Uolt Uitmen Rostou - Walt Whitman Rostow - Wikipedia
Uolt Uitmen Rostou (shuningdek, nomi bilan tanilgan Uolt Rostou yoki VW. Rostov) OBE (1916 yil 7 oktyabr - 2003 yil 13 fevral) amerikalik edi iqtisodchi bo'lib ishlagan professor va siyosiy nazariyotchi Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi ga Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti Lyndon B. Jonson 1966 yildan 1969 yilgacha.[1][2]
Rostov ishlagan Strategik xizmatlar idorasi davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi keyinchalik prezidentlikka nomzod va keyin prezident uchun tashqi siyosat bo'yicha maslahatchi va spritrayter bo'lgan Jon F. Kennedi; u tez-tez Kennedining mashhur asarini yozganiga ishonadi "Yangi chegara "nutq.[3] Shakllantirishdagi roli bilan taniqli AQSh tashqi siyosati 1960-yillarda Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda u qat'iy edi antikommunist, samaradorligiga bo'lgan ishonch uchun qayd etilgan kapitalizm va erkin tadbirkorlik, qat'iy qo'llab-quvvatlaydi AQShning Vetnam urushidagi ishtiroki. Rostov kitobi bilan tanilgan Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari: kommunistik bo'lmagan manifest Ning bir nechta sohalarida ishlatilgan (1960) ijtimoiy fan. Rostovning nazariyalari Kennedi va Jonson ma'muriyatining ko'plab rasmiylari tomonidan ommalashib borayotgan mashhurlikka qarshi kurashish sifatida qabul qilindi. kommunizm Osiyo, Afrika va Lotin Amerikasida.
Rostov Vetnamdagi harakatlaridan hech qachon afsuslanmagan va kechirim so'ramagan va bu pozitsiya samarali chetlatilgan uni davlat xizmatidan nafaqaga chiqqanidan keyin Amerikaning eng yaxshi universitetlarida ishlagan.[3] Uning akasi Evgeniy Rostov bir qator yuqori hukumat tashqi siyosiy lavozimlarida ishlagan.
Hayotning boshlang'ich davri
Rostov tug'ilgan Manxetten, Nyu-York shahri, rus yahudiy immigrantlar oilasiga. Uning ota-onasi Lillian (Xelman) va Viktor Rostov,[4] faol edilar sotsialistlar va shoirning nomidan Uolt ismini oldi Uolt Uitmen. Rostovning otasi Viktor Rostovskiy 1886 yilda Odessa yaqinidagi Orexov shahrida tug'ilgan va o'spirinligidan Rossiya sotsialistik harakatida qatnashgan, podpolda imperator Nikolay II ni ag'darishga chaqirgan chap qanot gazetasini nashr etgan. ota-onalar uyi.[5] 1904 yilda, 18 yoshida Viktor Rostovskiy uni Odessadan Glazgoga olib boradigan kemaga va Nyu-Yorkka olib borgan boshqa kemaga o'tirdi.[6] Rostovskiy Qo'shma Shtatlarga etib kelib, o'z familiyasini Rostovga "amerika" qildi.[6] 1912 yil 22-oktabrda u kollejga borishni orzu qilgan rus yahudiy immigrantlarining intellektual qobiliyatli qizi Lillian Xelmanga uylandi, ammo uning oilasi kambag'al bo'lganligi sababli, u oliy ma'lumot olish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lmaganligi sababli, u o'g'illarini o'zi xohlagan oliy ma'lumotga ega bo'lishga undadi. .[7] Rostovskiylar singari, Helmanlar ham shunday edilar Ashkenazim (Yahudiy tilida so'zlashadigan yahudiylar). Rostovlar o'zlarini asrab olgan mamlakatlarini juda yaxshi ko'radigan va uchta o'g'liga eng buyuk amerikaliklar deb hisoblagan uch kishining, ya'ni Eugene V. Debs, Walt Whitman va Ralf Waldo Emersonlarning ismlarini qo'ygan juda "idealist" muhojirlar sifatida tasvirlangan.[8]
Boshqa ko'plab Ashkenazi yahudiy immigrantlaridan farqli o'laroq, Viktor Rostov har doim o'z farzandlari bilan ingliz tilida gaplashar edi, chunki bu ularning hayotdagi imkoniyatlarini yaxshilaydi deb o'ylar edi.[6] Rostovning ukasi Evgeniya, kim uchun nomlangan Evgeniy V. Debs, huquqshunos olim va uning ukasi Ralf, katta do'kon menejeri bo'ldi. Amerikalik jurnalist Stenli Karnov Rostovni 15 yoshida o'rta maktabni bitirganini ko'rgan "yorqin" akademik ko'rsatkichi bilan nihoyatda aqlli deb ta'riflagan.[8] Rostov bolaligini asosan qorong'u joylardan mamnun bo'lganligi, ba'zan esa sinfdoshlari uni va uning ukalarini "iflos yahudiylar" deb atashgan.[9]
Rostovning ota-onasi Rossiyadagi voqealarni diqqat bilan kuzatib borishdi va keyinchalik Rostov o'smirlik chog'ida ota-onasi Sovet hukumati uchun sotib olish agenti bo'lib xizmat qilgan odam bilan birga bir guruh yahudiy sotsialistlarini kechki ovqatga taklif qilganida, uning hayotining aniq bir daqiqasini esladi. .[10] Kechki ovqatdan so'ng Rostov otasining: "Bu kommunistlar chor politsiyasini egallab olishdi va ularni yanada yomonlashtirdilar. Chor politsiyasi siyosiy muxolifatni ta'qib qildi, ammo ularning oilalariga hech qachon tegmadi. Bu odamlar oilalarga ham tegishdi. Bundan yaxshi narsa bo'lmaydi" deb aytgan. .[10] Rostov kirdi Yel universiteti 15 yoshida to'liq stipendiya bilan, 19 yoshida tugatgan va uni tugatgan Ph.D. u erda 1940 yilda. U shuningdek g'alaba qozondi Rods stipendiyasi o'qish Balliol kolleji, Oksford, u erda B.Littni to'ldirgan. daraja. Oksfordda Rostov bo'lajak siyosatchilar bilan do'stlashdi Edvard Xit va Roy Jenkins, ayniqsa ikkinchisiga yaqin bo'lish.[11] 1936 yilda, davomida Edvard VIII taxtdan voz kechish inqirozi, u teleradiokompaniyaga yordam berdi Alister Kuk uchun voqealar to'g'risida hisobot bergan NBC radio tarmog'i. O'qishni tugatgandan so'ng, u iqtisod fanidan dars berishni boshladi Kolumbiya universiteti.[1]
Kasbiy va ilmiy martaba
Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi, Rostow xizmat qilgan Strategik xizmatlar idorasi ostida Uilyam Jozef Donovan. Boshqa vazifalar qatorida u AQSh bombardimon qilish maqsadlarini tanlashda ishtirok etdi. Nikolas Katzenbax keyinchalik hazillashdi: "Men nihoyat Uolt bilan mening o'rtamdagi farqni tushundim [...] Men urib tushirilgan va ikki yil nemis qamoqxonasida bo'lgan navigator edim va Uolt mening maqsadlarimni tanlagan yigit edi".[12] 1942 yil sentyabrda Rostov Londonga 1945 yilning bahorigacha xizmat qilgan Dushmanlar Maqsadlari bo'linmasida razvedka bo'yicha tahlilchi sifatida xizmat qilish uchun keldi.[13]
1943 yil yanvar oyida Rostovga Germaniya urush iqtisodiyotini qo'llab-quvvatlovchi asosiy tarmoqlarni aniqlash vazifasi topshirildi.[13] Razvedka bo'yicha tahlilchi sifatida Rostov 1943 yilda neft Germaniyaning Axilles to'pig'i ekanligiga amin edi va agar Qo'shma Shtatlar armiyasi harbiy havo kuchlari Germaniyaning o'zida sun'iy yog 'ishlab chiqarish zavodlari va neft tanqisligi ob'ektlarini nishonga oladigan bo'lsa, unda urush g'alaba qozongan bo'lar edi, bu strategiya "Neft rejasi" deb nomlandi.[14] 1944 yil boshida Rostov nihoyat General ustidan g'alaba qozondi Karl Spaatz "Neft rejasi" ning mohiyatiga ko'ra. 1944 yil boshlarida Germaniya va Frantsiya temir yo'l tizimini nishonga olishning "Transport rejasi" ga qarshi "Neft rejasi" ning afzalliklari to'g'risida juda ko'p munozaralar bo'lib o'tdi.[13] "Tashish rejasi" birinchi navbatda "Overlord" operatsiyasi oldidan amalga oshirildi.[13] "Neft rejasi" 1944 yil may oyida armiya harbiy-havo kuchlari tomonidan strategiya sifatida amalga oshirila boshlandi, keyinchalik Rostov uni halokatli xato deb atadi, agar "neft rejasi" ilgari qabul qilingan bo'lsa, urush ancha oldin g'alaba qozongan bo'lar edi.[15] U, shuningdek, Qo'shma Shtatlar Sovuq Urushga ancha kuchli pozitsiyada kirgan bo'lar edi, chunki u har doim "Neft rejasi" qabul qilinganida, bu AQSh armiyasining Markaziy Evropaga va hatto Sharqqa chuqurroq kirib borishiga imkon bergan bo'lar edi. Evropa.[15] Ikkinchi Jahon urushi tajribalariga asoslanib, Rostov strategik bombardimonning ishonchli tarafdori bo'lib, urushda g'alaba qozongan Germaniya shaharlariga qarshi bombardimon kampaniyasi ekanligini ta'kidladi.[16] Urush paytida Dushmanning Maqsadlari bo'limi bilan ishlashi uchun Rostov OBE bilan taqdirlandi.[11]
1945 yilda, urushdan so'ng, Rostov Germaniya-Avstriya iqtisodiy bo'limi boshlig'ining yordamchisiga aylandi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Davlat departamenti Vashingtonda, Rostov shahrida, ishtirok etishga taklif qilingan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining strategik bombardimon tadqiqotlari (USSBS), strategik bombardimon kampaniyasining Germaniya iqtisodiyotiga ta'sirini baholash, ammo u rad etdi.[16] 1960-yillarda Rostovning bo'lajak dushmanlari Jorj Ball, Jon Kennet Galbraith va Artur M. Shlezinger kichik. USSBS-da qatnashdi va strategik bombardimon kampaniyasi Germaniya iqtisodiyotini uning advokatlari va'da qilganidek nogiron emasligiga ishonch hosil qildi, bu tajriba bu odamlarni Shimoliy Vetnamni bombardimon qilish samaradorligiga shubha qilishiga olib keldi.[17] "Neft rejasi" orqali haqiqatan ham Rostov va'da qilganidek ish olib borildi, USSBS-da qatnashuvchilar 1944 yil dekabrda Germaniya sanoat ishlab chiqarishi eng yuqori darajaga ko'tarilganligini va bu ularni strategiyani bombardimon qilish oqibatlariga xalqning iqtisodiyotini buzish usuli sifatida shubha ostiga qo'yganligini ta'kidladilar.[17] 1946 yilda u Oksfordga qaytib keldi Garold Vyvyan Xarmsvort Amerika tarixi professori. 1947 yilda u mas'ul kotibning yordamchisi bo'ldi Evropa uchun iqtisodiy komissiya va rivojlanishida ishtirok etgan Marshall rejasi. Rostovning hamkasblaridan biri esladi: "1946 yil boshlarida Uolt Rostov Germaniyaning birligiga Evropaning birligisiz erishib bo'lmasligini va Evropaning birligiga iqtisodiy masalalarda texnik hamkorlik orqali eng yaxshi yo'l bilan erishish mumkinligi to'g'risida vahiy chiqardi. diplomatik muzokaralarda ochiqdan-ochiq ".[18] Rostovning Evropa iqtisodiy birligi mavzusidagi yozuvlari davlat kotibi muovini e'tiborini tortdi Din Acheson va oxir-oqibat Jan Monnet, frantsuz diplomati 1957 yilda Evropa Iqtisodiy Hamjamiyatiga aylangan 1951 yildagi Evropa ko'mir va po'lat hamjamiyatining "otasi" sifatida qaraldi.[19]
Rostov bir yilni o'tkazdi Kembrij universiteti sifatida Pitt Amerika tarixi va institutlari professori. U professor edi iqtisodiy tarix da Massachusets texnologiya instituti (MIT) 1950 yildan 1961 yilgacha va xodim Xalqaro tadqiqotlar markazi (MDH) da MIT 1951 yildan 1961 yilgacha Koreya urushi haqida Rostovning fikrini qat'iy o'zgartirdi Sovet Ittifoqi.[20] Koreya urushigacha Rostov Sovet tuzumi oxir-oqibat o'z-o'zidan "yumshoq" bo'ladi deb hisoblagan va u ham Sovuq urush harbiy kurashdan farqli o'laroq, asosan diplomatik to'qnashuv sifatida.[20] Shimoliy Koreyaning Janubiy Koreyaga qarshi tajovuzkorligi uni Sovuq urush yanada harbiylashtirilgan tashqi siyosatni talab qilishiga ishontirdi, chunki u 1950 yil kuzida nutqida mudofaa xarajatlarini ko'paytirishni talab qilib, "tezroq to'liq safarbarlikni amalga oshirish" mumkin edi.[20] Mudofaa xarajatlarining yuqori miqdorini to'lash uchun Rostov Amerika xalqini "teng darajada o'zlashtirilgan soliqqa tortishning juda yuqori darajasi" zarurligini qabul qilishga chaqirdi.[20]
1951 yil oxiridan 1952 yil avgustgacha Rostov Sovet zaifliklari loyihasini boshqargan. MDH tomonidan homiylik qilingan va AQSh hukumati tomonidan katta qo'llab-quvvatlangan ushbu loyiha Sovet Ittifoqining zaif tomonlarini aniqlashga harakat qildi siyosiy /psixologik urush va u yuqoridan hissalarni oldi Sovetshunos va psixologik urush bo'yicha mutaxassislar.[21] 1955 yil iyun oyida Rostov "sovuq" jangchilar guruhini boshqargan Quantico Zaifliklar paneli hisobot chiqargan[22] Sovet Ittifoqining yadroviy majburlash tarafdori. Mutaxassislar tomonidan taklif qilingan bo'lsa-da Nelson Rokfeller, ularning taklifi siyosatiga zid edi Eyzenxauer ma'muriyati.[23]
1954 yilda Rostov prezidentga maslahat berdi Duayt Eyzenxauer iqtisodiy va tashqi siyosat bo'yicha va 1958 yilda u uchun ma'ruzachiga aylandi. 1954 yil may oyida Rostov frantsuzlarning mag'lubiyati haqida eshitib, qattiq hayratga tushdi Dien Bien Phu jangi, Frantsiya rahbarlari "Vetnamliklarni kommunistlarga qarshi samarali ravishda qarshi olib boradigan" siyosiy kelishuvni amalga oshira olmaganidan nafratlanishini bildirdi.[24] Rostov Frantsiyadan mustaqillik uchun kurashayotgan Vetnam Kommunistik partiyasi Vetnam xalqining umuman vakili bo'lmagan kichik, radikal terroristik ozchilik ekanligiga ishongan, ularning aksariyati frantsuzlar hukmronlik qilgan, ammo nominal ravishda mustaqil Vetnam davlatini 1950 yilda tashkil etgan.[24] Shu bilan birga, u Eyzenxauerni "Amerika bo'linmalarini jangga jalb qilishdan bosh tortgani" uchun qattiq tanqid qildi, chunki reja tuzilgan edi. Vulture operatsiyasi taktik yadroviy qurol bilan Amerikaning Vetnamga aralashuviga chaqiradi.[24] Eyzenxauerda "Vulture" operatsiyasi Buyuk Britaniyaning ishtirokiga bog'liq edi va inglizlar oldindan ishtirok etishni rad etganda, "Vulture" operatsiyasini bajarmaslik uchun bahona sifatida foydalangan.
