Erta uchadigan mashinalar - Early flying machines

1786 yilda tasvirlangan Birodarlar Montgolfierlar 'shar.

Erta uchadigan mashinalar ning barcha shakllarini o'z ichiga oladi samolyot zamonaviy rivojlanmasdan oldin o'rganilgan yoki qurilgan samolyot 1910 yilga kelib. Zamonaviy parvozlar haqida hikoya birinchi muvaffaqiyatli samolyotdan bir asr oldin va minglab yillar oldin eng dastlabki samolyotdan oldin boshlanadi.

Ibtidoiy boshlanishlar

Miloddan avvalgi 5-asr Etrusk bulla tasvirlash Ikar

Afsonalar

Ba'zi qadimiy mifologiyalarda uchish moslamalarini ishlatadigan erkaklar haqidagi afsonalar mavjud. Eng qadimgi biri yunoncha afsonadir Dedalus; yilda Ovid Daedalus qushning qanotlarini taqlid qilish uchun patlarni ip va mum bilan bog'lab turadi.^[1][a] Boshqa qadimiy afsonalarga hindlar kiradi Vimana uchadigan saroy yoki arava, Hizqiyolning aravasi, Irlandiyalik roth rámach ko'r druid tomonidan qurilgan Mug Ruith va Simon Magus, haqida turli xil hikoyalar sehrli gilamchalar va afsonaviy inglizlar Qirol Bladud, qanotlarini uchirgan. Kay Kavusning uchar taxti afsonaviy Fors shohi Kay Kavus tomonidan qurilgan afsonaviy burgutdan yasalgan hunarmandchilik bo'lib, uni oxirigacha uchirish uchun ishlatgan. Xitoy.

Dastlabki urinishlar

Vitray tasviri Malmesberi shahridagi Eilmer

Oxir-oqibat ba'zilari qushlarga o'xshash qanotlar kabi uchish moslamalarini qurishga va minoradan, tepalikdan yoki jarlikdan sakrab uchishga harakat qilishdi. Ushbu dastlabki davrda ko'tarilish, barqarorlik va nazoratning jismoniy masalalari tushunilmagan va aksariyat urinishlar jiddiy shikastlanish yoki o'lim bilan yakunlangan. Milodiy 1-asrda Xitoy imperatori Vang Mang qush patlari bilan bog'lanish uchun maxsus skautni jalb qildi; u taxminan 100 metrga siljigan deb da'vo qilmoqda.^[3] Milodiy 559 yilda, Yuan Xuantou majburiy minora sakrashidan xavfsiz tarzda qo'ngani aytilmoqda.^[4]

The Andalusiya olim Abbos ibn Firnas (Milodiy 810–887) sakrashga erishganligi xabar qilingan Kordova, Ispaniya, tanasini tulpor tuklari bilan qoplagan va qo'llariga ikki qanot bog'lagan.^[5][6] 9-asrda parvozga urinish haqida xabar berilgan Kordovalik Muhammad I saroy shoiri Mo'min ibn Said, keyinroq esa 17-asrga qadar Jazoir tarixchi Ahmed Muhammad al-Makkari endi mavjud bo'lmagan manbalarga asoslangan. Ularning xabar berishicha, Firnas ba'zi jarohatlar bilan qo'nishdan oldin bir oz masofaga uchib ketgan, chunki uning dumining yo'qligi (qushlar qo'nish uchun ishlatganidek).^[7] Tarixchi Lynn Taunsend Uayt, kichik ibn Firnas tarixdagi birinchi muvaffaqiyatli parvozni amalga oshirgan degan xulosaga keladi.^[b] XII asrda yozish, Malmesberi shahridan Uilyam XI asrdagi Benediktin rohibini ta'kidladi Malmesberi shahridagi Eilmer qo'llariga va oyoqlariga qanotlarni bog'lab qo'ydi va qisqa masofaga uchib ketdi, lekin qo'nish paytida ikkala oyog'ini sindirib tashladi, shuningdek o'zini quyruq qilishni ham unutdi.^[5][7]

Erta uçurtmalar

John Bate-ning 1635-yilgi kitobidan uçurtmanın yog'ochdan chop etilgan nusxasi, Tabiat va san'at sirlari bunda uçurtma nomi berilgan Drakesni qanday olov qilish mumkin

The uçurtma Xitoyda, ehtimol miloddan avvalgi V asrda ixtiro qilingan Mozi (shuningdek, Mo Di) va Lu Ban (shuningdek, Gongshu Ban).^[8] Ushbu yaproq uchqunlari bo'linib ketgan bambukdan yasalgan ramka ustiga ipakni cho'zish yo'li bilan qurilgan. Eng qadimgi xitoycha uçurtmalar tekis (egilmagan) va ko'pincha to'rtburchaklar edi. Keyinchalik quyruqsiz uçurtmalar stabillashadigan kamonni birlashtirdi. Dizaynlar ko'pincha haqiqiy va afsonaviy uchuvchi hasharotlar, qushlar va boshqa hayvonlarni taqlid qilgan. Ba'zilariga uchish paytida musiqiy tovushlarni chiqarish uchun torlar va hushtaklar o'rnatilgan edi.^[9][10][11]

Miloddan avvalgi 549 yilda qog'oz qutqaruv missiyasi uchun xabar sifatida ishlatilgan.^[12] Qadimgi va o'rta asrlardagi xitoy manbalarida masofani o'lchash, shamolni sinash, odamlarni ko'tarish, signal berish va harbiy operatsiyalar uchun aloqa qilish uchun boshqa qo'llanmalar ro'yxati keltirilgan.^[12]

U kiritilgandan so'ng Hindiston, uçurtma yanada rivojlandi qiruvchi samolyot.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} An'anaviy ravishda bu kichik, beqaror bitta chiziqli tekis kititlar, bu erda faqat chiziq tarangligini boshqarish uchun, abraziv chiziq esa boshqa kitlarni kesish uchun ishlatiladi.

Kitslar ham tarqaldi Polineziya, qanchalik Yangi Zelandiya. Mato va yog'ochdan tayyorlangan antropomorfik kiteslar diniy marosimlarda xudolarga ibodat qilish uchun ishlatilgan.^[13] 1634 yilga kelib, uçurtmalar G'arbga etib bordi, Bate'sda quyruqli olmosli uçurtma tasviri paydo bo'ldi Tabiat va san'at sirlari.^[14]

Inson tashiydigan uçurtmalar

Odam tashiydigan uçurtmalar qadimgi Xitoyda ham fuqarolik, ham harbiy maqsadlarda keng qo'llanilgan va ba'zida jazo sifatida qo'llanilgan deb hisoblashadi.^[15] Yaponiyada odamlarni olib yuradigan kites haqidagi voqealar, miloddan avvalgi VII asrda Xitoydan uçurtma paydo bo'lganidan keyin sodir bo'ladi. Aytishlaricha, bir vaqtlar Yaponiyada odam tashuvchi kiteslarga qarshi qonun bo'lgan.^[15]

1282 yilda Evropa tadqiqotchisi Marko Polo keyinchalik Xitoy texnikasini tasvirlab berdi va shu bilan bog'liq bo'lgan xavf va shafqatsizlik haqida fikr bildirdi. Kema suzib o'tishi kerakligini bashorat qilish uchun, odam to'rtburchaklar panjara ramkasiga ega bo'lgan va keyinchalik dunyoqarashni ilohiylashtirish uchun foydalaniladigan parvoz uslubiga ega bo'lgan uçurtmaya bog'langan bo'lar edi.^[15]

Rotor qanotlari

Bezaklangan yapon taketombo bambuk-koptok

A dan foydalanish rotor chunki vertikal parvoz milodning IV asridan beri bambuk-kopter, qadimiy xitoycha o'yinchoq.^[16] Bambuk-kopter rotorga bog'langan tayoqni aylantirib o'raladi. Yigirish liftni hosil qiladi va o'yinchoq qo'yib yuborilganda uchadi.^[17] Faylasuf Ge Xong kitobi, Baopuzi (Oddiylikni qamrab oluvchi usta) taxminan 317 yilda yozilgan bo'lib, samolyotda mumkin bo'lgan rotorning apokrifik ravishda ishlatilishini quyidagicha tasvirlaydi: "Ba'zilar ho'jayin daraxtining ichki qismidan o'tin bilan uchib ketadigan mashinalarni [feiche 飛車] yasaganlar (kamarlar) mashinani harakatga keltirish uchun qaytib pichoqlarga mahkamlang. "^[18]

Xuddi shunday "moulinet à noix" (yong'oq ustidagi rotor), shuningdek to'rtta pichoqli ipni tortadigan o'yinchoqlar XIV asrda Evropada paydo bo'lgan.^[19][20]

Issiq havo sharlari

A osmon fonari

Qadim zamonlardan beri xitoyliklar issiq havo ko'tarilishini tushunib etishdi va printsipni kichkintoy turiga tatbiq etishdi havo pufagi deb nomlangan osmon fonari. Osmon chiroqchasi ostiga yoki uning ichiga kichik chiroq qo'yilgan qog'oz balonidan iborat. Osmon chiroqlari an'anaviy ravishda zavqlanish uchun va festivallar paytida ishga tushiriladi. Ga binoan Jozef Nidxem, bunday chiroqlar Xitoyda miloddan avvalgi 3 asrdan ma'lum bo'lgan. Ularning harbiy ishlatilishi generalga tegishli Zhuge Liang, ularni dushman qo'shinlarini qo'rqitish uchun ishlatgan deyilgan.^[21]

Xitoyliklar, shuningdek, 18-asrdan yuzlab yillar oldin sharlar yordamida "aeronavigatsiya muammosini hal qilgani" haqida dalillar mavjud.^[22]

Uyg'onish davri

Leonardo da Vinchi "s ornithopter qanotlar

Leonardoning "havo vidasi" dizayni.

