioning of technological systems as well as human-environment equilibrium.^[139] Human error is inevitable and everyone makes mistakes at some time, and the consequences of these errors are varied and depend on many factors. Most errors are minor and do not cause harm, but in a high risk environment, such as in diving, errors are more likely to have catastrophic consequences. Baxtsiz hodisalarga olib keladigan inson xatolarining misollari juda ko'p sonli mavjud, chunki bu barcha baxtsiz hodisalarning 60% dan 80% gacha bevosita sababdir.^[153] Inson xatosi va vahima are considered to be the leading causes of diving accidents and fatalities. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career,^[154] and these findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65% of recreational divers have panicked under water.^[155] Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver's judgement or performance, and may result in an accident.^{[140][154][156][157][158]} The xavfsizlik of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur.^[139]

1997 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotda sho'ng'in sho'ng'in o'limining atigi 4.46% bitta sababga bog'liq edi.^[159] The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well-trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in professional scuba diving is due to this factor.^[160] The study also concluded that it would be impossible to completely eliminate all minor contraindications of scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and bring all diving to a halt.^[159]

Sho'ng'in uskunalarini loyihalashda inson omillari is the influence of the interaction between the diver and the equipment on the design of the equipment on which the diver relies to stay alive and in reasonable comfort, and to perform the planned tasks during a dive. The design of the equipment can strongly influence its effectiveness in performing the desired functions. Divers vary considerably in anthropometric dimensions, jismoniy kuch, joint flexibility, and other physiological characteristics within the range of acceptable fitness to dive. Sho'ng'in uskunalari should allow as full a range of function as reasonably practicable, and should be matched to the diver, the environment, and the task.^[161] Sho'ng'inni qo'llab-quvvatlash uskunalari is usually shared by a wide range of divers, and must work for them all.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The most difficult stages of a dive for dam oluvchilar are out of water activities and transitions between water and the surface site such as carrying equipment on shore, exiting from water to boat and shore, surface swimming, and dressing into the equipment. Safety and reliability, adjustability to fit the individual, performance, and simplicity were rated the most important features for diving equipment by recreational divers.^[161][162] The professional diver tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadi surface team, who are available to assist with the out-of-water activities to the extent necessary to reduce the risk associated with them to a level acceptable in terms of the governing regulations and codes of practice.^{[48][73][163][56]}

Xatarlarni boshqarish

Solo diver managing risk of breathing gas supply failure by carrying a bailout cylinder (slung at the diver's left side)

Xatarlarni boshqarish is obtained by the usual measures of muhandislik nazorati,^[a] administrative controls and procedures,^[b] va shaxsiy himoya vositalari,^[c] shu jumladan hazard identification va xavf-xatarni baholash (HIRA), himoya vositalari, tibbiy ko'rik, trening va standardised procedures.^[165][164] Professional divers are generally legally obliged to carry out and formally record these measures,^[142] and though recreational divers are not legally required to do many of them,^[73] competent recreational divers, and particularly technical divers, generally perform them informally but routinely, and they are an important part of technical diver training. For example, a medical statement or examination for fitness, pre-dive site assessment and briefing, safety drills, thermal protection, equipment redundancy, muqobil havo manbai, buddy checks, buddy or team diving protseduralar, sho'ng'in rejalashtirish, underwater hand signals, and carrying birinchi yordam va oxygen administration equipment are all routinely part of technical diving.^[166]

Huquqiy jihatlar

Inshore and inland commercial and military diving is regulated by legislation in many countries. Responsibility of the employer, client and diving personnel is specified in these cases; ^[73][142] offshore commercial diving may take place in international waters, and is often done following the guidelines of a voluntary membership organisation such as the Xalqaro dengiz pudratchilar uyushmasi (IMCA), which publishes codes of accepted best practice which their member organisations are expected to follow.^[56][167]

Recreational diver training and dive leading are industry regulated in some countries, and only directly regulated by government in a subset of them. In the UK, HSE legislation includes recreational diver training and dive leading for reward;^[142] in the US and South Africa industry regulation is accepted, though non-specific health and safety legislation still applies.^[168][73] In Israel recreational diving activities are regulated by the Recreational Diving Act, 1979.^[169]

The legal responsibility for recreational diving service providers is usually limited as far as possible by voz kechish which they require the customer to sign before engaging in any diving activity. Darajasi parvarish vazifasi of recreational buddy divers is unclear and has been the subject of considerable litigation. It is probable that it varies between jurisdictions. In spite of this lack of clarity, buddy diving is recommended by recreational diver training agencies as safer than solo diving, and some service providers insist that customers dive in buddy pairs.^{[170][171][172]}

Iqtisodiy jihatlar

Scuba diving tourism is the industry based on servicing the requirements of dam oluvchilar at destinations other than where they live. It includes aspects of training, equipment sales, rental and service, guided experiences and environmental tourism.^[173][174]