1954 yil avgustda Rostov va uning hamkasbi Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi - bog'langan MIT iqtisodiyot professori Maks F. Millikan Eyzenxauerni "Amerika uslubi" deb hisoblagan narsani tarqatish siyosati doirasida AQShning rivojlanish uchun tashqi yordamini ommaviy ravishda oshirishga ishontirdi. iqtisodiy o'sish Osiyoda va boshqa joylarda, harbiylar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan.[25][26] Sovuq urushni asosan Evro-markazlashgan nuqtai nazardan ko'rgan "Sovuq jangchilar" ning birinchi avlodidan farqli o'laroq, Rostov Sovuq Urushni global kurash sifatida ko'rib chiqdi. Uchinchi dunyo uning eng muhim jang maydoni edi.[27] Rostov ko'pincha odamlarni ayblagan Jorj F. Kennan va Din Acheson bo'lish irqchilar chunki ular ko'rishgan Evropa ga qaraganda ancha muhimroq Osiyo.[27] 1958 yil 26 fevralda Rostov birinchi bo'lib senator Jon F. Kennedi bilan uchrashdi, u kuchni tushunadigan akademikdan hayratda qoldi.[28] 1958 yil 27 fevralda Rostov Senatning Tashqi aloqalar qo'mitasi oldida guvoh sifatida qatnashdi, u erda oldindan kelishilganidek, Kennedi unga Amerikaning Hindistonga iqtisodiy yordami to'g'risida savol berdi, natijada "hozirgi yordam dasturi, taxminan 290 million dollarni tashkil etadi" bu yil juda etarli emas ".[29] Guvohlikning maqsadi, ikkalasi ham Uchinchi Dunyoni e'tiborsiz qoldirgan deb hisoblagan Eyzenxauerni xijolat qilish edi.[30] Rostov Kennedi uchun ikkita nutq yozgan, u Senat binosida nutq so'zlagan, Eyzenxauer ma'muriyatiga Hindistonni e'tiborsiz qoldirgani uchun hujum qilgan, Sovet Ittifoqi esa yo'q edi va oxir-oqibat Hindistonga shu yil oxirida Import-Export bankidan 150 million dollarlik almashinuv krediti berilishiga olib keldi. .[30] 1958 yil sentyabr oyida Rostov Kembrij universitetida professorlik unvonini olish uchun jo'nab ketdi, u erda u o'zining ilmiy ishini yoza boshladi magnum opus, Marksizmni paydo bo'lgan nazariya deb hisoblash uchun mo'ljallangan kitob Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari.[31] Nikita Xrushchev Sovet Ittifoqi o'zining besh yillik rejalari bilan tez orada dunyoning hukmron iqtisodiy qudrati sifatida Qo'shma Shtatlardan oshib ketadi, deb maqtanayotgan bir paytda, chunki u marksistik nazariya deb talqin qilgan narsa o'tmishni ham, kelajakni ham tushuntirdi, bu erda istak juda ko'p edi Amerika siyosiy va intellektual muassasalari uning mafkuraviy o'lchamlarini baholash uchun.
Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari
1960 yilda Rostow nashr etildi Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari: kommunistik bo'lmagan manifestiqtisodiy o'sishning asosiy tarixiy modellaridan biri bo'lgan Rostoviya iqtisodiy o'sish modelini taklif qildi, bu iqtisodiy modernizatsiya turli uzunlikdagi beshta asosiy bosqichda sodir bo'lishini ta'kidlaydi: an'anaviy jamiyat, uchish uchun old shartlar, uchish, etuklikka intilish va yuqori ommaviy iste'mol. Bu muhim tushunchalardan biriga aylandi modernizatsiya nazariyasi yilda ijtimoiy evolyutsionizm. O'z vaqti va makonining mahsuli bo'lgan bu kitobda Amerikaning qaror qabul qiluvchilari tushunadigan Sovuq Urushning asosiy muammolaridan biri, ya'ni Uchinchi dunyoda kommunizm murojaat qilgan millionlab odamlar qashshoqlikda yashashlari mumkinligi ta'kidlangan. modernizatsiya siyosati bilan hal qilinib, Amerikaning iqtisodiy yordami va o'sishi bilan ta'minlanadi.[32] Rostov kitobni dunyoning qaerga ketayotgani to'g'risida savol bilan boshladi: "Bu bizni kommunizmga olib bormoqdami yoki boy shahar atrofi, chiroyli ijtimoiy kapital bilan yaxlitlangan; halokatga; oyga; yoki qaerga?"[33] Britaniyadagi sanoat inqilobidan o'zining amaliy tadqiqoti sifatida foydalangan holda, Rostov tanbeh berishga intildi Karl Marks Marks o'zining nazariyalarining ko'pchiligiga asoslanib ingliz tarixini o'qishi nuqsonli deb ta'kidlab, tarixni qurish.[34] Kitob mohiyatan Amerikani Uchinchi dunyoga ko'proq jalb qilishga chaqiruv edi, chunki Rostov Uchinchi Dunyoning katta qismi "an'anaviy bosqich" yoki "uchish uchun old shartlar" bosqichida bo'lgan, ammo AQShning ozgina yordami bilan "uchish" bosqichiga chiqing.[35] Bosqichlar quyidagicha xulosa qildi: "... rivojlanmagan xalqlar old shartlar orqali demokratik dunyo orbitasida yaxshi yo'lga ko'tarilib, kommunizmning tuhmatlari va vasvasalariga qarshi turishlari kerak. Bu G'arbning eng muhim vazifasidir".[36]
Gay Ortolanoning ta'kidlashicha, Rostov marksistik sinfga yo'naltirilgan tahlilga alternativa sifatida sinfni millatni tarix agenti sifatida almashtirgan. Keyinchalik Britaniya tarixi taqqoslash uchun asos bo'ldi. Biroq, Rostov hech qachon ingliz ishini millatlarga nusxa ko'chirish uchun ideal model sifatida taklif qilmagan. Ko'plab sharhlovchilar bu uning maqsadi va diqqatini Amerika eksklyuzivligi masalalariga qaratgan va Angliya zamonaviy iqtisodiyotni yaratgan deb da'vo qilgan deb taxmin qilishdi.[37]
Rostovning tezisi o'sha paytda tanqid qilingan va keyinchalik G'arb taraqqiyotining Lotin Amerikasi yoki Afrikaning Sahroi Afrikasi kabi joylarda takrorlanmaydigan modelini umumlashtirgan. Yana bir tanqidiy yo'nalish uning G'arbdagi kabi "ommaviy ishlab chiqarish" va "ommaviy iste'mol" ga asoslangan jamiyatlar dunyodagi hamma taqlid qilishni istagan ideal jamiyat ekanligi haqidagi tezisidir.[38] O'sha paytda tanqidiy qabul juda yaxshi kitob tomonidan ko'rib chiqilgan edi Garri Shvarts ichida Nyu-York Tayms Rostovning "yigirmanchi asrning eng nufuzli iqtisodiy kitoblaridan biri" ni yozishdagi "ta'sirchan yutug'i" haqida gapirganda.[39] Sharhda Christian Science Monitor shunday deb yozgan edi: "Ishda zukkolik mavjud, ular paragraflar va sahifalarni ishlab chiqaradi, ular voqealarni deyarli chidab bo'lmaydigan soddalikka aylantiradi. Bu yozuvchi va kitobning o'ziga xos xususiyati".[39] Adlai Stivenson Rostovga yozgan maktubida: "Kelajak rostowizm va marksizmga qarshi kurashishmi? Agar shunday bo'lsa, men hozir ovoz berishga tayyorman" deb yozgan.[39] Muvaffaqiyatning katta qismi Bosqichlar o'sha paytda u seminal masalalarni tushunish oson, ammo etarlicha intellektual uslubda yuzma-yuz va sayoz deb hisoblanmaydigan uslubda ko'rib chiqilganligi bilan bog'liq edi.[40] Marksizmni rad etishga umid qilgan turli xil nazariyalari singari, Rostov ham taklif qildi katta nazariya, bu holda o'tmishni tushuntirgan va kelajakni bashorat qilgan "modernizatsiya nazariyasi".[41] Shveytsariyalik olim Gilbert Rist "Rostovning buyuk baxt sari odimlayotgan insoniyatning ajoyib freskasi" va uning nazariyalari "Marksiz marksizm" deb yozgan edi, chunki Rostov kapitalizm muqarrar ravishda g'alaba qozonishi kerak edi, deb ta'kidlagan edi, chunki uning fikriga ko'ra, bu ustun tizim.[42] Amerikalik tarixchi Maykl Shafer modernizatsiya nazariyasini "inson va vaqtinchalik kutilmagan holatlar doirasidan chiqarilgan universal aksiomalar to'plamidan kelib chiqqan holda mantiqiy tuzilish" deb yozgan.[43]
O'sha paytda Uchinchi dunyo davlati bo'lgan Janubiy Koreyada Rostovning kitobiga katta qiziqish ham iqtisodchilar, ham siyosatchilar tomonidan bildirilgan.[44] Rostovning "iqtisodiy ko'tarilish" kontseptsiyasi, ayniqsa, Janubiy Koreya prezidenti generalga murojaat qildi Park Chung Xi, Janubiy Koreyaliklarni o'zlarining millatlari Birinchi dunyo iqtisodiyotiga ko'tarilishi uchun ko'proq ishlashga chaqiradigan nutqlarida bu iborani tez-tez ishlatgan.[45] 1961 yilgi davlat to'ntarishida hokimiyatni qo'lga kiritgan Park 1962 yildan boshlab Janubiy Koreyaning besh yillik rejalari siyosatini ochdi. chebol "iqtisodiy ko'tarilish" bosqichiga chiqish uchun hukumat tomonidan belgilab qo'yilgan ba'zi maqsadlarni bajarishi kerak edi.[46] 1969 yilgi kitob Koreya iqtisodiy rivojlanish nazariyasi va holati hukumat tomonidan nashr etilgan etakchi iqtisodchilarning 17 ta insholaridan iborat bo'lib, ularning yarmi bayon etilgan nazariyalarni qo'llashga intildi Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari Janubiy Koreyaga.[46]
Kennedi va Jonson ma'muriyati huzuridagi xizmat
 | Ushbu bo'lim mumkin mavzudan uzoqlashish maqolaning. (2020 yil fevral) |
Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari Prezidentlikka nomzod ta'sirlanib qoldi Jon F. Kennedi, Rostovni o'zining siyosiy maslahatchilaridan biri etib tayinlagan va undan maslahat so'ragan.[47] Eyzenxauer ma'muriyati ostidagi katta lavozimga tayinlanish uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishdan so'ng, Rostov 1960 yilda o'z omadini Kennedi bilan sinab ko'rishga qaror qildi.[8] 1960 yilgi saylovlar davomida Rostov Kennedi kampaniyasida nutq muallifi va maslahatchisi bo'lib ishlagan, u erda u "g'ayrioddiy g'oya odami" sifatida tanilgan.[8] Rostov nutqni "Yangi chegara ", Kennedi Demokratik nomzodini qo'lga kiritganida bergan.[8] "Yangi chegara" nutqini qabul qilish Kennedini Rostovga saylovda g'alaba qozonsa, yuqori lavozimni va'da qilishga undadi.[8] Rostov shuningdek, Kennedining 1960 yildagi "Mamlakatni yana harakatga keltiraylik" shiori bilan chiqdi.[48] Dastlab, Kennedi Rostovga o'z ma'muriyatida katta lavozim bermoqchi edi.[49] Rostov 1960 yil dekabrida Eyzenxauer ma'muriyatining "katta qasos" yadroviy doktrinasini o'rniga keladigan Kennedi ma'muriyatining "moslashuvchan munosabati" yadroviy holatini belgilab beruvchi siyosiy hujjatni yozgandan so'ng, u AQSh Janubi-Sharqda yadro qurolini ishlatishga tayyor bo'lishi kerakligini ta'kidladi. Osiyo, Kennedi o'zining davlat kotibi lavozimiga tayinlagan odamni Xitoy tomonidan "yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan buzilish" ga qarshi kurashish uchun Din Rask, Rostuning tayinlanishiga veto qo'ydi.[49]
1961 yilda Kennedi prezident bo'lganida, Rostovni o'zining milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha yordamchisining o'rinbosari etib tayinladi McGeorge Bandi. Rostov orqali shunchaki Bundining o'rinbosari bo'lgan, amalda u tengdosh bo'lib xizmat qilgan, chunki dastlab Kennediga taniqli, dunyoga mashhur iqtisodchidan olgan maslahati katta ta'sir ko'rsatgan.[50] 1961 yil 20-yanvarda Kennedi prezident lavozimiga kirishishdan oldin, 1961 yil 6-yanvarda Sovet rahbari, Nikita Xrushchev Moskvada nutq so'zlab, Sovet Ittifoqi uchinchi dunyoning istalgan joyida har qanday "milliy ozodlik urushini" qo'llab-quvvatlashga qodir va tayyor ekanligini aytdi.[51] Xrushyovga ma'ruzasi asosan 1960 yilgi Xitoy-Sovet bo'linishiga javob bo'ldi Mao Szedun Xrushchevni "revizionizmda" ayblagan va Sovet Ittifoqini Uchinchi dunyo mustamlakachilikka qarshi va millatchilik harakatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlamaganligi uchun qoralagan edi.[52] Shunday qilib, Mao o'zini jahon kommunistik harakatining etakchisi deb bilishini e'lon qildi va Xrushchevni Moskvadagi nutqi bilan "milliy ozodlik urushlarini" qo'llab-quvvatlashga tayyorligini e'lon qildi.[52] Kennedi va uning maslahatchilari xitoy-sovet raqobati kontekstini sog'inib, Xrushchevning nutqini dunyo hukmronligi uchun jasoratli yangi sovet gambiti deb hisoblashdi va Uchinchi dunyo mavzusini o'zi uchun asosiy tashvishga solib qo'yishdi.[52] 1961 yil 28 yanvarda Kennedi huzuridagi Milliy Xavfsizlik Kengashining birinchi yig'ilishi butunlay Uchinchi dunyo mavzusiga bag'ishlangan bo'lib, prezident Xrushevning "milliy ozodlik nutqi urushlari" ning parchalarini o'qib, xavfni ta'kidladi.[52] Har doim Uchinchi Dunyoni Sovuq Urushning asosiy "jang maydoni" deb bilgan Rostov avvaliga yangi prezident bilan katta ta'sirga ega edi.[53] Modernizatsiya nazariyasining havoriysi sifatida Rostov Uchinchi dunyoda kommunizmga qarshi kurashish siyosatini ishlab chiqdi.