Oxir-oqibat ba'zi tergovchilar ilmiy samolyot dizayni asoslarini kashf eta boshladilar. Quvvatli dizaynlar hali ham mavjud edi inson kuchi bilan boshqariladi yoki metall kamon ishlatilgan. Uning 1250 kitobida De mirabili potestate artis va naturae (San'at va tabiat sirlari), ingliz Rojer Bekon Belgilanmagan efir bilan to'ldirilgan, shuningdek, inson tomonidan boshqariladigan balon uchun kelajakdagi dizaynlarni bashorat qildi ornithopter,^[23] ikkinchisini ixtiro qilgan kishini bilishni da'vo qilish.^[24]

Leonardo da Vinchi

Leonardo da Vinchi qushlarning parvozini ko'p yillar davomida o'rgangan, uni oqilona tahlil qilgan va ko'plab tamoyillarni taxmin qilgan aerodinamika. U "Ob'ekt havoga nisbatan qancha qarshilik ko'rsatsa, shuncha havoga qarshilik ko'rsatadi", deb tushungan.^[25] kutmoq Isaak Nyuton "s harakatning uchinchi qonuni (1687 yilda nashr etilgan). XV asrning so'nggi yillaridan boshlab Leonardo uchish mashinalari va mexanizmlari, shu jumladan ornitoptterlar, qattiq qanotli planerlar, rotorli avtoulovlar va parashyutlar haqida yozgan va eskizlar tuzgan. Uning dastlabki dizaynlari rotorli motorlar va ornitoptterlar, shu jumladan odam tomonidan boshqariladigan turlar (Bekonning taklifini stabillashadigan quyruq qo'shib takomillashtirish).^[20] U oxir-oqibat bularning maqsadga muvofiq emasligini anglab etdi va boshqariluvchi parvozga o'tdi, shuningdek bahor yordamida quvvatlanadigan ba'zi dizaynlarni eskizlar.^[26]

1488 yilda Leonardo a osma planyor qanotlarning ichki qismlari mahkamlangan va uchlari tomon ba'zi boshqarish sirtlari berilgan (qushlarning sirpanib uchishidagi kabi) dizayn. Uning rasmlari omon qolgan va printsipial jihatdan parvozga loyiq deb topilgan, ammo o'zi hech qachon bunday hunarmandlikda uchmagan.^[27] U 1496 yilda sinov parvozi uchun qurgan model uchmadi va boshqa ba'zi dizaynlar, masalan to'rt kishilik vint vertolyot, jiddiy kamchiliklarga ega. U 1490 yil atrofida ornitopter dizayni haqida chizgan va yozgan. Leonardoning ijodi 1797 yilgacha noma'lum bo'lib qoldi va shuning uchun keyingi uch yuz yillik voqealarga hech qanday ta'sir ko'rsatmadi. Uning dizayni ham yaxshi ilmga asoslangan emas edi.^[28]

Boshqa urinishlar

1496 yilda Sekcio ismli odam ikkala qo'lini sindirib tashladi Nürnberg parvozga urinish paytida.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} 1507 yilda, Jon Damian tovuq patlari bilan qoplangan qanotlarga bog'lab, devorlaridan sakrab tushdi Stirling qal'asi Shotlandiyada sonini sindirib; keyinchalik u buni burgut patlarini ishlatmaslikda aybladi.

Bir urinish haqidagi dastlabki xabar reaktiv parvoz ga tegishli Usmonli imperiyasi. 1633 yilda aviator Lagari Hasan Chelebi xabarlarga ko'ra konus shaklida ishlatilgan raketa reaktiv parvozga birinchi urinish.^[29]

Frensis Uillbi 1676 yilda nashr etilgan odamning oyoqlari kuchi jihatidan qushlarning qanotlari bilan taqqoslanar ekan, degan taklif, vaqti-vaqti bilan ta'sir ko'rsatgan. 1793 yil 15-mayda ispan ixtirochisi Diego Marin Aguilera u bilan sakrab chiqdi planer qal'asining eng baland qismidan Coruña del Conde balandligi taxminan 5 yoki 6 m ga yetganda,^{[tushuntirish kerak ]} va taxminan 360 metrga sirpanish. Kech 1811 yilda, Albrecht Berblinger ornitopter qurdi va ichiga sakrab tushdi Dunay da Ulm.^[30]

Havodan engilroq

Balonlar

Franchesko Lana de Terzining uchar qayiq kontseptsiyasi taxminan 1670 yil

Havodan engilroq parvozning zamonaviy davri XVII asrning boshlarida boshlangan Galiley Galiley U havoning og'irligi borligini ko'rsatgan tajribalar. 1650 atrofida, Sirano-de-Bergerak ba'zi bir fantaziya romanlarini yozdi, unda u ko'tarilish printsipini havodan engilroq bo'lishi kerak bo'lgan modda (shudring) yordamida va moddaning boshqariladigan miqdorini chiqarib yuborish orqali tasvirlab berdi.^[22] Franchesko Lana de Terzi da havo bosimini o'lchagan dengiz sathi va 1670 yilda butun havo chiqarib yuborilgan ichi bo'sh metall shar shaklida birinchi ilmiy ishonchli ko'tarish vositasini taklif qildi. Ular ko'chirilgan havodan engilroq va an ko'tarishga qodir dirijabl. Balandlikni boshqarish bo'yicha uning taklif qilgan usullari bugungi kunda ham qo'llanilmoqda: balandlikni ko'tarish uchun dengizdan tashlanishi mumkin bo'lgan balastni ko'tarish va balandlikni yo'qotish uchun ko'taruvchi idishlarni shamollatish.^[31] Amalda de Terzining sharlari havo bosimi ostida qulab tushgan bo'lar edi va keyingi rivojlanish yanada qulayroq ko'taruvchi gazlarni kutish kerak edi.

Evropada birinchi marta hujjatlashtirilgan havo sharlari parvozi Braziliyalik ruhoniy Bartolomeu de Gusmao. 1709 yil 8-avgustda, yilda Lissabon, u podshoh oldida taxminan 4 metr (13 fut) ko'tarib, ostida olov yonib turgan kichkina havo sharini qog'oz qildi. Jon V va Portugal sud.^[31]

18-asr o'rtalarida asr Birodarlar Montgolfierlar Frantsiyada parashyutlar va sharlar bilan tajriba o'tkazishni boshladi. Ularning sharlari qog'ozdan qilingan va ko'taruvchi gaz sifatida bug 'ishlatilgan dastlabki tajribalar, u zichlashganda qog'ozga ta'siri tufayli qisqa muddatli bo'lgan. Bug 'uchun tutunni xato qilib, ular o'z sharlarini "tutun" deb atagan issiq tutunli havo bilan to'ldirishni boshladilar. Ishdagi tamoyillarni to'liq anglamagan bo'lishlariga qaramay, ular muvaffaqiyatli uchirishlarni amalga oshirdilar va 1782 yil dekabrda 20 metrga uchdilar³ (710 kub fut) balon 300 m (980 fut) balandlikka. Tez orada frantsuz akademiyasi akademiyasi ularni namoyish qilish uchun Parijga taklif qildi.

Ayni paytda, kashfiyot vodorod LED Jozef Blek 1780 yilda uni ko'taruvchi gaz sifatida ishlatishni taklif qilish, garchi amaliy namoyish gastrit balon materialini kutgan bo'lsa. Birodarlar Montgolfierning taklifini eshitib, Frantsiya akademiyasi a'zosi Jak Charlz shunga o'xshash vodorod balonini namoyish qilishni taklif qildi va bu qabul qilindi. Charlz va ikkita usta, aka-uka Robertlar, rezina ipakning oshqozonga mo'ljallangan materialini ishlab chiqdilar va ishga kirishdilar.

Birodarlar Montgolfye tomonidan birinchi marta havoga uchadigan havo pufagi namoyishi, 1783 yil 4-iyun

1783 yil havo sharlari uchun suv havzasi bo'ldi. 4-iyun va 1-dekabr kunlari orasida beshta alohida frantsuz sharlari muhim aviatsiya marralariga erishdi:

• 4 iyun: The Birodarlar Montgolfierlar "uchuvchisiz havo pufagi pastki qismida osilgan savatda qo'y, o'rdak va tovuqni ko'tarib chiqdi Annonay.
• 27 avgust: Professor Jak Charlz va Robert aka-ukalar uchib ketdi uchuvchisiz vodorod baloni. Vodorod gazini to'ldirish jarayonida kimyoviy reaktsiya natijasida hosil bo'lgan.
• 19 oktyabr: Montgolfiers birinchi odam parvozini amalga oshirdi, bortida odamlar bilan bog'langan shar. Folie Titon Parijda. Aviatorlar olim bo'lgan Jan-Fransua Pilatre de Rozier, ishlab chiqarish menejeri Jan-Baptist Revilyon va Jiro de Villette.
• 21 noyabr: Montgolfiers odam yo'lovchilari bilan birinchi bepul parvoz balonini uchirdi. Qirol Lyudovik XVI dastlab hukm qilingan jinoyatchilar birinchi uchuvchilar bo'lishini buyurgan edi, ammo Rozier va Markiz Fransua d'Arlandes, sharaf uchun muvaffaqiyatli murojaat qildi. Ular o'tin olovidan quvvat olgan sharda 8 km (5,0 milya) masofani bosib o'tdilar. 9 daqiqa (5,6 milya) 25 daqiqada bosib o'tildi.
• 1 dekabr: Jak Charlz va Nikolas-Lui Robert dan boshqariladigan vodorod balonini uchirdi Jardin des Tuileries Parijda. Ular taxminan 1800 fut (550 m) balandlikka ko'tarilib, quyosh botganda tushishdi Nesles-la-Vallée 35 km masofani bosib o'tib, 2 soat 5 daqiqalik parvozdan so'ng. Robert tushganidan keyin Charlz yakka ko'tarilishga qaror qildi. Bu safar u tezda 3000 metr (9800 fut) balandlikka ko'tarilib, u erda yana quyoshni ko'rdi, lekin qulog'iga qattiq og'riq keltirdi.