Motivations to travel for scuba diving are complex and may vary considerably during the diver's development and experience. Participation can vary from once off to multiple dedicated trips per year over several decades. The popular destinations fall into several groups, including tropical reefs, shipwrecks and cave systems, each frequented by its own group of enthusiasts, with some overlap. Customer satisfaction is largely dependent on the quality of services provided, and personal communication has a strong influence on the popularity of specific service providers in a region.^[173]

Professional sho'ng'in includes a wide range of applications, of varying economic impact. All of them are in support of specific sectors of industry, commerce, defence, or public service, and their economic impacts are closely related to their importance to the relevant sector, and their effects on the diving equipment manufacturing and support industries.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The importance of diving to the scientific community is not well recorded, but analysis of publications shows that diving supports scientific research largely through efficient and targeted sampling.^[175]

Ushbu bo'lim kengayishga muhtoj with: Diving equipment manufacturing and marketing. Siz yordam berishingiz mumkin unga qo'shilish. (Avgust 2020)

Atrof muhitga ta'siri

A diver at work on hull maintenance

The environmental impact of recreational diving is the effects of diving tourism on the marine environment. Usually these are considered to be adverse effects, and include damage to reef organisms by incompetent and ignorant divers, but there may also be positive effects as the environment is recognised by the local communities to be worth more in good condition than degraded by inappropriate use, which encourages conservation efforts. During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Since the 1970s diving has changed from an elite activity to a more accessible recreation, marketed to a very wide demographic. To some extent better equipment has been substituted for more rigorous training, and the reduction in perceived risk has shortened minimum training requirements by several training agencies. Training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.^[176]

Recreational scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide, which has increased to about 23 million by 2016 at about one million per year.^[177] Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider ekologik barqarorlik, as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the dengiz muhiti in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.^[173] Kam ta'sirli sho'ng'in training has been shown to be effective in reducing diver contact.^[176]

The ecological impact of savdo sho'ng'in is a small part of the impact of the specific industry supported by the diving operations, as commercial diving is not done in isolation. In most cases the impact of diving operations is insignificant in comparison with the overall project. Suv ostida ships husbandry may be an exception to this general tendency, and specific precautions to limit ecological impact may be required. Several of these operations will release some quantity of harmful material into the water, particularly hull cleaning operations which will release antifouling toxins.^[178] Alien biofouling organisms may also be released during this process.^[178]:15

Ning boshqa shakllari professional diving, kabi ilmiy va archaeological dives, are either planned to minimise impact, or in the case of jamoat xavfsizligi va politsiya sho'ng'in, will usually have little intrinsic impact, and are generally considered necessary for sociological reasons in any case.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Manbalar

1. Bennett, Piter B; Rosteyn, Jan Klod (2003). "Yuqori bosimdagi asab sindromi". Brubakkda Alf O.; Neyman, Tom S. (tahrir). Bennett va Elliott fiziologiyasi va sho'ng'in tibbiyoti, 5-nashr. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari: Sonders. 323-57 betlar. ISBN  978-0-7020-2571-6.
2. AQSh dengiz kuchlari sho'ng'in uchun qo'llanma, 6-qayta ko'rib chiqish. Vashington, DC: AQSh dengiz dengiz tizimlari qo'mondonligi. 2006 yil.
3. Birlashtiruvchi, Jeyms T, ed. (2001 yil 28-fevral). NOAA Sho'ng'in bo'yicha qo'llanma, Fan va texnologiya uchun sho'ng'in (4-nashr). Kumush buloq, Merilend: Milliy Okean va Atmosfera Boshqarmasi, Okean va Atmosfera tadqiqotlari idorasi, Dengiz osti tadqiqotlari milliy dasturi. ISBN  978-0-941332-70-5. CD-ROM Milliy Texnik Axborot Xizmati (NTIS) tomonidan NOAA va Best Publishing Company bilan hamkorlikda tayyorlangan va tarqatilgan.

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Kusto J.Y. (1953) Le Monde du Silence, deb tarjima qilingan Jimjit dunyo, Hamish Hamilton Ltd., London; ASIN B000QRK890
• Lang M.A. va Brubakk A.O. (tahr., 2009) Sho'ng'in kelajagi: Haldane va undan tashqarida 100 yil, Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, Vashington shahar

Tashqi havolalar

Bilan bog'liq ommaviy axborot vositalari Suv ostida sho'ng'in Vikimedia Commons-da

• Entoni va Yvonne Pardoning sho'ng'in dubulg'alari va jihozlari to'plami - tasvirlangan katalog. O'rnatilgan tarixiy uskunalarning bepul bo'lmagan rasmlarini ajoyib to'plami.