Rostov Kubada kommunistik hukumat mavjudligini qabul qilib bo'lmaydi, chunki aks holda Lotin Amerikasining qolgan qismi kommunizm bilan "yuqtirilgan" bo'lishi mumkin, deya ta'kidlagan bo'lsa-da, cho'chqalar ko'rfaziga bostirib kirishni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[54] Xuddi shu qatorda Rostov ham asosiy ilhom manbai edi Taraqqiyot uchun ittifoq, Lotin Amerikasi uchun 20 milliard dollarlik yordam dasturi 1961 yilda Kennedi tomonidan katta shov-shuv bilan boshlangan va u Rostov tomonidan yozilgan nutqida qanday taraqqiyot alyansi Lotin Amerikasiga "iqtisodiy ko'tarilish" bosqichiga o'tishga imkon berishi haqida gapirdi. yillik o'sish darajasi 2,5% (Rostov tanlagan maqsad), bu Lotin Amerikasida kommunizmning jozibasini abadiy tugatadi.[53] Rostov shuningdek, Kennedini nafaqat Lotin Amerikasida, balki Uchinchi dunyoda kommunizmga qarshi kurashning eng yaxshi usuli yordamni ko'paytirish ekanligiga ishontirishda muhim rol o'ynadi va 1961 yilda uchinchi dunyoning qolgan qismiga Amerikaning yordami 2,5 dollardan 4,5 milliard dollarga ko'tarildi. 1960 yilda milliard.[55] Rostov tomonidan yozilgan nutqida Kennedi 1960-yillar "taraqqiyotning o'n yilligi" bo'lishini e'lon qildi va Qo'shma Shtatlar Uchinchi dunyo davlatlariga "iqtisodiy ko'tarilish" ga erishish uchun etarli miqdordagi tashqi yordamni ko'rsatishga tayyor va imkoni borligini aytdi. bosqich.[56]
Rostov Kennedini "daqiqada g'oyalar odami" sifatida g'azablantirdi, chunki u Rostovning o'zi uchun juda ko'p g'oyalar borligi va haqiqatan ham muhim bo'lgan narsalarga e'tibor berolmayotganidan shikoyat qildi.[57] Kennedining asosiy shikoyati shundaki, Rostov tezkor olov uslubida g'oyalar toshqinini taklif qiladi va bu unga ergashishni qiyinlashtirdi.[57] Kennedi 1961 yil yanvar oyida Oq uyga tasdiqlangan qirg'iy sifatida kelgan edi, u 1960 yilgi saylovlar paytida Eyzenxauerni Fidel Kastroni ag'darib yubormaganligi uchun "kommunizmga yumshoq" deb tanqid qilgan edi, ammo aprel oyida cho'chqalar ko'rfaziga bostirib kirishi uning jangini sovitdi. g'azab.[58] Cho'chqalar ko'rfaziga bostirib kirgandan so'ng, u Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi va shtab boshlig'i qo'mondonligidan olgan shafqatsiz maslahatiga ishonmaslik uchun keldi.[59] Natijada, Kennedi, shuningdek, Rostovdan olgan shafqatsiz maslahatni rad etdi va mutaxassislarning barchasini unga "Cho'chqalar ko'rfazi" bosqini muvaffaqiyatsiz tugashi mumkin emasligini aytdi.[59] Cho'chqalar ko'rfaziga bostirib kirgandan so'ng, Kennedi Rostovning AQSh qo'shinlarini Laosga yuborish bo'yicha maslahatini rad etdi.[59] Iqtisodchi Jon Kennet Galbraith Do'sti Kennediga, Laos urushga arzimaydi, deb maslahat berdi va Kennedining o'zi ta'kidlashicha, Laosdagi kuchlarni etkazib berish jiddiy logistik muammolarni keltirib chiqaradi.[59] Va nihoyat, Amerika kuchlarining Yalu daryosiga yaqinlashishi qanday qilib Xitoyning Koreya urushiga aralashishiga olib kelganini eslab, prezident Laosga aralashish Xitoy bilan o'zi istamagan urushni keltirib chiqarishidan xavotirda edi.[59] Buning o'rniga Kennedi diplomatni yubordi W. Averell Harriman Rostov va Garriman o'rtasida janjal boshlangan Laosni "zararsizlantirish" to'g'risidagi bitimni muzokara qilish, chunki avvalgisi ikkinchisini tinchlantiruvchi sifatida ko'rishni boshladi.[59]
Kennedi, shuningdek, Rostov Vetnamga nisbatan qattiqqo'llik bilan ayblanib, u Vetnam haqida gaplashishga ko'p vaqt sarflaganligi sababli, u o'sha mamlakat bilan ovora bo'lganga o'xshaydi.[48] Rostov "Domino nazariyasiga" ishongan, agar Janubiy Vetnam qulasa, Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoning qolgan qismi ham xuddi shunday dominolar singari qulab tushishini va oxir-oqibat Hindiston ham qulab tushishini taxmin qilgan.[56] 1961 yilning iyunida Rostov Kennediga Shimoliy Vetnamni bombardimon qilishni maslahat berayotgandi.[60] 1961 yildagi Berlin inqirozi paytida Rostov Kennediga shunday maslahat bergan: "Biz Xrushchev tomoniga odatdagi kuchlar yoki boshqa vositalar bilan bosim o'tkazish usullarini topishimiz kerak ... Biz Xrushyovni Berlini balandlashtirsa, uni xavf ostiga qo'yishni hozir boshlashimiz kerak. inqiroz, biz va g'arbiy nemislar Sharqiy Germaniyani zararsizlantirishga olib keladigan choralarni ko'rishimiz mumkin ".[61] Rostov Kennediga maslahat bergan alohida harakat "Sharqiy Germaniyadagi Xrushchev yo'qotishni istamasligi mumkin bo'lgan biron bir hududni egallab olish va ushlab turish (masalan, Magdeburg)".[61] Kennedi ushbu maslahatni juda xavfli deb rad etdi va AQSh kuchlarining Sharqiy Germaniyaning bir qismini egallab olishlari deyarli aniq Sovet Ittifoqi bilan yadroviy urushga sabab bo'lishini aytdi.[12] Keyinchalik o'sha yili Rostov bo'ldi Direktor Davlat departamenti Siyosatni rejalashtirish bo'yicha xodimlar. O'sha paytda Kennedi shunday izoh bergan edi: "Uolt - bu g'oyalar favvorasi; ehtimol ularning har o'ntadan bittasi ajoyibdir. Afsuski, oltita yoki etti nafari shunchaki befarq emas, balki xavfli. Men uning ijodiga qoyil qolaman, lekin bu juda qulay bo'ladi. uni Oq uydan olib tashlashga ijozat bering ".[62]
Kennedi Rostovga uning Oq Uydan Davlat departamentiga tushirilishining sababi quyidagicha bo'lgan: "Bu erda Oq uyda biz juda tor tanlov tanlovi bilan o'ynashimiz kerak ... Biz uzoq masofali rejalashtirishni amalga oshirolmaymiz; u erda bajarish kerak. Men sizlarga u erga borishingizni va jarayonni hisoblanadigan darajada ushlab turishingizni istayman ".[57] Rostov Kennedining katolikligiga murojaat qilib: "Men Rimdagi ruhoniydan provinsiyalarda episkop bo'lishga ketyapman", deb shikoyat qildi.[57] 1961 yil oktyabrda Rostov general bilan haqiqatni aniqlash missiyasiga bordi Maksvell Teylor Janubiy Vetnamga borgan va u Amerikaning kommunizm bilan "so'nggi katta to'qnashuv bo'lishi mumkin" degan so'zlariga ko'proq jalb qilinganligi uchun g'ayrat bilan qaytgan.[8] Teylor va Rostov yozgan xabarda Kennedi AQShning 6000-8000 nafar qo'shinlarini "toshqinlardan qutulish ishchilari" niqobi ostida Janubiy Vetnamga jang qilish uchun yuborganligi haqida tashviqot qilingan.[63] Kennedi Rostov-Teylorning Janubiy Vetnamga jang qilish uchun o'z qo'shinlarini yuborish haqidagi tavsiyasini rad etdi, ammo hisobotning Janubiy Vetnamga ko'proq harbiy va iqtisodiy yordam ko'rsatishni talab qiladigan boshqa tavsiyalarini qabul qildi.[63] Karnov Rostovni "urushda xursand bo'lgan" odam deb ta'rifladi, chunki u kalta, kal va ko'zoynakli Nyu-York ziyolisi Ikkinchi Jahon urushi idealizatsiyalangan faxriysi singari qattiq, qattiq va maho bo'lishi mumkinligini isbotlamoqchi edi. O'sha paytda Gollivud jangovar filmlarda suratga tushishda davom etdi.[8] Rostov Ikkinchi Jahon urushida Germaniyada bombardimon qilinadigan nishonlarni tanlash vazifasi bilan razvedka tahlili sifatida xizmat qilgan, bu jangovar janglarni hech qachon ko'rmasligini ta'minlaydigan muhim, ammo qulay "stol ishi", u juda nozik bo'lgan.[8]
1962 yil fevralda Prezident Ngo Dinh Diem aholini Vetkong partizanlaridan ajratib olish usuli sifatida dehqonlarni strategik qishloqlarga majburan ko'chirish strategik qishloq dasturi.[64] Strategik qishloq dasturiga turtki Diemdan kelgan bo'lsa-da, Rostov dasturni "an'anaviy odamni" buzish usuli sifatida qo'llab-quvvatladi va strategik qishloqlar modernizatsiya agentlari bo'lishini ta'kidladi.[65] U nima uchun strategik qishloqlar Janubiy Vetnam dehqonlariga unchalik yoqmayotgani haqida hayratda qoldi.[66] 1962 yilda Rostov Kennedi ma'muriyatining tashqi siyosatini aks ettiruvchi 284 betlik hujjat (National National Policy Policy, BNSP) bayonotini tayyorladi.[67] Modernizatsiya nazariyasiga bo'lgan qiziqishini aks ettirgan Rostov Uchinchi Dunyoni, xususan, "Erondan Koreyagacha yoy" ni Sovuq Urushning eng muhim "jang maydoni" deb atadi.[68] 1940 yillarda Jorj Kennan ta'kidlaganidek, "qamoqqa olish" nazariyasiga asoslanib, Rostovning BNSP Qo'shma Shtatlarning Uchinchi Dunyoda iqtisodiy o'sishga ko'maklashishini va "erkin xalqlarning keng jamoatchiligini yaratishni" ilgari surdi. Lotin Amerikasi, Afrika, Osiyo va Yaqin Sharqni qamrab olgan ".[69] O'sha paytda AQShning Belgraddagi elchisi bo'lib ishlagan Kennan BNSPni qattiq tanqid qildi.[70] Kennan Rostovning g'olib bo'ladigan yadro urushi haqidagi tashviqotiga hujum qilib, u yadro urushi vayron qilingan dunyoda yashashdan ko'ra "mening bolalarimning o'lganini ko'rishni afzal ko'radi" deb yozgan.[70] Kennan, shuningdek, Rostovning Uchinchi dunyodagi jarayonga nisbatan optimizmini tanqid qilib, Uchinchi dunyo umidsiz orqada qolganligi va agar jarayonga ruxsat berilsa, AQSh uchun xavf tug'dirishi mumkinligini yozgan.[71] Biroq, Kennanning tanqididagi ba'zi bir bayonotlar, u erda birinchi jahon hayot darajasi "kelib chiqishi Shimoliy dengiz qirg'og'ida yoki uning yonida bo'lgan xalqlarga xos" yoki Birlashgan Millatlar singari xalqlardan kelib chiqqan millatlarga xosdir. Shtatlar Rostovga Kennanni irqchilikni oqlashda ayblashiga ruxsat berdi.[71]
Davomida Kuba raketa inqirozi, Rostov asosan qarorlarni qabul qilish jarayonidan chetlashtirildi, faqat inqiroz paytida Kennedi bilan uchrashgan, u erda u Kubaga neft olib ketayotgan sovet kemalarini to'xtatishni maslahat bergan edi, bu maslahat olinmadi.[72] Qaror doirasida Kennedi Kubaga bostirib kirmaslikka va Turkiyadan Amerika raketalarini chiqarishga va'da berganidan bexabar Rostov Kuba raketa inqirozini g'alaba deb bildi, bu esa AQShning ustun kuchini isbotladi.[73] Kuba raketa inqirozidan ilhomlanib, 1962 yil 28-noyabrda Rostov Shimoliy Vetnamni bombardimon qilish to'g'risida eslatma yozib, shunday deb yozgan edi: "Sovuq urushning barcha saboqlari, shu jumladan so'nggi Kuba inqirozi bizning harakatlarimizga javoban kommunistlar avj olmasliklari". .[73] 1962 yilda Rostov Vashingtonda "Rostov tezisi" nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan narsani targ'ib qila boshladi, ya'ni agar Qo'shma Shtatlar Shimoliy Vetnamni Ikkinchi Jahon Urushida Germaniya va Yaponiya bombardimon qilganlar qatorida bombardimon qilgan bo'lsa, u holda Shimoliy Vetnamliklar to'xtashi kerak edi. Janubiy Vetnam hukumatini ag'darishga harakat qilmoqda.[74]
1963 yilda Rostov birinchi bo'lib Shimoliy Vetnamni bosib olish tarafdori bo'lib, Shimoliy Vetnam qirg'og'iga Amerika va Janubiy Vetnam qo'nishi uchun Saygon hukumati ostida Vetnamni birlashtirish uchun tayyorgarlik sifatida bahs yuritdi.[75] Davlat kotibining Osiyo masalalari bo'yicha yordamchisiga yuborilgan dasturiy hujjatda, W. Averell Harriman 1963 yil 2-fevralda yozilgan jumla bilan boshlangan: "Qadimgi va hurmatli do'stingiz rokkasidan chiqib ketganiga qaror qilishdan oldin ...", Rostov Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirishni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[73] 1950 yilda Yalu daryosiga AQSh qo'shinlarining yaqinlashishi Xitoyning Koreya urushiga aralashishiga olib kelganligi sababli, Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirish ham Xitoy bilan urushga olib kelishi Vashingtonda odatda qabul qilingan edi. Shu sababli, Garriman Rostovning qog'ozidan ta'sirlanmadi va Rostov Xitoy bilan yadroviy urush ehtimoli haqida juda g'ayrioddiy ekanligini aytib, Rostovni akademiyadagi perchiga qaytarishni maslahat berdi.[73] Xitoyning yadro dasturi 1963 yilga kelib juda yaxshi rivojlandi va 1964 yilda Xitoy o'zining birinchi atom bombasini, so'ngra 1967 yilda birinchi vodorod bombasini portlatdi. Rostov bu fikrni 1963 yil iyul oyida chop etilgan maqolada ta'kidlab, Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirish eng yaxshisi ekanligini ta'kidladi. xitoyliklar "yadroviy moslamani zarba berishadi".[73] Garriman AQShning eng badavlat kishilardan biri bo'lgan, u Demokratik partiyaga xayriya qilishda juda saxiy bo'lgan va shu tariqa Ruzveltdan Jonsongacha bo'lgan har bir demokrat prezidentning do'sti va maslahatchisi bo'lib xizmat qilgan. Rostov Shimoliy Vetnamni bosib olishni targ'ib qilgan qat'iyatlilik 1964 yilda Xitoyning birinchi yadro sinovidan keyin ham Garrimanni tashvishga solib qo'ydi va u doimiy ravishda Rostovning ta'sirini kuchaytirishga intilib, uni Rostovning Vashingtondagi asosiy dushmanlaridan biriga aylantirdi.[73]