Montgolfier dizaynlarida bir nechta kamchiliklar mavjud edi, bu nafaqat quruq ob-havo zarurligi va olov balig'idan uchib chiqadigan uchqunlarning qog'oz baloniga nur sochishidir. Uchuvchisiz dizayni birinchi, uchuvchisiz dizayni osilgan savat emas, balki sharning tagida galereyaga ega edi, bu esa qog'ozni olovga yaqinlashtirdi. Erkin parvozlarida De Rozier va d'Arlandes bu yong'inlarni paydo bo'lishiga olib kelish uchun chelaklar suv va gubkalarni olib ketishdi. Boshqa tomondan, Charlzning boshqariladigan dizayni asosan zamonaviy edi.^[32] Ushbu ekspluatatsiya natijasida havo pufagi "deb nomlandi Montgolfière turi va vodorod pufagi Sharli.

The Charlz va Robert aka-uka keyingi shar undan keyingi Charlière edi Jan Batist Meusnier cho'ziluvchan havo shari uchun takliflari va ichki, bir soniya ichida joylashgan gaz bilan tashqi konvertga ega bo'lishi bilan ajralib turardi. balonet. 1784 yil 19-sentabrda u Parij va 100 km oralig'ida birinchi parvozni yakunladi Beuvri, odam tomonidan ishlaydigan qo'zg'atuvchi qurilmalar foydasizligini isbotlashiga qaramay.

Keyingi yil yanvar oyida Jan Per Blanshard va John Jeffries Dovordan Angliya kanaliga o'tib Bois de Felmores Charlierda. Ammo shunga o'xshash urinish boshqa yo'l bilan fojia bilan tugadi. Ham chidamlilik, ham boshqaruvchanlikni ta'minlashga harakat qilish uchun de Rozier ham havo, ham vodorodli gaz qoplari bilan shar ishlab chiqardi, bu dizayn tez orada uning nomi bilan nomlandi. Roziere. Uning fikri shundaki, vodorod qismini doimiy ko'tarish uchun ishlatish va vertikal ravishda issiq havo qismini isitish va sovutish orqali harakat qilish, qaysi balandlikda esayotgan bo'lsa ham eng qulay shamolni ushlab turish edi. Balon konvertidan yasalgan oltin zarbalar terisi. Parvoz boshlanganidan ko'p o'tmay de Rozier vodorodni chiqarib yuborganida, uni uchqun yoqib yuborgan va havo shari alanga bilan ko'tarilib, bortda bo'lganlarni o'ldirgan. Uchqun manbai noma'lum, ammo takliflar orasida statik elektr yoki issiq havo bo'limi uchun mangal mavjud.^[33]

Balon bilan parvoz qilish tezda 18-asrning oxirida Evropada katta "g'azabga" aylandi va balandlik va atmosfera o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikni dastlabki batafsil tushunishga imkon berdi. 1900-yillarning boshlariga kelib, sharni uchirish Britaniyada mashhur sport turi bo'lgan. Ushbu xususiy havo sharlari odatda ishlatiladi ko'mir gazi ko'taruvchi gaz sifatida. Bu vodorodni ko'tarish quvvatining taxminan yarmiga ega, shuning uchun sharlar kattaroq bo'lishi kerak edi; ammo, ko'mir gazi ancha osonroq edi va mahalliy gaz ishlari ba'zida sharlarni shamollatish uchun maxsus engil formulani taqdim etdi.^[34]

Bog'langan sharlar davomida ishlatilgan Amerika fuqarolar urushi tomonidan Ittifoq armiyasi shar sharlari korpusi. 1863 yilda yosh Ferdinand fon Zeppelin, Ittifoq bilan harbiy kuzatuvchi vazifasini bajaruvchi Potomak armiyasi, avval Ittifoq armiyasi bilan xizmatda bo'lgan balonda balon yo'lovchisi sifatida uchgan.^[35] O'sha asrning oxirida, Britaniya armiyasi davomida kuzatuv sharlaridan foydalanadi Boer urushi.^[36]

Kir yuvish vositalari yoki dirijabl

1852 yilda Giffard tomonidan yaratilgan zararli balon

Hozirgi kunda an deb ataladigan, boshqariladigan (boshqariladigan) balonni ishlab chiqish ustida ish olib boring dirijabl, 19-asr davomida vaqti-vaqti bilan davom etdi. Tarixdagi birinchi doimiy quvvatli va boshqariladigan parvoz 1852 yil 24 sentyabrda amalga oshirilgan deb hisoblashadi Anri Giffard dan Frantsiyada 27 milya masofada uchib o'tdi Parij ga Izlar bilan Giffard juda yaxshi,^[37] a qattiq dirijabl vodorod bilan to'ldirilgan va 3 ot kuchiga ega (2,2 kVt) bug 'dvigateli 3 pichoqli pervanelni boshqarish.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

1863 yilda, Sulaymon Endryus Nyu-Jersi shtatidagi Pert Amboyda o'zining aereon dizayni bilan boshqarildi, kuchsiz, boshqariladigan. U keyinchalik 1866 yilda Nyu-York shahri atrofida va Nyu-Yorkning Oyster ko'rfazigacha parvoz qildi. Uning texnikasi tortishish kuchi ostida sirpanish dirijabl navbatma-navbat ko'tarilib, cho'kib ketayotganda qo'zg'atuvchi kuchni ta'minlash uchun ko'taruvchini o'zgartirib ishlaydi va shuning uchun quvvat qurilmasiga ehtiyoj qolmaydi.

1884 yil 9-avgustda birinchi to'liq boshqariladigan bepul parvoz amalga oshirilganda yana oldinga siljish amalga oshirildi Charlz Renar va Artur Konstantin Krebs Frantsiya armiyasida elektr bilan ishlaydigan dirijablda, La Fransiya.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Uzunligi 170 fut (52 m), 66000 kub fut (1900 m)³) dirijabl 8,5 ot kuchiga ega (6,3 kVt) elektr dvigatel yordamida 23 daqiqada 8 km (5 mil) bosib o'tdi va boshlang'ich nuqtasiga qaytdi. Bu yopiq sxema bo'yicha birinchi parvoz edi.^[38]

1884 yil La Fransiya, birinchi to'liq boshqariladigan dirijabl

Langli ning parvozini tomosha qiladi Santos-Dyumont № 4

Ushbu samolyotlar amaliy bo'lmagan. Odatda zaif va qisqa muddatli bo'lishdan tashqari, ular qattiq yoki eng yaxshi holatda yarim qattiq edi. Binobarin, ularni tijorat yukini ko'taradigan darajada katta qilish qiyin edi.

Hisoblash Ferdinand fon Zeppelin qattiq tashqi ramka juda katta dirijablga imkon berishini tushundi. U asos solgan Zeppelin qat'iy, qat'iy Luftschiff Zeppelin 1 (LZ 1) avval Bodensee 1900 yil 2-iyulda Shveytsariya chegarasida. Parvoz 18 daqiqa davom etdi. Ikkinchi va uchinchi parvozlar, 1900 yil oktyabrda va 1900 yil 24 oktyabrda, Frantsiyaning La France dirijablining 6 m / s (13 milya) tezligini 3 m / s (7 milya) ga oshirdi.

Braziliyalik Alberto Santos-Dyumont loyihalash, qurish va uchish bilan mashhur bo'ldi tozalanadigan narsalar. U muntazam, boshqariladigan parvozga qodir bo'lgan birinchi amaliy qo'llanmani yaratdi va uchdi. O'zining noaniq raqami 6 bilan u g'olib chiqdi Deutsch de la Meurthe mukofoti 1901 yil 19-oktabrda Seynt-Klyuddan parvoz bilan Eyfel minorasini aylanib, dastlabki nuqtasiga qaytdi.^[39] Shu paytgacha dirijabl birinchi amaliy havo qatnovi shakli sifatida o'rnatildi.

Havodan og'irroq: parashyutlar va samolyotlar

Parashyutlar

Da Vinchining piramida shaklidagi dizayni parashyut asrlar davomida nashr etilmagan. Birinchi nashr etilgan dizayn xorvatiyalik edi Fausto Veranzio "s homo volanlar (uchar odam) uning kitobida paydo bo'lgan Machinae novae (Yangi mashinalar) 1595 yilda. Kema asosida suzib yurish, u kvadrat ramka bo'ylab cho'zilgan va arqonlar bilan ushlab turilgan materialning kvadratini o'z ichiga olgan. Parashyutchi to'rtta burchakning har biridan arqonlar bilan osib qo'yilgan.^[40]

Louis-Sebastien Lenormand parashyut bilan tushgan guvoh bo'lgan birinchi odam hisoblanadi. 1783 yil 26-dekabrda u 14 metrli (4,3 m) parashyutdan qattiq yog'och ramkadan foydalanib, Jozef Montgolfierni o'z ichiga olgan olomon oldida Frantsiyadagi Montpele obodxonasining minorasidan sakrab chiqdi.

1853 yildan 1854 yilgacha Lui Charlz Letur kichikroq, uchburchak qanotli va ostidan vertikal dumli soyabonga o'xshash parashyutni o'z ichiga olgan parashyut-planer ishlab chiqardi. Letur 1854 yilda qulab tushganidan keyin vafot etdi.^[c]

Uçurtmalar

Uçurtmalar so'nggi aviatsiya tarixida birinchi navbatda odam tashish yoki ko'tarish qobiliyatlari bilan ajralib turadi, garchi ular boshqa sohalarda ham muhim bo'lgan. meteorologiya.

Frantsuz Gaston Biot 1868 yilda odam ko'taruvchi samolyot ishlab chiqardi. Keyinchalik, 1880 yilda Biot Frantsiya aeronavigatsiya jamiyatiga ochiq konusga asoslangan samolyotni namoyish qildi, xuddi shunga o'xshash shamol ammo tekis yuzaga yopishtirilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Inson tashiydigan kite 1894 yilda kapitan tomonidan bir bosqichda ishlab chiqilgan Baden Baden-Pauell, akasi Lord Baden-Pauell, olti burchakli kites zanjirini bitta chiziqqa bog'lab qo'ygan. 1893 yilda avstraliyalik bo'lganida muhim o'zgarishlar yuz berdi Lourens Xargreyv ixtiro qilgan quti uçurtma va odam tashish bo'yicha ba'zi tajribalar Avstraliyada ham, AQShda ham amalga oshirildi.^[36] 1905 yil 27-dekabrda, Nil MacDearmid Kanadaning Yangi Shotlandiya shtatidagi Baddeck shahrida katta transport vositasi tomonidan ko'tarilgan quti uçurtma tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Frost King deb nomlangan Aleksandr Grem Bell.

