Hakka xalqi - Hakka people

"Hakka" bu erga yo'naltiriladi. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Xakka (ajralish).
Hakka xalqi
Hakka woman.jpg
An'anaviy shlyapa kiygan hakka ayol.
Jami aholi
v. Dunyo bo'ylab 80 milliondan 120 milliongacha[2][3]
Aholisi sezilarli bo'lgan hududlar
Tillar
Xakka xitoy (mahalliy)
Xokkien (Tayvanlik Hakkas)
Kanton (Gonkong va Makao )
Mandarin xitoy (yordamchi )
Din
Asosan Xitoy xalq dinlari (Konfutsiylik, Daosizm, ajdodlarga sig'inish va boshqalar), Mahayana buddizmi, Nasroniylik, diniy bo'lmagan va boshqalar
Qarindosh etnik guruhlar
Boshqalar Xan xitoylari guruhlar
Hakka xalqi
Xitoy客家人
To'g'ridan-to'g'ri ma'no"Mehmon oilalar"

The Xakka (Xitoy : 客家), ba'zan Xakka Xan,[1][4] bor Xan xitoylari ota-bobolarining uylari asosan Xakka - viloyat viloyatlarini gapirish Guandun, Fujian, Tszansi, Guansi, Sichuan, Xunan, Chjetszyan, Xaynan va Guychjou. Uchun xitoycha belgilar Xakka (客家) so'zma-so'z "mehmon oilalar" degan ma'noni anglatadi.[5] Xan xitoylik boshqa kichik guruhlardan farqli o'laroq, Hakkalar geografik mintaqa nomi bilan nomlanmagan, masalan. Xitoy, viloyat, tuman yoki shahar. Zamonaviy Hakka odatda to'liq Hakka tomonidan va turli darajadagi Hakka ajdodlari tomonidan aniqlanadi va odatda ular bilan gaplashadi Hakka tili.

Xakkalar, ayniqsa nisbatan shimoliy viloyatlardan kelib chiqqan deb taxmin qilinadi Xenan va Xubey.[6] Bir qator ko'chishlarda Hakkalar ko'chib o'tdilar va hozirgi hududlariga joylashdilar Janubiy Xitoy va u erdan juda ko'p sonlar chet elda dunyoning turli mamlakatlariga ko'chib ketishdi.[7] Xitoy jamoalari guruhlari orasida eng ko'p diaspora sifatida dunyo bo'ylab Xakkas aholisi 80 milliondan 120 milliongacha.[2][8] Xakkalar Markaziy Xitoydan Janubiy Xitoyga ko'chib o'tgan, xan xitoylik ko'chmanchilar ilgari u erda yashab kelgan paytda o'ziga xos madaniy o'ziga xoslik va tillarni rivojlantirgan bir paytda. The Tunbao va Chuanqing xalqi o'zlarining ajdodlari urf-odatlarini saqlab qolgan holda, Markaziy yoki Sharqiy Xitoyning janubi-g'arbiy Xitoyiga ko'chib o'tgan boshqa xan xitoylik kichik guruhlari.

Xakka xalqi zamonaviy xitoy tiliga va chet elda Xitoy tarix; xususan, ular ko'plab hukumat va harbiy rahbarlarning manbai bo'lgan - 1984 yilda, ularning yarmidan ko'pi Doimiy komissiya ning Siyosiy byuro etnik jihatdan Hakka edi.[9]

Hakka tili milliy til edi Osmon Shohligi Taiping,[shubhali – muhokama qilish][yaxshiroq manba kerak ] XIX asrda bir bosqichda Xitoyning uchdan bir qismini egallab olgan.[10] Bugungi kunda bu tilning rasmiy tillaridan biri hisoblanadi Xitoy Respublikasi (Tayvan).[11]

Kelib chiqishi, migratsiyasi va guruh identifikatsiyasi

Ichida Hakka tarqatish Buyuk Xitoy viloyati.