Keyin Kennedining o'ldirilishi, uning vorisi Lindon B. Jonson Jonsonning birinchi asarini yozganidan keyin Rostovni Bandi ishiga ko'targan Ittifoq davlati nutq. Kennedi umuman Rostovning maslahatini e'tiborsiz qoldirgan edi, ammo Jonson 1964 yil fevral oyida Shimoliy Vetnamga qarshi strategik bombardimon kampaniyasi urushda g'alaba qozonish uchun etarli bo'ladi degan maqola yozganidan keyin unga e'tibor berishni boshladi.[76] Amerikaning Laosdagi elchisi Uilyam X.Sullivan 1964 yil fevral oyida yozganida, strategik bombardimon hal qiluvchi bo'lishiga ishonmasdi, chunki Vet Kongda "o'zlarining mustahkam kuchi" bo'lgan, Rostov shafqatsiz edi, chunki Vetnamda yo'q edi Janubiy Vetnamda qo'llab-quvvatlashning haqiqiy asosi va faqat Shimoliy Vetnam ularni qo'llab-quvvatlaganligi sababli mavjud edi.[77] Kommunizmning Janubiy Vetnam aholisining ba'zi qismlariga murojaat qilishi haqidagi g'oya Rostovga anatema bo'lib, u Janubiy Vetnamda fuqarolar urushi bo'lmaganligini va faqat Shimoliy Vetnam va Janubiy Vetnam o'rtasida kurash borligini ta'kidladi.[78]
Rostovning yozishicha, "tugatilgan" bosim siyosati talab qilingan, chunki Qo'shma Shtatlar bombardimon darajasini shu darajaga ko'tarib, oxir-oqibat Shimoliy Vetnamning yangi rivojlanib borayotgan sanoatining yo'q qilinishiga olib keladi.[79] Vetnam tarixi haqida hech narsa bilmagan amerikalik qaror qabul qiluvchilarning aksariyatidan farqli o'laroq, Rostov bu borada juda ko'p o'qigan va Xitoy elitalari asrlar davomida Vetnamni bir kun qaytarib beradigan yo'qolgan viloyat deb bilishini bilgan (Vetnam xitoylik bo'lgan) province from 111 BC to 938 AD), leading to a long series of Vietnamese-Chinese wars as successive Vietnamese emperors fought off attempts by the emperors of China to incorporate Vietnam into the middle kingdom.[80] Knowing of the full depth of the Sino-Vietnamese enmity, Rostow reached the conclusion that Ho Chi Minh would not want his nation to draw too close to China, and as such, could not risk the destruction of North Vietnam's industry, which would leave North Vietnam entirely dependent upon China.[80] One of Rostow's opponents, George Ball, argued that Ho's Vietnamese nationalism would make him an Asian version of Iosip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, a communist leader who wanted his nation to be independent of both Moscow and Beijing.[81] Ball argued that South Vietnam was a poor and politically unstable ally that contributed little to American national security, and allowing Ho to reunify Vietnam would pose no danger to the United States.[81] Rostow, by contrast, argued that South Vietnam was the crucial to American national security and to allow the first "domino" to fall would cause the other "dominoes" in Southeast Asia; in his mind, losing any nation to communism, even it was of the Titoist type was unacceptable.[81]
Starting in February 1964, Rostow championed the idea of Congress giving President Johnson the power to wage war in Southeast Asia, an idea that he first suggested in February 1964.[8] Rostow pointed out in a memo to the president that the degree of escalation in the Vietnam war envisioned by the administration would pose constitutional and legal problems as the constitution gave Congress, not the president, the right to declare war and the level of escalation envisioned would be a war in everything, but name.[82] Rostow' solution to this problem was for Congress to pass a resolution giving the president the legal power to essentially wage a war in Vietnam.[82]
Kongress o'tgan yili Tonkin ko'rfazi on 10 August 1964, which was the closest thing to a declaration of war that the United States had in Vietnam, Rostow was well pleased.[83] Haqida Tonkin ko'rfazidagi voqea that led to the resolution, Rostow later said: "We don't know what happened, but it had the desired effect".[83] In November 1964, Rostow advised Johnson to commit U.S. ground forces to Vietnam to prove that "we are prepared to face down any form of escalation" and to send "massive" naval and air forces to strike North Vietnam and if necessary, China as well.[84] In a memo to Johnson, Rostow wrote: "They [the Vietnamese Communists] will not actually accept a setback until they are sure that we mean it" and needed to know that "they now confront a LBJ who has made up his mind".[84]
In the 1964 election, the Republican candidate, Senator Barri Goldwater, ran on a platform promising an aggressive foreign policy that would achieve a "total victory" over Communism (by which Goldwater presumably meant the Soviet Union and China). By contrast, Johnson sought to portray himself as just as "tough on Communism" as Goldwater while also portraying his opponent as a right-wing extremist who was likely to cause a nuclear war.[85] The Republican slogan "In your heart you know he's right" was mercilessly lampooned by the Democrats with the counter-slogan "In your guts you know he's nuts!"[85] In the context of the 1964 election, Johnson found the idea of a gradual process of escalating American involvement in Vietnam appealing as it allowed him to present both as a "tough" president while also less extreme than Goldwater.[85] Rostow's consistent advocacy of a strategic bombing against North Vietnam as the decisive way to win the war endeared him to Johnson as it promised a "cheap" victory that would not cost too many American lives.[85]
The National Security Adviser Johnson had inherited from Kennedy, McGeorge Bandi, greatly annoyed the president as he spoke with an upper-class New England accent that Johnson found patronizing.[74] When Bundy developed doubts about the Vietnam war in early 1966, Johnson sacked him.[74]
Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi
| Ushbu bo'lim mumkin mavzudan uzoqlashish maqolaning. (2020 yil fevral) |
As national security adviser, Rostow was responsible for developing the government's policy in Vietnam, and was convinced that the war could be won, becoming Johnson's main war hawk and playing an important role in bringing Johnson's presidency to an end.[86] Rostow was extremely close to Johnson, later recalling::
"Johnson took me into his house as well as his staff, into his family; took my family in as well. It was an open-hearted, human relationship. I came to hold the greatest possible affection for him, love for him, as well as respect for the job. I had an enormous compassion for what he was bearing during those years, for what the family was bearing."[87]
At the time the appointment of Rostow as National Security Adviser was well received with almost all of the American media praising Johnson for appointing such an eminent economist and historian to advise him.[88] In an editorial the Nyu-York Tayms wrote that Rostow was:
"...a scholar with an original mind as well as an experienced official and policy planner...one of the architects of John F. Kennedy's foreign policy...Mr. Rostow, of course, will be only one of the President's principal advisers, and Mr. Johnson will make his own decisions. But the appointment places beside the President an independent and cultivated mind that, as in the Bundy era, should assure comprehension both of the intricacies of world problems and of the options among which the White House must choose. No President could ask for more."[88]
Johnson stated at the time that: "I'm getting Walt Rostow as my intellectual. He's not your intellectual. He's not Bundy's intellectual. He's not Schlesinger's intellectual. He's not Galbraith's intellectual. He's going to be my Goddamn intellectual!"[88] Johnson because of his origins as a man from the impoverished, harsh world of Texas who spoke his English with a heavy Texas twang and who had rather crude manners always felt a certain sense of inferiority when dealing with patrician Ivy League intellectuals like McGeorge Bundy, Arthur Schlesinger and John Kenneth Galbraith, who all served under Kennedy.[88] Kennedy and his closest advisers always regarded Johnson as "white trash" from Texas, a vulgar man whose company had to be endured rather than enjoyed. Johnson felt that Rostow's status as a Jewish intellectual from New York who likewise worked his way up from poverty made him into a kindred soul in a way that "Kennedy's intellectuals" never could be for him.[88] One of Johnson's favorite advisers, Jek Valenti, recommenced Rostow to the president.[89]
Johnson's background growing up poor on a farm in Texas left him with a sympathy for the underprivileged, and he was very interested in Rostow's plans for Third World development.[90] Rostow later recalled about Johnson: "he was always for the underdog".[91] Through Johnson believed that Africa was a hopeless disaster, he had great hopes for developing Latin America and Asia, remembering how the New Deal infrastructure projects of the 1930s had transformed Texas, until then a very backward state.[90] As Rostow's specialization was the subject of the economic modernization of the Third World, his area of expertise appealed to the president, who often talked grandly of his plans to bring electricity to the rural areas of South Vietnam as the necessary prelude to ending poverty in South Vietnam.[92] Finally, Rostow's consistently optimistic appraisal of the Vietnam war appealed to Johnson while his reputation as a hardliner was meant to signal that Johnson was prepared to do whatever it took to win the war.[93] The abrasive Johnson, who was notorious within Washington for mistreating his staff, "initiated" Rostow by humiliating him by first leaking news of his appointment to the press, and then calling up to accuse him of being the leak.[94] After unleashing a torrent of obscurities and screaming at him, the president hung up the phone without giving Rostow a chance to reply.[94] Johnson always "initiated" his staff by humiliating them in some way to assert his dominance, and Rostow seems not to have taken it personally.[95]
Rostow consistently argued to Johnson that any effort at a peaceful resolution to the Vietnam War would be "capitulation".[96] In his reports to Johnson, Rostow always put the emphasis on information that portrayed the United States as winning, becoming Johnson's favourite adviser on foreign affairs.[97] The optimistic reports that the hawkish Rostow wrote were much preferred by the president to the more pessimistic reports written by the "doves" in the administration.[97] A typical memo from Rostow on 25 June 1966 read: "Mr. President, you can smell it all over. Hanoi's operation, backed by the Chicoms [Chinese Communists], is no longer being regarded as the wave of the future out there. U.S. power is beginning to be felt".[98] The Ambassador-At-Large W. Averell Harriman called Rostow "America's Rasputin" as he considered him to have a sinister power over Johnson's mind, as he always pressed the president to take a harder line on Vietnam against the advice of his more dovish staff, Harriman included.[99] Johnson was not enthusiastic about the Vietnam War, later telling his biographer Doris Kearns in a very gendered language that the Buyuk jamiyat was "the woman I really loved" while the Vetnam urushi was "that bitch of a war on the other side of the world".[100] As a president, Johnson had often in private complained that he much rather focus on his "Great Society" program intended to end poverty and racism in America and that the Vietnam War was an unwanted distraction.[100] Given these views, Harriman found it mystifying that Johnson should shun his advice about finding a way for the United States to gracefully exit Vietnam while accepting the counsel of Rostow.[99]
Johnson remembered how the "Xitoyni yo'qotish " in 1949 had badly damaged the Democratic administration of Harry S. Truman who was excoriated by the Republicans as "soft on communism" and criminally negligent in allowing the "loss of China", attacks that resonated with the American people at the time.[101] Johnson once told a reporter Joseph Kraft, in an "off-the-record" conversation:
"I knew that Harry Truman and Dean Acheson had lost their effectiveness from the day the Communists took over China. I believe that the loss of China had played a large role in the rise of Joe McCarthy. And I knew that all these problems, taken together, were chickenshit compared with what might happen if we lost Vietnam...I don't give a damn about these little pinkos on the campuses, they're just waving their diapers and bellyaching because they don't want to fight. The great black beast for us is the right wing. If we don't give this war over soon they'll put enormous pressure on us to turn it into an Armageddon and wreck all our other programs".[101]