O'sha paytga kelib sharlar meteorologiya va harbiy kuzatuv uchun ishlatilgan. Balonlardan faqat engil shamollarda foydalanish mumkin, samolyotlardan esa faqat kuchli shamollarda. Amerika Samuel Franklin Cody, Angliyada ishlagan holda, ular o'rtasidagi hunarmandchilikning ikki turi ob-havo sharoitida ishlashga imkon berishini tushunib etdi. U Hargravening asosiy dizaynini ishlab chiqdi va qo'shimcha chiziqlarni ko'tarib, bitta chiziqda bir nechta kitlarni ishlatib, kuchli ko'tarish tizimlarini yaratdi. Kodi o'z tizimining ko'plab namoyishlarini o'tkazdi va keyinchalik to'rtta "jangovar uçurtma" tizimini Qirollik dengiz flotiga sotdi. Uning kiteslari meteorologik asboblarni baland ko'tarishda ham foydalanishdi va u Qirollik meteorologik jamiyatining a'zosi bo'ldi. 1905 yilda, Sapper Buyuk Britaniya armiyasining havo sharlari uchastkasining Moretoni 2600 fut (790 m) ga samolyot tomonidan ko'tarildi. Aldershot Kodi nazorati ostida. 1906 yilda Kodi armiyada Kiting bo'yicha bosh o'qituvchi etib tayinlandi Ballooning maktabi Aldershotda. Tez orada u Farnborodagi yangi tashkil etilgan armiya sharlari fabrikasiga qo'shildi va ingliz armiyasi uchun o'zining jangovar kitlarini ishlab chiqishda davom etdi. O'z davrida u samolyotga o'ralgan holda uchirilgan va keyin erkin siljish uchun qo'yib yuborilgan "uchuvchi-samolyot" ishlab chiqardi. 1907 yilda Keyti ​​samolyot dvigatelini o'zgartirilgan "uchuvchisiz samolyot" ga, keyingi samolyotlarining kashfiyotchisiga o'rnatdi va uni Balon Shed ichida, qutblarga osilgan sim bo'ylab Uels shahzodasi va malikasi oldida uchirdi. Britaniya armiyasi 1908 yilda o'zlarining Balonli kompaniyalari uchun o'zining jangovar kitlarini rasmiy ravishda qabul qildi.^[36]

Havodan og'irroq: doimiy parvoz

17-18 asrlar

Leonardo da Vinchining ish kuchi doimiy parvoz uchun etarli emasligini anglashi XVII asrda mustaqil ravishda qayta kashf etildi. Jovanni Alfonso Borelli va Robert Xuk. Xuk dvigatelning biron bir shakli zarurligini tushundi va 1655 yilda a bahorda ishlaydi aftidan ucha olgan ornitopter modeli.

Haqiqiy uchish moslamasini loyihalashtirish yoki qurishga urinishlar boshlandi, odatda gondolni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi soyabon va qo'zg'alish uchun bahor yoki odam tomonidan boshqariladigan flaplar mavjud. Birinchilardan Xautsh va Burattini (1648) bor edi. Boshqalar orasida de Gusmãoning "Passarola" (1709 yil), Shveedborg (1716), Desforges (1772), Bauer (1764), Meerwein (1781) va Blanshard (1781) bor edi, ular keyinchalik sharlar bilan ko'proq muvaffaqiyatga erishadilar. Shuningdek, aylanma qanotli vertolyotlar, ayniqsa Lomonosov (1754) va Pauktondan paydo bo'lgan. Bir nechta model planerlar muvaffaqiyatli uchib ketishdi, ammo ba'zi da'volar bahsga sabab bo'lmoqda, ammo har qanday holatda ham to'liq hajmdagi hunarmandchilik muvaffaqiyatga erishmadi.^[41]

Burattini "s Ajdaho Volant (lit. "Uchar ajdaho").

Italiyalik ixtirochi, Tito Livio Burattini tomonidan taklif qilingan Polsha Qirol Wladyslaw IV uning sudiga Varshava, 1647 yilda to'rtta planer qanotli model samolyot qurdi.^[42] "Murakkab" ajdaho "ga bog'langan to'rt juft qanot" deb ta'riflangan holda, 1648 yilda mushukni muvaffaqiyatli ko'targan, ammo Burattinining o'zi emas.^[43] U "faqat eng kichik jarohatlar" kemani qo'nish natijasida kelib chiqishini va'da qildi.^[44] Uning "Ajdaho volanti" "19-asrgacha qurilgan eng murakkab va murakkab samolyot" hisoblanadi.^[45]

Bartolomeu de Gusmao "Passarola" ichi bo'sh, noaniq qush shaklidagi planer edi, shunga o'xshash tushunchaga ega, lekin ikki qanotli. 1709 yilda u Qirolga ariza bilan murojaat qildi Portugaliyalik Jon V, o'zining "dirijabl" ixtirosini qo'llab-quvvatlashini so'rab, unga eng katta ishonchni bildirdi. 1709 yil 24-iyunda belgilangan mashinaning ommaviy sinovi o'tkazilmadi. Zamonaviy xabarlarga ko'ra, Gusmao bu mashina bilan ulug'vorlikdan tushgan holda bir necha bor shijoatli tajribalar o'tkazgan ko'rinadi. Gusmao ushbu printsip asosida 1709 yil 8-avgustda sud zalida namoyish etgan ochiq ko'rgazmada ishlaganligi aniq. Casa da dindia yilda Lissabon, u to'pni yonish yo'li bilan tomga qo'zg'atganda.^{[tushuntirish kerak ]} Shuningdek, u Portugaliya sudi oldida kichik dirijabl modelini namoyish qildi, ammo hech qachon to'liq ko'lamli model bilan muvaffaqiyatga erishmadi.

Biroq, tushunish va quvvat manbai hali ham etishmayotgan edi. Bu tomonidan tan olingan Emanuel Swedenborg unda "Havoda uchish uchun mashinaning eskizi "1716 yilda nashr etilgan. Uning uchish apparati kuchli tuval bilan qoplangan va gorizontal o'qda harakatlanadigan ikkita katta eshkak yoki qanot bilan ta'minlangan engil ramkadan iborat bo'lib, yuqoriga ko'tarish hech qanday qarshilikka duch kelmaydigan qilib joylashtirilgan, pastga tushirish esa ko'tarish kuchini ta'minlagan. Shveedborg buni bilar edi mashina uchib ketmasdi, lekin uni start sifatida taklif qildi va muammo hal qilinishiga ishonch bildirdi. U shunday deb yozgan edi: "Bunday mashina haqida gapirish, uni amalda bajarishdan ko'ra osonroq ko'rinadi, chunki bu katta kuch va ozroq vazn talab qiladi. inson tanasida mavjud bo'lganidan ko'ra. Mexanika fani, ehtimol kuchli spiral buloqni taklif qilishi mumkin. Agar ushbu afzalliklar va rekvizitlarga rioya qilinsa, ehtimol kelgusida kimdir bizning eskizimizdan qanday qilib yaxshiroq foydalanishni bilishi va biz taklif qila oladigan narsani amalga oshirish uchun qo'shimcha kiritishimiz kerak "." Qirollik aviatsiya jamiyati "jurnalining muharriri 1910 yilda shvedborgning dizayni "... aeroplance [havodan og'irroq] tipdagi uchish apparati uchun birinchi ratsional taklif ..." deb yozgan edi.^[46]

Ayni paytda, rotatorlik umuman unutilgan emas. 1754 yil iyulda, Mixail Lomonosov Rossiya Fanlar akademiyasiga kamon bilan ishlaydigan kichik koaksial juft rotorli tizimni namoyish etdi. Rotorlar bir-birining ustiga joylashtirilgan va bir-biriga qarama-qarshi yo'nalishda aylantirilgan, bu printsiplar hali ham zamonaviy ikki rotorli dizaynlarda qo'llanilgan. Uning 1768 yilda Théorie de la vis d'Archimède, Aleksis-Jan-Per Paukton bugungi kunda "a" deb nomlangan havo kuchini ko'tarish uchun, ikkinchisini harakatga keltirish uchun ishlatishni taklif qildi gyrodyne. 1784 yilda Launoy va Bienvenu koaksiyal, teskari aylanadigan rotorli uchish modelini namoyish qildilar kamon arra, endi birinchi quvvatli vertolyot sifatida qabul qilindi.

Odamlar tomonidan boshqariladigan parvozga urinishlar hanuzgacha davom etmoqda. Pauktonning motorli dvigateli odam tomonidan boshqarilgan bo'lsa, dastlab da Vinchi tomonidan o'rganilgan yana bir yondashuv - qopqoqli klapanlardan foydalanish. Qopqoq valf - bu qanotdagi teshik ustidagi oddiy menteşeli qopqoq. Bir yo'nalishda u havo o'tishi uchun ochiladi, ikkinchisida bosim farqining oshishi uchun yopiladi. Dastlabki misol Bauer tomonidan 1764 yilda ishlab chiqilgan.^[47] Keyinchalik 1808 yilda, Jeykob Degen qopqoq klapanlari bilan ornitopter qurdi, unda uchuvchi qattiq ramkada turib, harakatlanuvchi gorizontal chiziq bilan qanotlarni ishladi.^[48] Uning 1809 yilda uchishga urinishi muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi, shuning uchun u kichik vodorod balonini qo'shib qo'ydi va kombinatsiya qisqa sakrashga erishdi. Kunning mashhur illyustralarida uning mashinasi sharsiz tasvirlangan bo'lib, aslida uchib ketgan narsalar haqida chalkashliklarga olib keldi. 1811 yilda Albrecht Berblinger Degen dizayni asosida ornitopter qurdi, lekin sharni tashlab, o'rniga Dunayga tushdi. Fiyasko teskari tomonga ega edi: Jorj Keyli, shuningdek, illyustratsiyalar bilan qabul qilingan, o'z xulosalarini "jamoat bahosida kulgili bilan chegaradosh mavzuga biroz ko'proq izzat berish uchun" shu kungacha nashr etishga undadi va zamonaviy aviatsiya davri tug'ildi.^[49]

19-asr

19-asr davomida minora sakrash inson kuchi va qanot qoqishning doimiy foydasizligini namoyish etishning bir usuli sifatida bir xil darajada halokatli, ammo bir xil darajada mashhur bo'lgan havo sharlariga sakrash bilan almashtirildi. Ayni paytda, havodan og'irroq parvozni ilmiy o'rganish jiddiy ravishda boshlandi.

Ser Jorj Keyli va birinchi zamonaviy samolyot

Ser Jorj Keyli birinchi marta 1846 yilda "samolyot otasi" deb nomlangan.^[50] O'tgan asrning so'nggi yillarida u birinchi bor qattiq o'rganishni boshladi parvoz fizikasi va keyinchalik havodan og'irroq bo'lgan birinchi zamonaviy kema dizaynini yaratadi. Uning ko'plab yutuqlari qatoriga, uning aeronavtika sohasidagi eng muhim hissalari quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi:

• Bizning fikrlarimizni aniqlashtirish va havodan og'ir parvoz tamoyillarini belgilash.
• Qushlarning uchish tamoyillari to'g'risida ilmiy tushunchaga erishish.
• Drag va soddalashtirishni, bosim markazining harakatlanishini va qanot yuzasining egilishidan ko'tarilishning ko'tarilishini ko'rsatadigan ilmiy aerodinamik tajribalarni o'tkazish.
• Qattiq qanotli, fyuzelyajli va dumli qismlardan tashkil topgan zamonaviy samolyot konfiguratsiyasini aniqlash.
• Samolyotda uchadigan samolyot namoyishlari.
• Parvozni ta'minlashda kuch-vazn nisbati tamoyillarini belgilash.

Keyli o'n yoshidan fizikani o'rganishni boshladi qushlarning parvozi va maktab daftarlarida u parvoz nazariyalari bo'yicha g'oyalarini ishlab chiqadigan eskizlarni o'z ichiga olgan. Bu da'vo qilingan^[51] ushbu eskizlar Ceyleyning 1792 yoki 1793 yillarda ko'taruvchi moyil samolyot tamoyillarini modellashtirganligini ko'rsatmoqda.

1796 yilda Cayley odatda Xitoyning uchuvchi tepasi deb nomlanadigan vertolyot modelini yaratdi, Launoy va Bienvenuning o'xshash dizayn modelidan bexabar. U vertolyotni oddiy vertikal parvoz uchun eng yaxshi dizayn deb bilgan va keyinchalik 1854 yilda hayotida takomillashtirilgan modelni yaratgan. U janob Kuperga "o'yinchoqning beozor tuzilishini" birinchi bo'lib yaxshilaganligi uchun kredit berdi va Kuperning modeli yigirma yoki o'ttiz futga ko'tarilganligi haqida xabar berdi. Keyli bitta, janob Koulson esa nusxasini yaratdi, uni Keyli "havodagi vintli pervanenin juda chiroyli namunasi" deb ta'riflagan va to'qson metr balandlikda ucha oladi.^[52]

Keylining keyingi yangiliklari ikki xil edi: o'tgan asrda ixtiro qilingan aylanma qo'l sinov uskunasini qabul qilish. Benjamin Robbins tergov qilish aerodinamik qarshilik va tez orada ishlatilgan Jon Smeaton aylanayotgan kuchlarni o'lchash uchun shamol tegirmoni pichoqlar,^[53] to'liq dizayndagi modelni uchishga urinishdan ko'ra, qo'lni aerodinamik modellardan foydalanish bilan birgalikda samolyot tadqiqotlarida foydalanish uchun. Dastlab u qo'lga mahkamlangan va havo oqimiga burchak ostida moyil bo'lgan oddiy tekis tekislikdan foydalangan.

1799 yilda u zamonaviy samolyot kontseptsiyasini a sobit qanot ko'tarish, qo'zg'atish va boshqarish uchun alohida tizimlarga ega uchuvchi mashina.^[54][55] O'sha yilga oid kichik kumush diskda u bir tomonda samolyotda harakat qilayotgan kuchlarni, ikkinchisida gumbazlangan qanot kabi alohida xususiyatlarni o'z ichiga olgan samolyot dizaynining eskizini gorizontal ravishda o'z ichiga olgan. orqa samolyot va vertikal fin va barqarorlikni ta'minlash uchun og'irlik markazidan pastda to'xtatilgan uchuvchi uchun fyuzelyaj. Dizayn hali to'liq zamonaviy emas, chunki u ikkita valf sifatida ishlaydigan uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan eshkaklar yoki eshkaklar singari.^[56][57]

U o'z izlanishlarini davom ettirdi va 1804 yilda odatdagi zamonaviy samolyotning old tomoniga moyil qanotli va orqada sozlanishi quyruqli ikkala orqa samolyot va fin bilan uchish moslamasi bo'lgan birinchi zamonaviy havodan uchadigan mashina bo'lgan planerni yaratdi. . Qanot shunchaki o'yinchoq qog'oz kit edi, tekis va kamerasiz. Harakatlanadigan og'irlik modelning tortishish markazini sozlashga imkon berdi.^[58] Tog'ning tepasidan uchayotganda "ko'rish juda yoqimli" edi va dumining kichik o'zgarishlariga sezgir edi.^[59]

1852 yil "boshqariladigan parashyut" dizayni

1809 yil oxiriga kelib, u dunyodagi birinchi to'liq planerni qurdi va uni uchuvchisiz bog'lab qo'yilgan samolyot sifatida uchirdi. Xuddi shu yili u o'z zamondoshlarining ashaddiy antiqalari bilan yurib (yuqoriga qarang), "Aerion navigation to'g'risida" (1809-1810) nomli uch qismli traktat nashr etishni boshladi.^[60] Unda u muammoning birinchi ilmiy bayonotini yozdi: "Butun muammo shu chegaralar doirasida, ya'ni kuchni havo qarshiligiga qo'llash orqali ma'lum bir og'irlikdagi sirtni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun". U samolyotga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan to'rtta vektor kuchini aniqladi: surish, ko'tarish, sudrab torting va vazn va uning dizaynidagi barqarorlik va boshqaruvni ajralib turardi. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, yolg'iz ishchi kuchi etarli emas, va hozircha tegishli quvvat manbai mavjud emas, u imkoniyatlarni muhokama qildi va hatto ishlash printsipini tasvirlab berdi. ichki yonish dvigateli gaz va havo aralashmasidan foydalanish.^[61] Ammo u hech qachon ishlayotgan dvigatelni yarata olmadi va uchish tajribalarini sirpanib uchish bilan chekladi. Shuningdek, u muhimligini aniqladi va tavsifladi kambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal mustahkamlash va tortishni qisqartirish va ornitopterlar va parashyutlarni tushunish va dizayniga hissa qo'shdi.

1848 yilda u a shaklidagi planerni qurish uchun etarlicha rivojlandi uch samolyot bolani ko'tarish uchun etarlicha katta va xavfsiz. Mahalliy bola tanlangan, ammo uning ismi ma'lum emas.^[62][63]

U 1852 yilda shardan uchirilishi uchun to'la hajmli odam planer yoki "boshqariladigan parashyut" loyihasini nashr etishni davom ettirdi va keyin tepalikning tepasidan uchib o'tishga qodir bo'lgan versiyani yaratdi, u orqali birinchi kattalar aviatori o'tib ketdi. Brompton Deyl 1853 yilda. Aviatorning kimligi noma'lum. Keylining murabbiyi sifatida har xil fikrlar bildirilgan,^[64] piyoda yoki butler, murabbiy bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan Jon Applebi^[62] yoki boshqa bir ishchi, hatto Keylining nabirasi Jorj Jon Keyli ham bor.^[51] Ma'lumki, u birinchi qanotlari, fyuzelyaji va dumlari bilan planerda uchgan va o'ziga xos barqarorlik va uchuvchilar tomonidan boshqariladigan boshqaruvga ega bo'lgan: birinchi to'liq zamonaviy va funktsional, havodan og'irroq vosita.

Kichkina ixtirolarga kauchuk bilan ishlaydigan dvigatel kiradi^{[iqtibos kerak ]}, bu tadqiqot modellari uchun ishonchli quvvat manbasini taqdim etdi. 1808 yilga kelib, u g'ildirakni qayta ixtiro qildi va ixtiro qildi kuchlanishli g'ildirak in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage.^[65]

The age of steam

1843 engraving of the Aerial Steam Carriage

Drawing directly from Cayley's work, Uilyam Samuel Xenson 's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke new ground. Henson proposed a 150 feet (46 m) span high-winged monoplan, with a steam engine driving two surish moslamasi pervaneler. Although only a design, (scale models were built in 1843^[66] or 1848^[67] and flew 10 or 130 feet) it was the first in history for a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft.^[66][67][68] Henson and his collaborator John Stringfellow even dreamed of the first Aerial Transit Company.^[69][70][71]

1856 yilda frantsuz Jan-Mari Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" sohilda ot tomonidan tortib olingan. He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.

The British advances had galvanised French researchers.^[66] Starting in 1857, Félix du ibodatxonasi and his brother Luis built several models using a clockwork mechanism as a power source and later a small steam engine.^[72][73] In 1857 or 1858, a pound-and-a-half model was able to fly briefly and land.^[66][73]

Frensis Herbert Venxem presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Qirollik aviatsiya jamiyati ), On Aerial Locomotion. He took Cayley's work on cambered wings further, making important findings about both the wing aerofoil section and lift distribution. To test his ideas, from 1858 he constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He concluded correctly that long, thin wings would be better than the bat-like ones suggested by many, because they would have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the tomonlar nisbati of a wing.