Johnson was fearful that if he allowed the "loss of Vietnam", it would cause a similar right-wing backlash that would allow a "reactionary" Republican to win the presidency and for the GOP to take control of Congress, and together they would end his Great Society program along with the rest of Johnson's civil rights legislation.[101] Much of Rostow's influence on Johnson was due to his insistence that to protect his domestic achievements that Johnson had to fight the Vietnam war, and moreover that the war was eminently winnable provided that the correct policies were followed.[102] For Johnson, Rostow offered him a way out of an unpleasant situation of fighting a war in Vietnam that he rather not fight to protect the Great Society by promising him what Rostow insisted was a path to victory, as Rostow noted that presidents who win wars were usually also popular presidents.[102]
In particular, Rostow persistently argued to the president that a programme of sustained bombing would force North Vietnam to cease its support of the Viet Cong and thus win the war.[103] Rostow believed that strategic bombing alone would be enough to force North Vietnam to capitulate, and became the main advocate in the White House of Rolling Thunder operatsiyasi, the bombing offensive launched against North Vietnam in February 1965.[104] Initially, Rostow believed in only bombing certain targets as a way of warning Hanoi to cease supporting the Viet Cong, but he changed his mind, coming to favour an all-out bombing offensive that would completely destroy the economy of North Vietnam.[105] Reflecting the lessons of the Oil Plan, Rostow in particular believed that the destruction of the North Vietnamese oil shortage facilities and the hydroelectric grid would so economically cripple North Vietnam that the war would be won, and he pressed Johnson to end the restrictions on bombing oil shortage tanks and hydro plants.[106] Rostow was opposed by Harriman, who like him had spent much of World War II living in England; however, Harriman had first-hand observed how German bombing of British cities had hardened the will of the British public, and he now argued that American bombing on North Vietnam was having the same effect on the North Vietnamese public.[106] The fact that Rostow had arrived in London in fall of 1942, when the worse of the German bombing was over, while Harriman as a special envoy for President Roosevelt had witnessed first-hand the "Blitz" against London and other British cities in the winter of 1940–41 contributed to their differing assessments of the effects of bombing.[106] Based on his experiences in wartime, Harriman called the Rostow Thesis "the stick without the carrot".[106]
The first crisis that confronted Johnson and Rostow was the Buddistlar qo'zg'oloni in South Vietnam where an attempt by Air Marshal Nguyon Cao Kỳ to dismiss General Nguyen Chánh Thi led to a civil war within the civil war as units of the South Vietnamese Army fought one another, much to the consternation of Johnson who could not believe that America's allies in South Vietnam were fighting each other.[107] Rostow for his part advised the president to fully support Kỳ, charging that the Buddhist Struggle Movement which had rallied behind Thi was being used by the Communists.[107] Rostow told Johnson: "We are faced with the classic revolutionary situation-like Paris in 1789 and St. Petersburg in 1917".[107] Rostow claimed that the Buddhists were just being used by the Viet Cong just as Lenin used Kerensky to take power in 1917, but fortunately American forces were there to save the day.[107] Rostow concluded: "In the face of defeat in the field and Kerensky's weaknesses, Lenin took over in November. This is about what would happen in Saigon if we were not there, but we are there".[107] As the civil war within the civil war between Kỳ and Thi greatly disturbed Johnson, Rostow's advice to side with Kỳ was decisive.[107] The fact that Kỳ expressed much admiration for Hitler, who in his own words was his "only hero" apparently did not offend Rostow. One of Rostow's aides later wrote "Rostow was like Rasputin to a tsar under siege".[107] Rostow's opponent, Jorj Ball wrote about Rostow's influence: "He played to Johnson's weaker side, always creating an image of Johnson standing against the forces of evil. He used to tell him how Lincoln was abused by everybody when he was at a certain stage of the Civil War...He spent a great deal of time creating a kind of fantasy for the president".[107] In August 1966, Harriman warned Rostow against escalating the war to the brink of a nuclear war with China to best preserve life on plant Earth, only to be told "it is only in extreme crises that such settlements will come".[108]
At one point in 1966–67, the hawkish Rostow advocated that the United States invade North Vietnam, even if it meant war with China, a course of action that McNamara rejected as likely to cause a nuclear war.[109] Rostow always maintained that had his advice to the president to invade North Vietnam been taken in 1966 or 1967, the war would have been won, telling Karnow in an interview in 1981 that he was disappointed that Johnson rejected his advice to invade North Vietnam.[109] Johnson remembered how the approach of American forces upon the Yalu river in 1950 to China intervening in the Korean War, and he was very fearful that an American invasion of North Vietnam would once again led to a war with China, which now had nuclear weapons.[110] For this reason, Johnson was always against invading North Vietnam as the risks of a nuclear war with China were too awful for him to consider.[110] Through Rostow was disappointed that Johnson rejected his advice to invade North Vietnam, he knew better than to stridently press that idea as that would annoy the president, and instead he brought up the idea of invading North Vietnam every so often a couple of months after Johnson last rejected it.[111] Rostow also chaired a secret "psychological strategy committee" whose purpose was to supply "correct facts" about the Vietnam war to Congress, the media and the American people in general.[112]
1966 yil iyun oyida, Yanush Levandovski, the Polish delegate to the International Control Commission, which was supposed to police the Geneva Accords of 1954, contacted Giovanni D'Orlandi, the Italian ambassador to South Vietnam with a peace offer.[113] Lewandowski stated he just spoken with Xoshimin, whom he claimed wanted a "political compromise" to end the war and would go "quite a long way" for such a settlement.[113] Lewandowski reported that Ho was willing to drop his demand that the government of South Vietnam be overthrown, though he preferred that somebody else other than Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky serve as premier; asked only the National Liberation Front (better known as the Viet Cong) "take part" in negotiations, instead of serving in the government; and were willing to accept a "reasonable calendar" for the withdrawal of American forces instead demanding their immediate pull-out.[114] The Ambassador-at-Large Harriman and his deputy, the former CIA agent Chester Cooper, were intrigued by the Polish offer, which was backed by the Soviet Union.[114] Ever since 1960, Mao Szedun had been accusing the Soviet Union of capitulating to capitalism and abandoning its princioples, and a Sino-Soviet competition had broken out about which of the two states was most willing to support North Vietnam. Lewandowski stated that the Soviets were tired of this economically exhausting competition because every time China increased its support for North Vietnam, the Soviets had to increase their support on an even greater scale just to rebut the Chinese claim that they were "selling out".[115]
D'Orlandi was able to arrange for Lewandowski to meet Genri Kabot lojasi kichik, the U.S. ambassador in Saigon, and the talks went well.[116] By November 1966, it was arranged that John Gronouski, the American ambassador in Warsaw, would meet with North Vietnamese diplomats the next month for peace talks in what was code-named Marigold operatsiyasi.[116] By December 1966, American aircraft bombed oil facilities and railroad yards in Hanoi, which led the Poles to warn if the U.S. continued to bomb Hanoi, the talks would be aborted.[116] Rostow told the president that he believed that Operation Marigold was a "trap" and the North Vietnamese demand that Hanoi not be bombed anymore showed the bombing campaign was indeed working as he promised it would.[116] On December 6, 1966 Johnson refused Harriman's request to cease bombing Hanoi and a week later, the planned talks in Warsaw were cancelled as the North Vietnamese announced that there would be no peace talks as long as North Vietnam was being bombed.[116] In January 1967, Rostow reported to Johnson that the Viet Cong were "disintegrating" under the American pressure, writing optimistically that the major problem for the Americans in the coming year would be to find the best way to integrate those Viet Cong guerrillas who had surrendered back into civilian life.[117] In a further hopeful sign he reported to the president in the same month that the bloody chaos of the Cultural Revolution had pushed China to the brink of civil war as "Mao's own prestige has been seriously, perhaps irretrievably, tarnished in this yet unavailing fracas".[117] With China collapsing into chaos, he believed that the Chinese would be limited in their ability to support North Vietnam for some time to come. In fact, Mao continued to support North Vietnam during the war with the war serving as a foreign policy counterpart to the Cultural Revolution as the "Great Helmsman" believed that extreme violence was necessary to maintain Communist "purity".[118] The fact that some of Mao's targets in the Cultural Revolution such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were opposed to increased aid to North Vietnam, preferring that the money be spent on Chinese development instead, gave him an additional reason to support North Vietnam.[119]
In November 1966, the Israeli Defense Force raided the village of Samu' in Jordan, a move which angered Rostow as he told the Israeli ambassador Abba Eban that King Hussein of Jordan was an American ally and Johnson very strongly disapproved of the raid.[120] Rostow stated: "Israel for some Machiavellian reason, wanted a leftist regime on the Left bank [of Jordan] so that it could then have a polarized situation in which the Russians would be backing the Arabs and the U.S. backing Israel, and that Israel would not be in an embarrassing position where one of its friends among the Great Power would also be a friend of an Arab country".[120]
In February 1967, the Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin visited London, and the British Prime Minister Garold Uilson tried to act as a mediator to end the Vietnam war, offering to serve as an honest broker.[121] Wilson had been asked in 1965 to send a British contingent to fight in Vietnam, but as his Labour Party was stoutly opposed to Britain fighting in Vietnam, he had refused, a move that the normally Anglophile Secretary of State Din Rask called a "betrayal". To end a running sore in Anglo-American relations as Wilson was caught between the Americans who were pressuring him to send British forces to Vietnam and his own party who were pressuring not to, the prime minister was keen to end the Vietnam war. Kosygin told Wilson that Soviet influence in North Vietnam was limited as the North Vietnamese sought to play the Soviet Union off against China, but if the Americans were willing to cease their bombing of North Vietnam, the Soviet government would indeed pressure Xoshimin to open peace talks.[121] Speaking on what he thought was a secure telephone line from the Soviet embassy in London to the Kremlin, Kosygin told the Soviet leader Leonid Brejnev that there was a "great opportunity for peace", through in the same call he admitted that the militant, ultra-leftwing line taken by China would pose problems.[121] Unknown to Kosygin, MI5 had tapped the telephone line and a translated transcript of his call to Brezhnev was forwarded to Wilson.[121] The transcript convinced Wilson that Kosygin was negotiating in good faith, and the prime minister then contracted the Americans.[121] American decision-makers tended to exaggerate Soviet influence over North Vietnam, and Wilson's message that Kosygin was willing to apply pressure on North Vietnam was seen by Johnson as potentially opening the door for peace. Johnson directed Devid K. E. Bryus, the U.S. ambassador to the court of St. James together with Harriman's deputy Chester Cooper to work alongside Wilson in what was code-named Operation Sunflower.[121] Rostow reminded Johnson of Wilson's "betrayal" in not sending British forces to Vietnam and advised the president not to trust him.[122] Rostow was extremely negative about Operation Sunflower, called Wilson a vain and dishonest man who was working to end the Vietnam war on terms unfavorable to the United States, and did his best to fan Johnson's already strong dislike of Wilson.[122] Johnson only approved of Operation Sunflower because it would be too politically embarrassing to turn an opportunity outright.[122]