The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the "gentleman scientists " who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist-philosopher and inventor Metyu Pirs Vatt Boulton, who wrote an important paper in 1864, Aërial Locomotion haqida, which also described lateral flight control. He was the first to patent an aileron control system 1868 yilda.^{[74][75][76][77]}

In 1864, Le Comte Ferdinand Charles Honore Phillipe d'Esterno published a study On the Flight of Birds (Du Vol des Oiseaux), and the next year Lui Per Mouillard published an influential book The Empire of the Air (l'Empire de l'Air).

1866 saw the founding of the Buyuk Britaniyaning aviatsiya jamiyati and two years later the world's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Kristal saroy, London, where Stringfellow was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best power-to-weight ratio.^[78][79]

Jan-Mari Le Bris and his flying machine, Albatros II (1868)

In 1871, Wenham and Browning made the first shamol tunnel.^[81] Members of the Society used the tunnel and learned that kambered wings generated considerably more lift than expected by Cayley's Newtonian reasoning, with tortish uchun tortish nisbati of about 5:1 at 15 daraja. This clearly demonstrated the possibility of building practical heavier-than-air flying machines: what remained were the problems of controlling and powering the craft.

Planophore model aeroplane by Alphonse Pénaud (1871)

Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman living from 1850 to 1880, made significant contributions to aeronautics. He advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871, he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore", a distance of 40 metres (130 ft). Pénaud's model incorporated several of Cayley's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller tushish burchagi than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics.^[82]

By the 1870s, lightweight steam engines had been developed enough for their experimental use in aircraft.

Félix du ibodatxonasi 1874 yil Monoplan

Félix du Temple eventually achieved a short hop with a full-size manned craft in 1874. His "Monoplan " was a large aircraft made of aluminium, with a qanotlari of 42 ft 8 in (13 m) and a weight of only 176 pounds (80 kg) without the pilot. Several trials were made with the aircraft, and it achieved lift-off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered hop in history, a year ahead of Moy's flight.^[72][83]

The Aerial Steamer, made by Tomas Moy, sometimes called the Moy-Shill Aerial Steamer, was an unmanned tandem qanot aircraft driven by a 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) bug 'dvigateli foydalanish metil spirtlari yoqilg'i sifatida. It was 14 feet (4.3 m) long and weighed about 216 pounds (98 kg) of which the engine accounted for 80 pounds (36 kg), and ran on three wheels. It was tested in June 1875 on a circular rolled gravel track of nearly 300 feet (91 m) diameter. It did not reach a speed of above 12 miles per hour (19 km/h), but a speed of around 35 miles per hour (56 km/h) would be necessary to lift off.^[84] However it is credited with being the first steam-powered aircraft to have left the ground under its own power by the historian Charles Gibbs-Smith.^[85][86]

Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A quyruqsiz monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor airscrews, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.

The Aéroplane of Victor Tatin (1879)

Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud's fellow countryman Viktor Tatin. In 1879, he flew a model which, like Pénaud's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air, with the air tank forming the fuselage.

Rossiyada Alexander Mozhaiski constructed a steam-powered monoplane driven by one large tractor and two smaller pusher propellers. In 1884, it was launched from a ramp and remained airborne for 98 feet (30 m).

That same year in France, Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly.

Maxim's flying machine

Janob Xiram Maksim was an American who moved to England and adopted English nationality. He chose to largely ignore his contemporaries and built his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel. In 1889, he built a hangar and workshop in the grounds of Baldwyn's Manor at Bexli, Kent, and made many experiments. He developed a biplane design which he patented in 1891 and completed as a test rig three years later. It was an enormous machine, with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound bug 'dvigatellari each delivering 180 horsepower (130 kW). Overall weight was 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg). Later modifications would add more wing surfaces as shown in the illustration. Its purpose was for research and it was neither aerodynamically stable nor controllable, so it ran on a 1,800 feet (550 m) track with a second set of restraining rails to prevent it from lifting off, somewhat in the manner of a roller coaster.^[87] In 1894, the machine developed enough lift to take off, breaking one of the restraining rails and being damaged in the process. Maxim then abandoned work on it but would return to aeronautics in the 20th century to test a number of smaller designs powered by internal combustion engines.^[88]

Clément Ader Avion III (1897 photograph)

One of the last of the steam-powered pioneers, like Maxim ignoring his contemporaries who had moved on (see next section), was Clément Ader. Uning Éole of 1890 was a bat-winged tractor monoplane which achieved a brief, uncontrolled hop, thus becoming the first heavier-than-air machine to take off under its own power. However his similar but larger Avion III of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly at all.^[89] Ader would later claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt.

Learning to glide

The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on display in the Musee de l'Air.

The glider constructed with the help of Massia and flown briefly by Biot in 1879 was based on the work of Mouillard and was still bird-like in form. It is preserved the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man-carrying flying machine still in existence.

In the last decade or so of the 19th century a number of key figures were refining and defining the modern aeroplane. Ingliz Horatio Fillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. Nemis Otto Liliental va amerikalik Oktav Chanute worked independently on gliding flight. Lillienthal published a book on bird flight and went on, from 1891 to 1896, to construct a series of gliders, of various monoplane, biplane and triplane configurations, to test his theories. He made thousands of flights and at the time of his death was working on motor-powered gliders.

Phillips conducted extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, using steam as the working fluid. He proved the principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham and, from 1884, took out several patents on aerofoils. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design. Phillips would later develop theories on the design of ko'p tekisliklar, which he went on to show were unfounded.

Starting in the 1880s, advances were made in construction that led to the first truly practical gliders. Four people in particular were active: Jon J. Montgomeri, Otto Liliental, Persi Pilcher va Oktav Chanute. One of the first modern gliders was built by John J. Montgomery in 1883; Montgomery later claimed to have made a single successful flight with it in 1884 near San-Diego^[90] and Montgomery's activities were documented by Chanute in his book Progress in Flying Machines. Montgomery discussed his flying during the 1893 Aeronautical Conference in Chicago and Chanute published Montgomery's comments in December 1893 in the American Engineer & Railroad Journal. Short hops with Montgomery's second and third gliders in 1885 and 1886 were also described by Montgomery.^[91] Between 1886 and 1896 Montgomery focused on understanding the physics of aerodynamics rather than experiment with flying machines. Another hang-glider had been constructed by Vilgelm Kress as early as 1877 near Vena.

Otto Liliental.

Otto Lilienthal was known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He duplicated Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst). He also produced a series of gliders of a type now known as the hang glider, including bat-wing, monoplane and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider va Oddiy uchish apparati. Starting in 1891 he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around the world. He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. He also promoted the idea of "jumping before you fly", suggesting that researchers should start with gliders and work their way up, instead of simply designing a powered machine on paper and hoping it would work. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash. Lilienthal had also been working on small engines suitable for powering his designs at the time of his death.

Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early retirement and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896, his team flew several of their designs many times at Miller plyaji, Indiana, eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he documented his work and also photographed it, and was busy corresponding with like-minded researchers around the world. Chanute was particularly interested in solving the problem of aerodynamic instability of the aircraft in flight, which birds compensate for by instant corrections, but which humans would have to address either with stabilizing and control surfaces or by moving the center of gravity of the aircraft, as Lilienthal did. The most disconcerting problem was longitudinal instability (divergence), because as the angle of attack of a wing increases, the bosim markazi moves forward and makes the angle increase yet more. Without immediate correction, the craft will pitch up and tokcha. Much more difficult to understand was the relationship between lateral and directional control.

Britaniyada, Persi Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim and had built and successfully flown several gliders during the mid to late 1890s, constructed a prototype powered aircraft in 1899 which, recent research has shown, would have been capable of flight. However, like Lilienthal he died in a glider accident before he was able to test it.

Publications, particularly Oktav Chanute "s Uchish mashinalarida taraqqiyot of 1894 and James Means ' The Problem of Manflight (1894) va Aeronautical Annuals (1895–1897) helped bring current research and events to a wider audience.

Ixtirosi quti uçurtma during this period by the Australian Lourens Xargreyv led to the development of the practical ikki qanotli. In 1894, Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and flew 16 feet (4.9 m). By demonstrating to a sceptical public that it was possible to build a safe and stable flying machine, Hargrave opened the door to other inventors and pioneers. Hargrave devoted most of his life to constructing a machine that would fly. He believed passionately in open communication within the scientific community and would not patent his inventions. Instead, he scrupulously published the results of his experiments in order that a mutual interchange of ideas may take place with other inventors working in the same field, so as to expedite joint progress.^[92] Oktav Chanute became convinced that multiple wing planes were more effective than a monoplane and introduced the "strut-wire" braced wing structure which, with its combination of rigidity and lightness, would in the form of the biplane come to dominate aircraft design for decades to come. The inventor of the box kite Lourens Xargreyv also experimented in the 1880s with monoplane models and by 1889 had constructed a rotary engine driven by compressed air.

Even balloon-jumping began to succeed. 1905 yilda, Daniel Maloney was carried by balloon in a tandem-wing glider designed by John Montgomery to an altitude of 4,000 feet (1,200 m) before being released, gliding down and landing at a predetermined location as part of a large public demonstration of aerial flight at Santa-Klara, Kaliforniya. However, after several successful flights, during an ascension in July 1905, a rope from the balloon struck the glider, and the glider suffered structural failure after release, resulting in Maloney's death.

Quvvat qo'shish

Whitehead

The No. 21 monoplane seen from the rear. Uaytxed yonida qizi Rouz bilan tizzasida o'tirgan; fotosuratda boshqalar aniqlanmagan.

Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built flying machines and engines. On 14 August 1901, Whitehead claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane da Feyrfild, Konnektikut. An account of the flight appeared in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald and was repeated in newspapers throughout the world.^[93] Whitehead claimed two more flights on 17 January 1902, using his Number 22 monoplane. He described it as having a 40 horsepower (30 kW) motor with twin tractor propellers and controlled by differential propeller speed and rudder. He claimed to have flown a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) circle.

For many years the Whitehead claims were ignored or dismissed by mainstream aviation historians. 2013 yil mart oyida, Jeynning butun dunyo samolyoti published an editorial which accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier-than-air craft.^[94] The Smitson instituti is among those who do not accept that Whitehead flew as reported.^[95]

Langli

First failure of Langley's manned Aerodrom ustida Potomak daryosi, 7 October 1903

After a distinguished career in astronomiya and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Perpont Langli started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the Pitsburg universiteti. In 1891, he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-flight control.^[96] On 6 May 1896, Langley's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Aleksandr Grem Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 aslida edi Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.

Muvaffaqiyatlari bilan Aerodrome No. 5 va № 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full-scale man-carrying version of his designs. Tomonidan qo'zg'atilgan Ispaniya-Amerika urushi, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying flying machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on 18 June 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903.

With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 horsepower (6.0 kW) instead of the 12 horsepower (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley's assistant, Charlz M. Manli, then reworked the design into a five-cylinder water-cooled radial that delivered 52 horsepower (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes.

To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrom immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrom's aerial stability was marginal.^[96]

Langley's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on 8 December, the Raytlar birodarlar successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn Kurtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrom and flew this very different aircraft in 1914.^[96] Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley's Aerodrom was the first machine "capable of flight".^[97]

Birodarlar Raytlar

Wright glider, coordinated turn using wing-warping and rudder, 1902.

The Wrights solved both the control and power problems that confronted aeronautical pioneers. They invented rulon control using qanotlarni burish and combined roll with simultaneous yaw control using a steerable rear rudder. Although wing-warping as a means of roll control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the innovation of combining roll and yaw control was a fundamental advance in flight control. For pitch control, the Wrights used a forward elevator (canard), another design element that later became outmoded.

The Wrights made rigorous wind-tunnel tests of havo plyonkalari and flight tests of full-size gliders. They not only built a working powered aircraft, the Rayt Flyeri, but also significantly advanced the science of aeronautical engineering.

They concentrated on the controllability of unpowered aircraft before attempting to fly a powered design. From 1900 to 1902, they built and flew a series of three gliders. The first two were much less efficient than the Wrights expected, based on experiments and writings of their 19th-century predecessors. Their 1900 glider had only about half the lift they anticipated, and the 1901 glider performed even more poorly, until makeshift modifications made it serviceable.

Seeking answers, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and equipped it with a sophisticated measuring device to calculate lift and drag of 200 different model-size wing designs they created.^[98] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations of lift and drag and used this knowledge to construct their 1902 glider, third in the series. It became the first manned, heavier-than-air flying machine that was mechanically controllable in all three axes: pitch, roll and yaw. Its pioneering design also included wings with a higher tomonlar nisbati than the previous gliders. The brothers successfully flew the 1902 glider hundreds of times, and it performed far better than their earlier two versions.

To obtain adequate power for their engine-driven Flyer, the Wrights designed and built a low-powered internal combustion engine. Using their wind tunnel data, they designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. The Flyer's design was also influenced by the desire of the Wrights to teach themselves to fly safely without unreasonable risk to life and limb, and to make crashes survivable. The limited engine power resulted in low flying speeds and the need to take off into a headwind.

The Rayt Flyeri: the first sustained flight with a powered, controlled aircraft.

Ga ko'ra Smitson instituti va Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI),^[99][100] the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, Shimoliy Karolina, Janubdan 4 milya (6,4 km) Kitti Xok, Shimoliy Karolina, on 17 December 1903.^[101] Birinchi parvoz Orvil Rayt, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Uilbur Rayt flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. Modern analysis by Professor Fred E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider.^[102]

The Wrights continued developing their flying machines and flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ogayo shtati 1904–05 yillarda. After a crash in 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the lift and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers") between the elevators, and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing-warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. The Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and using a launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds".^[103]

Eventually the Wrights would abandon the foreplane altogether, with the Model B of 1910 instead having a tail plane in the manner which was by then becoming conventional.

According to the April 1907 issue of the Ilmiy Amerika jurnal,^[104] the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier-than-air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier-than-air flying machine.

The first practical aircraft

Once powered, controlled flight had been achieved, progress was still needed to create a practical flying machine for general use. This period leading up to World War I is sometimes called the pioneer era of aviation.^[105][106]

Reliable power

The history of early powered flight is very much the history of early engine construction. The Wrights designed their own engines. They used a single flight engine, a 12 horsepower (8.9 kW) water-cooled four-cylinder inline type with five main bearings and fuel injection. Whitehead's craft was powered by two engines of his design: a ground engine of 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) which drove the front wheels in an effort to reach yechish; uchib ketish speed and a 20 horsepower (15 kW) acetylene engine powering the propellers. Whitehead was an experienced machinist, and he is reported to have raised funds for his aircraft by making and selling engines to other aviators.^[107] Most early engines were neither powerful nor reliable enough for practical use, and the development of improved engines went hand-in-hand with improvements in the airframes themselves.

Evropada, Leon Levavasseur "s Antuanetta 8V pioneering example of the V-8 engine format, first patented in 1902, dominated flight for several years after it was introduced in 1906, powering many notable craft of that era. Incorporating direct fuel injection, evaporative water cooling and other advanced features, it generated around 50 horsepower (37 kW).

Inglizlar Yashil C.4 of 1908 followed the Wright's pattern of a four-cylinder inline water-cooled design but produced 52 horsepower (39 kW). It powered many successful pioneer aircraft including those of A.V. Roe.

Horizontally opposed designs were also produced. The four-cylinder water-cooled de Havilland Iris achieved 45 horsepower (34 kW) but was little used, while the successful two-cylinder Nieuport design achieved 28 hp (21 kW) in 1910.

1909 saw radial engine forms rise to significance. The Anzani 3-cylinder semi-radial or fan engine of 1909 (also built in a true, 120° cylinder angle radial form) developed only 25 horsepower (19 kW) but was much lighter than the Antoinette, and was chosen by Louis Blériot for his cross-Channel flight. More radical was the Seguin brothers' series of Gnôme rotary radial engines, starring with the Gnome Omega 50 horsepower (37 kW) air-cooled seven-cylinder aylanadigan dvigatel in 1906. In a rotary engine, the krank mili is fixed to the airframe and the whole engine casing and cylinders rotate with the propeller. Although this type had been introduced as long ago as 1887 by Lourens Xargreyv, improvements made to the Gnome created a robust, relatively reliable and lightweight design which revolutionised aviation and would see continuous development over the next ten years. Fuel was introduced into each cylinder direct from the crankcase meaning that only an exhaust valve was required. The larger and more powerful nine-cylinder, 80 horsepower Le Rhone 9C rotary was introduced in 1913 and was widely adopted for military use.

Inline and vee types remained popular, with the German company Mercedes producing a series of water-cooled six-cylinder models. In 1913, they introduced the highly successful 75 kilowatts (101 hp) D.I seriyali.

Lift and efficiency

The lightness and strength of the biplane is offset by the inefficiency inherent in placing two wings so close together. Biplane and monoplane designs vied with each other, with both still in production by the outbreak of war in 1914.

A notable development, although a failure, was the first cantilever monoplane ever built. The Antuanetta monobloki of 1911 had a fully enclosed cockpit and faired undercarriage but its V-8 engine's 50 horsepower (37 kW) output was not enough for it to fly for more than a few feet at most. Keyinchalik muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi Deperdussin braced monoplane, which won the inaugural 1913 Schneider Trophy race flown by Moris Prevost, completing 28 circuits of the 10 km (6.2 mi) course with an average speed of 73.63 kilometres per hour (45.75 mph).

Triplanes too were experimented with, notably a series built between 1909 and 1910 by the British pioneer A.V. Roe. Going one better with four wings the to'rt samolyot too made rare appearances. The ko'p planli, having large numbers of very thin wings, was also experimented with, most successfully by Horatio Fillips. His final prototype confirmed the inefficiency and poor performance of the idea.

Other radical approaches to wing design were also being tried. The Scottish-born inventor Aleksandr Grem Bell devised a cellular octahedral wing form which, like the multiplane, proved disappointingly inefficient. Other lacklustre performers included the Edvards Romboid, the Lee-Richards annular wing and varying numbers of wings one after the other in tandem.

Many of these early experimental forms were in principle quite practical and have since reappeared.

Stability and control

Early work had focused primarily on making a craft stable enough to fly but failed to offer full controllability, while the Wrights had sacrificed stability in order to make their Flyer fully controllable. A practical aircraft requires both. Although stability had been achieved by several designs, the principles were not fully understood and progress was erratic. The aileron slowly replaced wing warping for lateral control although designers sometimes, as with the Blériot XI, returned briefly to wing warping. Similarly, all-flying tail surfaces gave way to fixed stabilizers with hinged control surfaces attached. The canard pusher configuration of the early Wright Flyers was supplanted by tractor propeller aircraft designs.

In France, progress was relatively rapid.

The Santos-Dyumont 14-bis.

In 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dyumont made public flights in France with his 14-bis. A canard pusher biplane with pronounced wing dihedral, it had a Hargrave-style box-cell wing with a forward-mounted "boxkite" assembly which was movable to act as both lift va rul. He later added auxiliary surfaces between the wings as primitive ailerons to provide lateral control. His flight was the first made by a powered heavier-than-air machine to be verified by the Frantsiya Aéro-Club, and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight of more than 25 metres (82 ft). It later set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 metres (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.^[108][109]

Keyingi yil Louis Blériot uchib ketdi Blériot VII, a tractor monoplane with full three-axis control using the horizontal tail surfaces as combined elevators and ailerons. Its immediate descendant, the Blériot VIII, was the very first airframe to bring together the recognizable elements of the modern samolyotlarning parvozlarini boshqarish tizimi 1908 yil aprelda.^[110] Qaerda Horatio Fillips va Traian Vuia had failed, Blériot's was the first practical tractor monoplane and marked the start of a trend in French aviation. By 1909, he had developed this configuration to the point where the Blériot XI was able to cross the Ingliz kanali, among other refinements using the tail surfaces only as elevators and using wing warping for lateral control. Another design that appeared in 1907 was the Voisin biplane. This lacked any provision for lateral control, and could only make shallow turns using only rudder control, but was flown with increasing success during the year by Anri Farman, and on 13 January 1908 he won the 50,000 francs Deutsch de la Meurthe-Archdeacon Grand Prix de l'Aviation for being the first aviator to complete an officially observed 1 kilometre closed circuit flight, including taking off and landing under the aircraft's own power.

The designs of the French pioneer Leon Levavasseur are better known by the name of the Antuanetta company which he founded. Uning Antuanetta IV of 1908 was a monoplane of what is now the conventional configuration, with tailplane and fin each bearing movable control surfaces, and aileronlar qanotlarda. The ailerons were not sufficiently effective and on later models were replaced by wing warping.

At the end of 1908, the Voisin brothers sold an aircraft ordered by Anri Farman ga Mur-Brabazon. Angered, Farman built his own aircraft, adapting the Voisin design by adding ailerons. Following further modifications to the tail surfaces and ailerons, the Farman III became the most popular aeroplane sold between 1909 and 1911,^{[iqtibos kerak ]} and was widely imitated. In Britain the American expatriate Samuel Cody flew an aircraft similar in layout to the Wright flyer in 1908, incorporating a tailplane as well as a large front elevator. In 1910 an improved model fitted with between-wing ailerons won the Mishel kubogi raqobat, esa Geoffrey de Havilland 's second Farman-style aircraft had ailerons on the upper wing and became the Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.1. The Bristol Boxkite, a copy of the Farman III, was manufactured in quantity. In the USA Glenn Curtiss had flown first the AEA iyun xatosi va keyin uning Oltin Flyer, which in 1910 achieved the first naval deck landing and takeoff. Meanwhile, the Wrights themselves had also been wrestling with the problem of achieving both stability and control, experimenting further with the foreplane before first adding a second small plane at the tail and then finally removing the foreplane altogether. They announced their two-seat Model B in 1910 and licensed it for production in 1911 as the Burgess Model F.

Many other more radical layouts were tried, with only a few showing any promise. Buyuk Britaniyada, J. W. Dunne developed a series of tailless pusher designs having swept wings with a conical upper surface. Uning D.5 biplane flew in 1910 and proved fully stable. Dunne deliberately avoided full three-axis control, devising instead a system which was easier to operate and which he regarded as far safer in practice. Dunne's system would not be widely adopted. His tailless design reached its peak with the D.8 which was manufactured under license in France by Nieuport and in the US as the Burjess-Dann, however it was rejected as a practical warplane by the British Army, in which Dunne was an officer, because it was too stable and hence not manoeuvrable enough in battle.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Dengiz samolyotlari

Henri Fabre on his Gidravioniya.

1901 in Austria, Vilgelm Kress fails to take off in his underpowered Drachenflieger, a floatplane featuring twin pontoons made of aluminium and three wings in tandem.

1910 in France, Anri Fabre birinchi qiladi dengiz samolyoti flight in his Gidravioniya.^[111] It was a monoplane with a biplane foreplane and three short floats in tricycle layout.

1912 The world'birinchi s dengiz samolyoti tashuvchisi, the French Navy's Foudre, embarks her first suzuvchi samolyot,^[112] a Voisin konservasi.

A problem with early seaplanes was the tendency for suction between the water and the aircraft as speed increased, holding the aircraft down and hindering takeoff. The British designer Jon Kiril Port invented the technique of placing a step in the bottom of the aircraft to break the suction, and this was incorporated in the 1914 Kurtiss modeli H.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Harbiy foydalanish

In 1909 aeroplanes remained frail and of little practical use. The limited engine power available meant that the effective payload was extremely limited. The basic structural and materials technology of the aerodromlar mostly consisted of hardwood materials or steel tubing, braced with steel wires va yopilgan zig'ir fabric doped with a flammable stiffener and sealant.^[113] The need to save weight meant that most aircraft were structurally fragile, and not infrequently broke up in flight especially when performing violent manoeuvres, such as pulling out of a steep dive, which would be required in combat.

However these evolving flying machines were recognised to be not just toys, but weapons in the making. In 1909 the Italian staff officer Giulio Douhet ta'kidladi:

The sky is about to become another battlefield no less important than the battlefields on land and sea....In order to conquer the air, it is necessary to deprive the enemy of all means of flying, by striking at him in the air, at his bases of operation, or at his production centers. We had better get accustomed to this idea, and prepare ourselves.

— Giulio Douhet (Italian staff officer), 1909^[113]

In 1911 Captain Bertram Dikson, the first British military officer to fly and the first British military officer to perform an aerial reconnaissance mission in a fixed-wing aircraft during army manoeuvres in 1910, predicted the military use of aircraft and the ensuing development and escalation of aerial combat in a submission to the UK Technical Sub-Committee for Imperial Defence.^[113][114]

Missiles were dropped from an aeroplane for the first time when Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasi Leytenant Pol V. Bek tushib ketdi qum qoplari taqlid qilish bomba ustida Los Anjeles, Kaliforniya.^[115]

Aeroplanes were first used in warfare during the Italo-turk urushi of 1911–1912. The first operational use took place on 23 October 1911, when Captain Carlo Piazza made a flight near Bengazi in a Blériot XI. The first aerial bombardment followed shortly afterwards on 1 November, when Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti dropped four bombs on two bases held by the Turks. The first photographic reconnaissance flight took place in March 1912, also flown by Captain Piazza.^[116]

Some types developed during this period would see military service into, or even throughout, World War I. These include the Etrich Taube of 1910, Fokker Spin 1911 yil, Qirollik aviatsiya zavodi BE.2, Sopwith Tabloid/Schneider and a variety of obsolescent types that would be used for pilot training. The Sikorskiy Ilya Muromets (also known as Sikorsky S-22) was the first four-engined aircraft to ever enter production and the largest of its day, the prototype first flying in 1913 just before the outbreak of war. Ushbu tur bombardimonchi va transport rollarida xizmat ko'rsatishni davom ettiradi.

Vertolyotlar

Pol Kornuniki vertolyot 1907 yil.

Eksperimental vertolyot tomonidan Enriko Forlanini Da namoyish etilgan (1877) Leonardo da Vinchi musiqiy nazionale della scienza e della tecnologia Milan

Rotorli liftni ko'tarish bo'yicha dastlabki ishlarni keyinchalik tergovchilar qat'iy qanotli samolyotlarning rivojlanishidan mustaqil ravishda kuzatib borishdi.

19-asrda Frantsiyada vertolyotlar dizayni bo'yicha hamkorlik qiladigan uyushma tashkil etildi, ularning ko'pchiligi bo'lgan. 1863 yilda Gustave de Ponton d'Amécourt o'rnatilgan qarama-qarshi rotorlardan foydalangan holda model qurdi. Dastlab bug 'bilan ishlaydigan u ishlamay qoldi, ammo soat mexanizmining versiyasi uchib ketdi. Pomes va De la Pauze (1871), Pena, Achenbach (1874), Dieuaide (1887), Melikoff (1877), Forlanini (1877), Castel (1878) va Dandrieux (turli shakllarni qamrab olgan) boshqa dizaynlarga. 1878-79). Ulardan Forlaninining bug 'bilan harakatlanadigan qarama-qarshi modeli 20 soniya davomida uchib, 13 metr balandlikka (43 fut) erishdi,^[117][118] va Dandrieuxning kauchuk bilan ishlaydigan modeli ham uchib ketdi.^[117][118]

Xiram Maksim Ikki qarama-qarshi rotorli vertolyotni o'ylab topgan otasi, lekin uni qurish uchun etarlicha kuchli dvigatel topa olmadi. Xiramning o'zi 1872 yilda vertolyot rejalarini eskirgan parvozga qaratmasdan oldin tuzgan.

1907 yilda frantsuzlar Breguet-Richet Gyroplane № 1 "bog'lab qo'yilgan" sinov parvozidan ko'tarilib, erdan ko'tarilgan birinchi odam vertolyotiga aylandi. Taxminan 60 santimetr (24 dyuym) ko'tarilib, bir daqiqada turdi. Biroq, parvoz nihoyatda beqaror bo'lib chiqdi.

Ikki oydan keyin Fransiyaning Lisenux shahrida, Pol Kornu uning ichida odam qanotli rotatsion qanotli birinchi erkin parvozni amalga oshirdi Cornu vertolyoti, 30 santimetrga (12 dyuym) ko'tarish va 20 soniya davomida balandlikda turish.

Shuningdek qarang

• Aviatsiya hodisalari va hodisalari
• Kashshoflik davrida aviatsiya (1903–1914)
• Birinchi jahon urushidagi aviatsiya
• Birinchi quvvatli parvozga da'volar
• Aviatsiya tarixi
• Aviatsiya xronologiyasi

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

• Walker, P. (1971). Farnborodagi dastlabki aviatsiya, I jild: sharlar, uçurtmalar va havo kemalari, Makdonald.

Tashqi havolalar

• Aerospaceweb - Kim birinchi bo'lib uchgan?
• Aerospaceweb - Nega braziliyaliklar Alberto Santos-Dyumontni 1906 yilgacha uchmagan bo'lsa va 1903 yilda aka-uka Raytlar uchgan bo'lsa, u birinchi uchgan odam deb bilishadi?
• Raytgacha uchadigan mashinalar
• Aviatsiya kashshoflari: antologiya
• Dastlabki aviatsiya qushlari
• Samolyot haqiqati: odam parvozidagi eng katta texnik yutuqlar ro'yxati tomonidan Yurgen Shmidhuber, Tabiat 421, 689, 2003 yil