Working closely with Bruce and Cooper, Wilson presented a ceasefire offer to Kosygin on 11 February 1967 on behalf of the United States, which Kosygin promised would be passed on to Ho.[123] A few hours later, Cooper left his hotel to attend a performance of Uyingizda fiddler while informing the hotel staff that he would be at the theater if any phone calls came in for him.[124] Cooper was at the theater when he an usherette told him that there was an urgent call from Washington, saying that a Mr. Rostow wanted to speak with him at once.[124] In his telephone call, Rostow attacked Cooper for the conciliatory tone of Wilson's letter, which he called appeasement, and demanding it be rewritten to make it much tougher, a gesture that Cooper felt was meant to sabotage Operation Sunflower.[124] As demanded by Rostow, a new letter with considerably more confrontational tone was given to Kosygin, which led him to accuse the British and Americans of negotiating in bad faith.[124]
Wilson in a telephone call to Johnson complained that the letter as rewritten by Rostow had ruined the peace talks and caused "a hell of a situation".[123] Wilson charged that Kosygin had taken a major risk for peace in Vietnam that could have exposed him to criticism within the Politburo and certainly would have exposed him to criticism from the Chinese who constantly accused the Soviets of not doing enough to support North Vietnam, and he felt an opportunity for peace had been gratuitously squandered.[124] Anxious to salvage something from Operation Sunflower, Wilson, Bruce and Cooper put forward a new offer to Kosygin on 12 February that the United States would cease the bombing of North Vietnam in exchange for no more North Vietnamese troops going down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.[124] Johnson added in the condition that North Vietnam had to respond to the offer by noon the next day, a deadline that Bruce called "ridiculous" and Kosygin left London the next day with nothing to show for his peace-making efforts.[124]
Wilson blamed Rostow for the failure of Operation Sunflower, telling his Foreign Secretary Jorj Braun: "I suspect that Rostow himself was largely responsible for the misunderstandings during the Kosygin visit and may well have reported to the president in the light of responsibility".[125] Karnow wrote it is no means certain that Wilson's claim that a "historic opportunity" to end the war in Vietnam in 1967 had been squandered as all Kosygin was promising was to pressure Ho to accept a ceasefire and as he himself noted that when the Soviets pressured the North Vietnamese to do something that they did not want to do, they just drew closer to China.[124] Soviet pressure on North Vietnam tended to most effective in conjugation with China, and in 1967 the Chinese were attacking the Soviets in the most violent terms, accusing them of abandoning true communism, making any possibility of Sino-Soviet pressure on North Vietnam most unlikely. Karnow wrote at most Operation Sunflower offered was a chance to begin negotiations to end the war, and Johnson and Rostow shunned that chance.[124]
On 27 April 1967, General Uilyam Vestmoreland asked for another 200, 000 troops for South Vietnam, a request that was supported by Rostow.[126] Rostow went further than Westmoreland by asking Johnson to invade North Vietnam, saying that the American people wanted their president "do something big and hopefully decisive rather than small".[126] At the meeting of the National Security Council, Rostow paced by and fourth before a map of Vietnam with a pointer, showing the best way to invade while the Defense Secretary, Robert Maknamara, countered him point by point, stating that the dangers of Chinese intervention were far too great.[127] Rostow was so disappointed that Johnson was more influenced by McNamara than himself that he almost resigned in protest, before deciding as he put it to "stay with Johnson until the last day, while steadily, but quietly opposed to the way the war was being fought".[127]
In April 1967, the civil rights leader Martin Lyuter King kichik came out against the Vietnam War with a speech in New York denouncing the "immoral war" whose burden he charged fall disproportionately heavily on black men who more likely to be drafted to fight in Vietnam.[128] King's speech increased the sense of siege in the White House, and hence Rostow's influence. In July 1967, allegations of police brutality led to race riots in Detroit and Newark.[129] In response to the race riots, conservative Republicans and Democrats accused the Johnson administration's civil rights reforms as being the root reason for the riots.[129] Johnson ordered Rostow to collect "such evidence as there is on external involvement in the violent radical community of the Negro community in the U.S".[129] Johnson was apparently hoping that Rostow would find evidence that the Soviet Union and/or China were behind the riots in Detroit and Newark, but his national security adviser was unable to produce any such evidence.[129] The fact that Rostow was ordered to investigate an essentially domestic matter showed that the president thought very highly of him.[129] As the anti-war protests increased, Rostow was able to reassure Johnson that history will vindicate him, leading the president to remark he was "a man of conviction who doesn't try to play president".[130]
Rostow was finally able to persuade Johnson in June 1967 to bomb North Vietnamese oil shortage facilities and hydroelectric plants, predicating this would cause the collapse of North Vietnam's economy and win the war.[98] By contrast, McNamara reported to the president in the summer of 1967 that even though American bombers by destroying hydroelectric plants had reduced North Vietnam's capacity to generate electricity by 85%, it had failed to impact meaningfully on the war.[131] McNamara argued to Johnson that Rostow did not understand the differences between Germany, an advanced, industrialized First World nation vs. North Vietnam, a backward, rural Third Nation nation, and that paradoxically that North Vietnam's very backwardness was a form of strength.[131] McNamara noted that even before the American bombing, the total annual hydroelectric production of North Vietnam amounted only to a fifth of the annual hydroelectric production produced by the Potomac Electric Power Company's plant in Alexandria, Virginia.[131] For this reason, McNamara stated that knocking out North Vietnam's hydroelectric plants did not have the same catastrophic effect on the North Vietnamese economy that knocking out America's hydroelectric plants would have had on the American economy.[131] Likewise, North Vietnam imported all of its oil from the Soviet Union, and the North Vietnamese loaded drums of oil from Soviet tankers at sea to sampans, which then entered North Vietnam via that country's intricate network of rivers and canals.[132] For this reason, the destruction of North Vietnam's oil shortage tanks by American bombers in 1967 did not affect North Vietnam's capacity to wage war.[132] The North Vietnamese developed a system of hiding the oil drums underground all across the country.[132] Despite all of the devastation caused by the American bombing between 1965–67 with ports destroyed and oil shortage tanks left burning, North Vietnam doubled its imports of Soviet oil, reaching an annual total of 1.4 million tons by 1967.[131] The North Vietnamese built some 30, 000 miles of tunnels and underground storage areas during the war to escape the bombing.[133] Rostow believed that the bombing tied down North Vietnamese men who might otherwise fight in the war by forcing them to engage in reconstruction work, but the North Vietnamese government had proclaimed a "total war", mobilized the entire population for the war, and put women to work reconstructing the damage done by American bombers.[133] Additionally, some 320, 000 Chinese soldiers served in North Vietnam between 1965–68 to operate anti-aircraft guns and the SAMs (surface to air missiles) while rebuilding roads and bridges.[134]
While working as national security advisor, Rostow became involved in setting the United States' posture towards Israel. Concerns about Israel's nuclear program were tabled by the United States during the build-up to the Olti kunlik urush va uning oqibatlari. Although he supported military and economic assistance to Israel, Rostow believed that increased public alignment between the two states could run counter to US diplomatic and oil interests in the region. Rostow considered President Gamal Abdel Noser of Egypt to be a moderating force who through he talked belligerently of war, in fact kept the Arab-Israeli dispute "in the icebox".[135] Rostow wrote in a memo advocating American economic aid to Egypt: "While no one likes the idea of paying off a bully, Nasser is still the most powerful figure in the Middle East...and has restrained wilder Arabs who have for a disastrous Arab-Israeli showdown".[135] After reviewing the May 1967 report from the Atomic Energy Commission team that had inspected Dimona along with other intelligence, Rostow informed President Johnson that, though the team found no evidence of a nuclear weapons program, "there are enough unanswered questions to make us want to avoid getting locked in too closely with Israel. When Egypt remilitarized the Sinai in May 1967, Rostow did not support an Israeli strike against Egypt, instead writing "We sympathize with Eshkol's need to stop these [Palestinian] raids and reluctantly admit that a limited attack on Syria may be his only answer".[136] About the Egyptian remilitarization, Rostow wrote that goals of American policy must be "(a) prevent Israel from being destroyed (b) stop aggression, and (c) to keep U Thant out in front and stiffen his spine".[136] In this regard, Rostow wrote it was essential to persuade the Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol "not to put a match to this fuse".[136] On 22 May 1967, Nasser further escalated the crisis by closing the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, which was a provocation as Israel had always stated that they would go to war to keep the Straits of Tiran open.[136]
When the Israelis claimed that Eisenhower had given Israel a security "guarantee" in 1957 to keep open the Straits of Tiran, a claim that mystified the Americans who had never heard of this "guarantee", Rostow was tasked by Johnson to investigate.[137] The answer was soon found; Eisenhower had written a letter to the Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion in 1957 committing the United States to "guarantee" that the Straits of Tiran would be kept open to Israeli shipping by the United States.[137] Rostow had to inform the Israelis that only treaties ratified by Congress are binding on the United States, and presidential promises represent only a moral, not a legal commitment on the part of the United States. However, he was later to state: "From the moment Eisenhower made clear that a commitment had been made, Johnson had no doubt that he had to reopen the Straits".[138] Rostov Regatta rejasini qo'llab-quvvatladi, unga ko'ra turli millatlar guruhi Tiran bo'g'ozi orqali Isroilni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun o'z kemalarini suzib o'tishadi.[139] Rostov Isroil kemalarining Tiran bo'g'ozi orqali erkin o'tishi AQShning "yalang'och printsipi", hatto bu Misr bilan urush degan ma'noni anglatadi degan fikrda edi.[140] Ko'proq davlatlar Regatta rejasidan qaytganlarida, Rostov Jonsonga Isroil "sherif singari ko'chib o'tishi kerak" deb ko'proq shafqatsiz pozitsiyani egallashga keldi. Yuqori peshin", nafaqat o'z-o'zini hurmat qilish, balki mintaqada hurmatga erishish uchun zarur bo'lgan" zo'ravonlikdan foydalanish.[141] Biroq, Jonson inqirozni hal qilish uchun urushni ma'qullamadi, lekin Regatta rejasidan qaytganga o'xshab, Eshkol Jonsonga maktub yozib, Amerikaning talablariga binoan Misrga bostirib kirmaganligini, ammo baribir Tiran bo'g'ozlari Isroil uchun yopiqligini aytdi. yuk tashish; yetkazib berish.[138] Jonson o'z javobida faqat Tiran bo'g'ozini ochish uchun barcha konstitutsiyaviy vakolatlarini ishlatishga va'da berib, Vetnam urushi tufayli hozirgi paytda boshqa urushga aralashish xavfi tug'ilmasligini ta'kidlab, Rostovga ushbu fikrni aniq aytishini aytdi isroilliklar.[138] Rostov bu haqda Isroil vakiliga aytdi Efrayim Evron Vashingtonga yuborilgan, Jonson Isroilning "bosim taktikasini" yoqtirmagan va muammolarni o'rganish uchun ko'proq vaqt kerak.[142] Rostov Evronga shunday dedi: "Siz prezident Jonsonni azaldan taniysiz va o'zingizning baho berishingizga haqlisiz".[138] Evron, Rostovga "o'n kunlik" tinchlik qolganini aytib, Tiran bo'g'ozini ochish uchun hech narsa qilinmasa, ehtimol Isroil urushga kirishishini taxmin qildi.[138]
Garchi Rostov, Jonson va davlat kotibi Din Rask Isroilni harbiy kuch ishlatmaslikka ishontirishga urinishdi, urush boshlangandan so'ng ular Isroilni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Rostov urush oldidan Misr elchisi Mustafo Kamelga shunday dedi: "Sizning dushmanlaringiz Misr va Suriyaning kutilmagan hujumi yaqinlashib kelishiga ishonadilar. Biz buni tasavvur qilib bo'lmasligini bilamiz. Biz OAR (Birlashgan Arab Respublikasi) hukumati shunday bo'lishiga ishonolmaymiz. Bunday yo'l aniq oqibatlarga olib kelishi mumkin ".[91] Rostovning qo'shimcha qilishicha, Isroilga ham eskirmaslik haqida shunga o'xshash "do'stona ogohlantirish" berilgan.[91] Urush boshlanishidan sal oldin Jonson Rostovdan Isroil nima qilmoqchiman deb so'radi va Rostovga "ular urishadi" deb javob berishga undadi.[143] 1967 yil 6-iyun kuni ertalab soat 4:35 da Rostov Jonsonga qo'ng'iroq qilib, Isroil Misrga Misrga hujum qilgani haqida xabar berdi.[144] Olti kunlik urushning birinchi kunida Rostov Jonsonga Misr havo kuchlarini yo'q qilish to'g'risida boshlagan hisobotini taqdim etdi: "Bu bilan birinchi kuni kurka otilganligi xaritasi ko'rsatilgan".[145] O'sha kuni kechroq Rostov prezidentga yozgan xatida "biz ... ruslar bilan va iloji bo'lsa, boshqalar bilan kelishuv shartlari to'g'risida suhbatlashishni boshlashimiz kerak .... Otashkesim bitimdagi asosiy savollarga javob bermaydi ular juda ko'p ko'chmas mulk sotib olguncha va Misrning ko'plab samolyotlari va tanklarini yo'q qilgunga qadar isroilliklarning fikri, ular o'zlarining savdolashuv pozitsiyalariga to'liq ishonadilar ".[146]
Urush boshlangandan so'ng, Rostov Qo'shma Shtatlar uchun imkoniyatni ko'rib, "bu urushni to'xtatish sulh shartnomalari asosida bo'ladimi, bu arablarni Isroilga qarshi urush holatida qoldirib, Isroil Arab siyosiy hayotida birlashtiruvchi kuch sifatida Sovet Ittifoqiga arab dunyosini tutib turuvchi masala; yoki Isroil Yaqin Sharq davlati sifatida qabul qilinadigan kelishuv paydo bo'ladimi ".[147] Rostov Isroilning hududni egallab olish ehtimoli Arab-Isroil mojarosini nihoyat tugatishi mumkin bo'lgan "tinchlik uchun er" kelishuviga imkon beradi, deb hisoblagan, bu esa Isroil Golan balandliklarini Suriyadan ushlab turgan paytgacha urushni to'xtatish uchun to'xtamaslik tarafdoridir. suriyaliklar tashabbus ko'rsatilgunga qadar hech qachon tinchlik o'rnatmaydi.[148] Rostov "tinchlik uchun yer" bitimini Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti tomonidan imzolanishi kerak bo'lgan tinchlik rejasiga ega bo'lishni ma'qulladi va muzokaralar AQSh vositachiligida bo'ladi.[149] Rostov Isroilning G'azo sektori, Iordan daryosining g'arbiy sohili, Sharqiy Quddus, Golan tepaliklari va Sinayni doimiy ravishda egallab olishini tasavvur qilmaganligini ta'kidladi, chunki bu ishg'ol arab-isroil mojarosi hech qachon tugamasligini kafolatlaydi.[149] Olti kunlik urushning uchinchi kunida Isroil rasmiylari so'nggi hududiy yutuqlaridan, xususan Sharqiy Quddusdan voz kechishga tayyor emasliklari haqida shama qila boshladilar.[150] 1967 yil oktabrda Rostov Jonsonga Isroil bilan "biz ularning fikrlarini hozirgi kengaytirilgan hududiy egalik konkretlariga tezda kirib ketishining oldini olish uchun ularga etarlicha suyanamiz" deb maslahat berdi.[151] Yadro masalasi 1968 yil yanvarida, Bosh vazir oldidan qayta boshlanganda Levi Eshkol Qo'shma Shtatlarga tashrifi, Rostou prezidentga AQShning Isroil NPTni imzolashini kutishini aniq ko'rsatishni tavsiya qildi.[152]
1967 yil sentyabr-oktyabr oylarida Garvarddagi siyosiy fanlar professori, Pensilvaniya operatsiyasi tinchlik tashabbusi bilan chiqdi. Genri Kissincer, o'z navbatida qarshilik qahramoni bilan do'st bo'lgan frantsuz biologi Herbert Marcovich bilan aloqada bo'ldi, Raymond Obrak Xoshimin bilan do'st bo'lgan.[153] Obrak va Marchovich Xano bilan tinchlikni muhokama qilish uchun uchrashish uchun Xanoyga tashrif buyurishdi. Rostov Pensilvaniya operatsiyasining rejasiga qarshi edi va Jonsonni unga qarshi qo'yish uchun qo'lidan kelganicha harakat qildi.[154] Rostovning ta'siri ostida Jonson Kissincerga xabar yubordi: "Men yana bir bor urinib ko'raman va agar u ishlamasa, men Kembrijga kelib, to'plaringizni kesib tashlayman!"[155] Kissincer Rostou bilan bog'lanib, AQSh bombardimonni to'xtatib turishini, Pensilvaniya operatsiyasiga imkoniyat berilishini so'radi, faqat javob qaytarilishi mumkin.[155] Keyinchalik Kissincer Rostovni "ahmoq" deb atashi kerak edi.[155]
1968 yil yanvar oyida Khe Sanhni qamal qilish paytida Rostov prezident Jonsonga Shimoliy Vetnamliklar o'z kuchlarini "yangi Dienbienfuni qayta tiklashga" jo'natayotganligi to'g'risida xabar berishgan va Khe Sanh 1968 yilda hal qiluvchi jang bo'lishini taxmin qilgan va AQSh majbur qilishi kerak. Xe Sahnning qulashiga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun uning barcha kuchlari.[156] Bunda Rostov Shimoliy Vetnam qo'llarida o'ynab yurar edi, chunki Xanoyning maqsadi Amerika kuchlarini Janubiy Vetnamning asosiy shaharlaridan Tet hujumiga tayyorgarlik sifatida olib chiqish edi.[157] 1968 yilda Tet hujumi paytida Rostov o'z hisobotida Janubiy Vetnamning chekka bir qishloqlariga qarshi qilingan Vetkong hujumi Kongressda urush uchun ajratilgan mablag'lar haqidagi munozaraga to'g'ri kelishini aytdi va Karnov kinoyali tarzda "Xanoydagi taktikalar kabi" yozishga majbur qildi. bilan maslahatlashdi Kongress yozuvlari ularning bo'linmalarini joylashtirishdan oldin ".[158] Tet hujumi paytida Rostov Jonsonni "tinchlik rahbari nutqi" o'rniga "urush boshlig'i nutqi" ni aytishga undadi.[159] 1968 yil fevral oyida Rostov Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi direktori Richard Xelms bilan bir necha bor to'qnashdi, u uni razvedka ma'lumotlarini buzib, urushning kafolatlanganidan ko'ra optimistik manzarasini namoyish qilishda aybladi.[160]
Vashingtonda Tet hujumidan keyin Janubiy Vetnamga ko'proq qo'shin yuborish yoki bermaslik haqida munozara paytida Rostov "tajovuzni to'xtatish uchun Vetnamdagi qat'iyat ... Yaqin Sharqda, Osiyoning boshqa joylarida va ehtimol hatto Evropada "deb nomlangan va AQSh quruqlikdagi kuchlariga Shimoliy Vetnam va Laosga Xoshimin izini buzish uchun kirishni tavsiya qilgan.[161] Rostov Jonsonni "tinchlik izlovchi nutq o'rniga urush boshlig'i nutqi vaqti keldi" deb chaqirdi.[159] Tet hujumidan so'ng, Rostov Vetnam kommunistlarini tugatish vaqti keldi, deb ta'kidladi va Jonsonni Janubiy Vetnamga yana 206 000 amerikalik qo'shinni yuborib, u erdagi yarim millionga qo'shilishga va Shimoliy Vetnamni yanada qattiqroq bombardimon qilishga chaqirdi. .[162] Bahslar davomida Mudofaa vaziri Robert Maknamara Rostov tomonidan bir necha bor bahs-munozaralarda qatnashgan G'azabdan g'azablanib: "U holda nima bo'ldi? Bu xudojo'y bombardimon kampaniyasi, hech narsaga arzimaydi, hech narsa qilinmadi, ular butun Evropa Ikkinchi Jahon Urushida butun Evropaga qaraganda ko'proq bomba tashladilar. Lanet ish qildim! "[163] O'sha paytda, bir paytlar o'zi qo'llab-quvvatlagan urushdan ko'ngli qolgan Maknamara, ko'z yoshlarini to'kdi va Jonsondan Rostovga quloq solishni iltimos qilib so'radi va urushni yutib bo'lmaydi, deb aytdi.[164] Rostov Jonsonning tayinlash haqidagi qarorini qo'llab-quvvatlagan edi Klark Klifford u mudofaa vaziri sifatida tanilgan, chunki u qirg'iy edi va yangi mudofaa kotibi McNamara'dan ko'ra ko'proq kaptarga aylanganda juda xafa bo'ldi.[165]
Jonson Nyu-Xempshir shtatidagi Demokratik partiyadagi dastlabki mag'lubiyatdan juda aldamchi bo'lib, urushga qarshi senatorga qarshi faqat 300 ovoz bilan g'alaba qozondi. Evgeniy Makkarti, ko'p odamlar jiddiy qabul qilmagan siyosatchi.[166] Senator, Nyu-Xempshirdagi prezidentlik zaifligining namoyishi ilhomlanib, Jonson uchun juda tashvishlidir Robert F. Kennedi, ko'p odamlar jiddiy qabul qilgan siyosatchi, 1968 yil 16 martda urushga qarshi platformada Demokratik ibtidoiy partiyalarga kirdi.[167] 1968 yil 2 aprelda bo'lib o'tadigan Viskonsin shtatidagi Demokratik saylovlar uchun 1968 yil mart oyida o'tkazilgan saylov natijalariga ko'ra Kennedi etakchi o'rinni egalladi, Makkarti ikkinchi, Jonson esa xo'rlik bilan uchinchi o'rinni egalladi.[167] 1968 yilgi saylovda uning Demokratik nomzodini o'z partiyasining nomzodi sifatida yo'qotishi mumkin bo'lgan haqiqiy vaziyat yuzaga kelganida, Jonson Vetnam urushini harbiy yo'l bilan hal qilishga qarshi bo'lgan siyosiy masalani ko'rib chiqishga qaror qildi.[168] Kliffordning taxminlariga qaramay, lavozimida g'ayrioddiyroq bo'lib chiqdi va prezidentni Vetnamdan "sharafli chiqish yo'lini" topishga majbur qildi.[169] Jonson "donishmandlar" deb nomlangan, urushni to'xtatish yo'lini topishni maslahat bergan oqsoqol davlat arboblaridan maslahat so'radi.[170] "Donishmandlar" etakchisi, sobiq davlat kotibi Din Acheson, Rostovga "prezidentga ayting - va siz unga aynan shu so'zlar bilan ayting - u Vetnamni olib, eshagiga yopishtirib qo'yishi mumkin".[171] 25 mart kuni Jonson "Aqlli odamlar" bilan uchrashganda, unga "biz aloqani uzish uchun choralar ko'rishimiz kerak" deb xabar berishdi.[172] Jonsonning eng yuqori ta'lim darajasi Janubiy-G'arbiy Texasdagi o'qituvchilar kollejida bo'lgan va butun hayoti davomida u "Sharqiy muassasa" dan universitet darajasiga ega bo'lganlarni juda hurmat qilgan.[173] 14 ta "donishmand" dan faqat general Omar Bredli, Oliy sud sudyasi Abe Fortas, diplomat Robert Merfi va general Maksvell Teylor qolgan o'n kishi bilan kurashishni yoqlashdi.[174]
1968 yilgi saylovlar paytida Rostov Parijda bo'lib o'tayotgan tinchlik muzokaralarini buzish uchun qo'lidan kelganicha harakat qildi, chunki uning eski dushmani Garriman boshchiligidagi Amerika delegatsiyasi Parijda Shimoliy Vetnam bilan muzokaralar olib bordi.[175] Shu paytgacha Rostov Garrimanga nisbatan nafrat bilan yondi va u Jonsonni kamsitish imkoniyatini boy berdi.[176] 1968 yil 3 aprelda Rostov Garriman Parijdagi Amerika tinchlik delegatsiyasiga rahbarlik qilmasligi kerakligini aytdi, chunki u "Janubiy Vetnamliklarga tushuncha va hamdardlik etishmaydi - va u doimo etishmayapti".[177] Jonson xayrixoh bo'lganligi sababli, u Harrimanning Ikkinchi Jahon urushiga qaytib borgan taniqli diplomat sifatida qayd etib, uni delegatsiyani boshqarish huquqiga ega ekanligini ta'kidladi.[178] Rostov Tinchlik delegatsiyasiga Milliy Xavfsizlik Kengashi xodimi Uilyam Jordenni "bu yaramaslarni kuzatib turing va ular oilaviy marvaridlarni berib yubormasliklariga ishonch hosil qiling" degan buyruqlar bilan biriktirdi.[178]
Rostov o'z fikrlarini prezidentning 1968 yil yozida o'zgargan kayfiyatiga mos ravishda o'zgartirdi va endi Jonsonga Shimoliy Vetnamga qarshi bombardimonlarni cheklashni maslahat berdi.[179] 1968 yil avgust oyida Chikagoda bo'lib o'tgan Demokratik s'ezdga qadar Rostov Demokratik nomzodni qo'lga kiritgan odam vitse-prezidentining kelishuv kampaniyasini ma'qulladi Xubert Xamfri AQShning Shimoliy Vetnamni bombardimon qilishini tugatishga chaqirgan, chunki shu paytgacha u respublikachi nomzod, Richard Nikson, saylovda g'alaba qozonadi.[180] 1968 yil avgustga kelib Demokratik partiya o'zlarini parchalab tashlay boshladi, bo'linishlar Demokratik qurultoyda juda aniq bo'lib o'tdi, bu erda urushga qarshi va urushni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi demokratlar Kongress maydonida AQSh Vetnamda nima bilan kurashishi kerakligi yoki yo'qligi to'g'risida qattiq bahslashdilar.[181] Demokratlar safidagi tartibsizlikni hisobga olib, agar partiya o'zini birlashtirish yo'lini topmasa, Nikson g'alaba qozonadi.[181] Xamfri saylov kampaniyasi shiorlari bilan Rostovdan yordam so'raganida, Rostov noqulay "Biz bir nechta oq va qora tanqislar bu mamlakatni Uollesga, Strom Thurmondga va kampaniyalarini o'zlarining qo'llab-quvvatlashiga asoslanganlarga topshirishiga yo'l qo'ymaymiz. ".[182] Bu bilan Rostov bo'lingan Demokratik partiya odamlarga yoqishi mumkin degani edi Jorj Uolles, uchinchi partiyaning nomzodi yoki senator sifatida prezidentlikka nomzodini qo'ygan Alabama shtatining sobiq gubernatori Thurmond bo'roni, afro-amerikaliklar uchun fuqarolik huquqlariga qarshi chiqqan respublikachidan chiqqan demokrat, hokimiyatga keladi.[182]
Janubiy Vetnam diplomatik kodlarini buzgan Milliy Xavfsizlik Agentligi tomonidan berilgan ma'lumotlarga asoslanib, yuqori lavozimli amaldorlar Jonson ma'muriyati buni bilib olishdi Anna Chennault, "Respublika ayollari Nikson uchun" guruhining raisi Janubiy Vetnam elchisi Bui Diem bilan uchrashib, Janubiy Vetnam Niksonning saylovda g'alaba qozonish imkoniyatini yaxshilash uchun Parijdagi tinchlik muzokaralarini sabotaj qilishi kerakligini aytdi.[183] 1968 yil 29-oktabrda Rostov Jonsonga hozirda "ba'zi respublikachilar Janubiy Vetnamliklarni o'zlarini qanday tutishlariga undashi mumkinligi to'g'risida" ma'lumotlarga ega ekanligini aytdi.[183] Rostov, shuningdek, Jonsonga ushbu ma'lumot bilan jamoatchilikka bormaslikni maslahat berdi va buning o'rniga Niksonga Chennaultdan uzoqlashishini aytishi kerakligini aytdi.[184] 1968 yil kuziga kelib Rostov saylovoldi tashviqoti yo'lida borayotgan "mag'lubiyatchi" Xamfri emas, balki Nikson saylovda g'alaba qozongan ma'qul deb hisoblay boshladi.[185] Jonsonning Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirmaslik to'g'risidagi qaroridan hanuzgacha norozi bo'lgan Rostov Jonsonga yozgan yozuvlaridan birida, fuqarolik-harbiy munosabatlar to'g'risida so'ralsa, aytishi kerakligini yozgan edi: "Umuman olganda, harbiylar bizdan ko'proq kuch ishlatishni xohlashdi Va tezroq. Ular to'g'ri aytgan bo'lishi mumkin. Ammo prezidentning o'ylashi kerak bo'lgan boshqa fikrlari bor edi ".[186] Bu bo'ysunuvchilarga nisbatan abrazivligi bilan tanilgan Jonsonning g'azab bilan portlashi Rostovning ta'sirining belgisi edi, agar kimdir boshqa kimdir bunday eslatmani yozsa.[186]
Jamiyat intellektuali
Qachon Richard Nikson 1969 yilda prezident bo'ldi, Rostov o'z lavozimini tark etdi va keyingi o'ttiz yil ichida iqtisod sohasida dars berdi Lindon B. Jonson jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar maktabi da Ostindagi Texas universiteti xotini bilan Elspeth Rostow, keyinchalik maktab dekani bo'lgan. 1969 yilda unga Vetnam urushini qo'llab-quvvatlaganligi sababli uni MITda o'qitishni davom ettirishni ma'qullamasligi va uni Texas universitetida lavozimini egallashga majbur qilganligi aytilgan.[187] 1968 yilga kelib, liberal Amerika ziyolilari o'rtasida umumiy kelishuv Vetnam urushi epik mutanosiblikning dahshatli xatosi bo'lganligi va Rostov 1969 yil yanvar oyida hukumat xizmatini tark etganda, u o'zini liberal ziyolilar bilan yoqtirmaydigan shaxs deb topdi va uning qaytishini imkonsiz qildi. MITga.[188] Rostovning biografi, ingliz tarixchisi Devid Miln shunday deb yozgan edi: "1969 yilda Rostovning taniqli bo'lganligi shundaki, Amerikaning bironta oliy o'quv yurtlari unga ish taklif qilishni xohlamagan".[189] Ilgari Garvard, Oksford, Kembrij va MITda professorlik lavozimlarida ishlagan kishi uchun bu akademik doiralarda Texas universitetida dars berish uchun haqiqiy komediya sifatida qabul qilingan.[177]
U mudofaada keng yozgan neoliberal iqtisodiyot, xususan rivojlanayotgan xalqlar. Rostovning vorisi, Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi, Garvard professori, Genri Kissincer, "bu ma'muriyat Uolt Rostou" bo'lish qo'rquvi bilan ovora edi, uning Vetnam urushini qo'llab-quvvatlashi uning amerikalik ziyolilarning liberal qatlamlari bilan obro'siga putur etkazdi va uni ikkinchi darajali universitet hisoblangan Texas Universitetida o'qitishga olib keldi. , Kissincerning oldini olishga intilgan taqdir.[190] Kissincer Garvarddagi professorligini qayta tiklamoqchi edi, chunki u Rostov singari Texas universiteti singari "nomaqbul" muassasada o'qituvchilik qilishni istamadi.[190]
Rostovning o'zi Texas universiteti talabalar shaharchasi o'ta zamonaviy bo'lganini ta'kidladi, chunki Texas hukumati o'zining neft boyligidan porloq, zamonaviy talabalar shaharchasini yaratish uchun foydalandi, ammo universitet ma'muriyati Longhorns futbol jamoasini qo'llab-quvvatlashdan ko'ra ko'proq manfaatdor ekanligidan shikoyat qildi. tadqiqot va o'qitish.[191] 1969 yildan 1971 yilgacha Rostov Jonsonning xotirasini yozuvchilarning biri bo'lib xizmat qildi, Vantage Point, tashqi aloqalar bilan bog'liq barcha boblarni yozish.[192] Texas universitetida o'qitish yuki juda oz bo'lganligi sababli, Rostou tadqiqot uchun ko'p vaqt ajratdi va 1969-2003 yillarda asosan iqtisodiy modernizatsiyaga alohida e'tibor qaratilgan 21 ta kitob, asosan jahon iqtisodiy tarixi haqida yozdi.[193] O'zining xotirasida, Quvvatning tarqalishi, Rostov Vetnam urushi adolati uchun va Kennedining 1962 yilda Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirishga oid maslahatini e'tiborsiz qoldirgani uchun g'azablanganligini ta'kidlab, "bu AQShning 60-yillardagi tashqi siyosatidagi eng katta xato" deb yozgan edi.[193] Jonson bilan do'stligini aks ettirgan holda, Rostov xotirasida unga nisbatan unchalik qo'pol bo'lmagan, ammo baribir u Jonson Xitoy bilan yadroviy urush ehtimoli haqida juda xavotirda va Shimoliy Vetnamni bosib olish uchun o'z maslahatidan foydalanishi kerak edi, deb ta'kidladi. Xitoy bilan yadroviy urush maqbul edi.[193] Asosiy yomon odam Quvvatning tarqalishi Rostov 1966 yildan boshlab mag'lubiyatchi sifatida ayblagan Maknamara edi, bu uning zaifligi va urush haqidagi shubhalar Jonsonni ushlab turishiga va Shimoliy Vetnamga bostirib kirmasligiga sabab bo'ldi.[193]
1980-yillarda Rostov Janubiy Koreyaga tashrif buyurdi, uning iqtisodiyoti General Park hukmronligi davrida ancha rivojlangan edi.[46] Rostov tashrifi davomida Janubiy Koreyani u ilgari surgan nazariyalarning eng yaxshi namunasi sifatida maqtadi Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari, General Parkning siyosati haqiqatan ham Janubiy Koreyani "sanoatni ko'tarish" ga undaganini ta'kidladi.[46] 1998 yilda Rostov janubiy koreyalik iqtisodchi Park Taey Gyunga Janubiy Koreyaning tajribasi to'g'riligini isbotladi Iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari va Uchinchi Dunyo rahbarlari General Parkga o'xshagan bo'lishlarini istashdi; iqtisodchi Park General Parkning Besh yillik rejalar siyosati Rostovning g'oyalarini aks ettirmasligini ta'kidladi.[46]
1986 yilda Rostovning kitobi AQSh va Osiyo va Tinch okeanining mintaqaviy tashkiloti, 1965–1985 yy nashr etildi.[194] Ushbu kitobda Rostov Qo'shma Shtatlar Vetnam urushida haqiqatan ham "g'alaba qozongan" degan tezisni ilgari surdi, chunki u urush janubi-sharqiy Osiyoda kommunizmdan qochib qutulish uchun "vaqt olib keldi" deb ta'kidladi.[194] Rostov o'z argumentini 1965 yilda Janubiy Vetnamda sodir bo'lgan voqealar asosida mamlakat o'sha yili kommunistlar qo'liga o'tishi mumkinligi va janubiy Vetnamni qutqara olmaganiga qaramay Amerika aralashuvi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan bahsni asos qilib oldi. boshqa "domino" larning qulab tushmasligini ta'minlab, Janubiy-Sharqiy Osiyoning qolgan qismiga iqtisodiy o'sishga imkon berish uchun qo'shimcha o'n yil.[194] Rostov Indoneziya, Malayziya, Singapur, Bruney, Tailand va Filippinlarni o'z ichiga olgan Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo xalqlari assotsiatsiyasining aksariyat a'zolarining iqtisodiy muvaffaqiyatlari Vetnam urushi ular uchun "vaqt sotib olish" bilan bog'liq edi, chunki hech kim yo'q o'sha millatlarning barchasi kommunistik bo'lib tugadi va Filippinlardan tashqari ularning hammasi "Osiyo yo'lbarslari" edi (ya'ni tez rivojlanayotgan iqtisodiyotlar).[194]
1995 yilda Maknamara o'zining xotiralarini nashr etdi Retrospect-da u Vetnam urushi to'g'risida "biz noto'g'ri edik, juda noto'g'ri" deb e'lon qilganida.[195] 1995 yil 9-iyun kuni Times savodxonligi bo'yicha qo'shimcha, Rostow shafqatsiz sharh yozdi Retrospect-da u "Urush ishi" nomi ostida Maknamarani Vetnamda vafot etgan amerikaliklarning barcha oilalarini haqorat qilganlikda ayblagan va Qo'shma Shtatlar aslida Vyetnam urushida Janubi-Sharqiy kommunistik bo'lmagan davlatlar sifatida "g'alaba qozongan" deb ta'kidlagan. Osiyo "1960-1981 yillarda o'zlarining yalpi ichki mahsulotini to'rt baravar oshirgan edi", Rostov ta'kidlaganidek, agar AQSh Vetnamda jang qilmasa edi.[196] In sharh Times savodxonligi bo'yicha qo'shimcha McNamara va Rostow o'rtasidagi qattiq janjalni aks ettirdi; ikkinchisi MakNamaraning tez-tez depressiyadan azob chekayotgani va uning "mag'lubiyati" noto'g'ri aqli tufayli deb taxmin qilgan.[196] Rostov 1966 yilda McNamara asabiy xastalikka duch kelgan va Vetnamga qarshi "mag'lubiyat" uning urush shiddati ostida "yorilib" ketganligi bilan bog'liq deb hisoblagan.[196] Milne, McNamara depressiyadan aziyat chekkanligi haqiqatan ham to'g'ri, deb yozgan, ammo Rostovning mudofaa vaziri sifatida aqlidan ozganligini da'vo qiladigan narsa yo'q.[196] Milne, shuningdek, Rostovning Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi yuqori iqtisodiy o'sish sur'atlari Vetnam urushini oqlashi haqidagi da'volari urushda halok bo'lgan barcha amerikaliklar va vetnamliklarning oilalariga nisbatan achinarli bo'lganligini yozdi.[197]
Faxriy va mukofotlar
Rostovga qabul qilindi Britaniya imperiyasining ordeni (1945),[tushuntirish kerak ][iqtibos kerak ] The Xizmat legioni (1945) va Prezidentning Ozodlik medali (1969).
Ishlaydi
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- Siyosat va o'sish bosqichlari, 1971.
- Hammasi qanday boshlandi: zamonaviy iqtisodiyotning kelib chiqishi, 1975.
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- Nega kambag'allar boyib ketishadi va boylar sekinlashadi: Marshalliya davridagi insholar, 1980.
- Eyzenxauer, Kennedi va tashqi yordam, 1985.
- Devid Xumdan to hozirgi kungacha bo'lgan iqtisodiy o'sish nazariyotchilari, 1990.
- Aholining katta boshoqi va undan keyin, 1998
Shuningdek qarang
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Qo'shimcha o'qish
- Bobbitt, Filipp (2007 yil dekabr). "Uoll Rostou, 1916 yil 7 oktyabr · 2003 yil 13 fevral". Amerika falsafiy jamiyati materiallari. 151 (4).
- Karnov, Stenli (1983). Vetnam: tarix. Nyu-York: Viking. ISBN 0140265473.
- Mulcahy, Kevin (1995 yil bahor). "Uoll Rostov milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi sifatida, 1966–69". Prezidentlik tadqiqotlari chorakda. 25 (2).
- Milne, Devid (2008). Amerikaning Rasputin: Uolt Rostov va Vetnam urushi. Nyu-York: Tepalik va Vang. ISBN 978-0-374-10386-6.
- Ortolano, Yigit. "Ingliz tilining o'ziga xos xususiyatlari? Uolt Rostov, iqtisodiy o'sish bosqichlari va zamonaviy Britaniya tarixi". Zamonaviy intellektual tarix]] 12.3 (2015): 657-684.
- Park, Taey-Gyun (2006 yil aprel). "W.W. Rostow et son discours sur l'économie en Corée du Sud dans les années 1960". Histoire, Ekonomi va Société. 25 (2): 281–289. doi:10.3406 / hes.2006.2599.
- Oren, Maykl (2002). Olti kunlik urush 1967 yil iyun va zamonaviy O'rta Sharqning yaratilishi. Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 0-19-515174-7.
- Shafer, Maykl (1988). O'limga olib keladigan paradigmalar: AQSh qarshi qo'zg'olon siyosatining muvaffaqiyatsizligi. Prinston: Prinston universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 0691023093.
- Yosh, Merilin (1991). Vetnamdagi urushlar 1945–1990 yillar. Nyu-York: Harper. ISBN 0060921072.
Tashqi havolalar
- Rostovning vafoti
- Xojson, Godfri. "Uoll Rostou: Obituar", yilda Guardian, 2003 yil 17 fevral.
- Tashqi ko'rinish kuni C-SPAN
- "Uoll Rostou: Obituar", yilda The Times, 2003 yil 19-fevral.
- Memoriamda, Ostindagi Texas universiteti.
- Uolt Rostov bilan og'zaki tarixiy intervyular, Lindon Bayns Jonson kutubxonasidan
- Uolt Rostov bilan Avner Koenning Yadro tarqalishining xalqaro tarixi loyihasida intervyu.
- "V. V. Rostov". JSTOR.
| Siyosiy idoralar | ||
|---|---|---|
| Yangi ofis | Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchining o'rinbosari 1961 | Muvaffaqiyatli Karl Kaysen |
| Oldingi Jorj McGhee | Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Davlat departamenti maslahatchisi 1961–1966 | Muvaffaqiyatli Robert Boui |
| Siyosatni rejalashtirish bo'yicha direktor 1961–1966 | Muvaffaqiyatli Genri Ouen | |
| Oldingi Mac Bandi | Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi 1966–1969 | Muvaffaqiyatli Genri Kissincer |
 | ||
Vakolat nazorati  |
|---|