Migratsiya

Migrantlar Hakka deb nomlangan va dastlab hech qanday aniq odamlar Hakka deb nomlanmagan. Shimoliy Xitoyning Sariq daryosi hududi Hakka vatani bo'lgan.[12]

Beri Tsin sulolasi (Miloddan avvalgi 221–206), xakka xalqining ajdodlari bir necha bor janubiy tomonga ko'chib o'tgan, chunki ijtimoiy notinchlik, g'alayon va shimoliy viloyatlardan bosqinlar (masalan, Gansu, Xenan).[6] Keyingi ko'chishlar ham oxirida sodir bo'lgan Tang sulolasi 10-asrda va Shimoliy oxirida Qo'shiqlar sulolasi 1120-yillarda, ularning oxirgisi janubga qochgan qochqinlarning katta toshqinini ko'rgan Jurxenlar shimoliy Song poytaxtini egallab oldi Byanliang (zamonaviy Kaifeng) Jingkang voqeasi ning Jin - Qo'shiq urushlari. Xakka xalqining aniq harakatlari XIV asrda noaniq bo'lib qolmoqda Min sulolasi ag'darib tashladi Yuan sulolasi va keyinchalik Manjurlar kim tashkil qilgan Tsing sulolasi 17-asrda.

XVI asr davomida iqtisodiy o'sishga javoban xakka tog'li hududlarga kon qazish uchun ko'chib o'tdi rux va qo'rg'oshin naqd ekinlarni etishtirish uchun qirg'oq tekisliklariga ko'chib o'tdilar. Iqtisodiy tanazzuldan so'ng, ushbu tashabbuslarning aksariyati muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi va ko'p odamlar pul topish uchun o'g'rilikka murojaat qilishlariga to'g'ri keldi.[13]

Hukmronligi davrida Kansi imperatori (1661–1722) Tsing sulolasida, qirg'oq mintaqalari evakuatsiya qilindi orolga qochib ketgan Ming saroyining qoldiqlari xavfi tufayli deyarli o'n yil davomida imperator farmoni bilan. Tayvan. Xavf bartaraf etilgach, Kansi imperatori qirg'oq bo'yidagi hududlarni qayta to'ldirish to'g'risida farmon chiqardi. Ko'chib o'tishda yordam berish uchun har bir oilaga yangi hayot boshlashlari uchun pul imtiyozlari berildi; yangi kelganlar "Mehmon uylar" sifatida ro'yxatdan o'tkazildi (Xitoy : 客戶; pinyin : kéhù).

Shaxsiyat

Ba'zi bir ijtimoiy urf-odatlar va madaniyatlarda har xil bo'lsa ham (masalan.) lingvistik farqlar ) atrofdagi aholidan ular xan xitoyliklarning ko'pchiligiga tegishli. Aholini ro'yxatga olish statistikasida ko'rsatilgan tarixiy manbalar, ma'lum tumanlar, viloyatlar yoki viloyatlardan qat'i nazar, faqat umumiy aholiga tegishli. Ushbu ro'yxatga olish imperatorlik davrida amalga oshirilgan. Ular nimani ajratishmadi Xitoy navlari aholi so'zga chiqdi. Shuning uchun ular to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Hakka migratsiyasini hujjatlashtirmaydilar. Tomonidan o'rganish Lo Syan-lin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / Xakkalarni o'rganishga kirish (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) turli janubiy okruglardan kelib chiqqan oilaviy klanlarning nasab manbalaridan foydalangan.

2009 yilda chop etilgan tadqiqotlarga ko'ra Amerika inson genetikasi jurnali, Hakka genlari ozgina qiyshaygan[oydinlashtirish ] boshqa janubiy Xan xalqi bilan taqqoslaganda shimoliy Xan xalqiga qarab.[14] Shunga qaramay, tadqiqot shuningdek, barcha xitoyliklar o'rtasida juda kam umumiy farq - 0,32% bo'lgan kuchli umumiy genetik munosabatlarni ko'rsatdi.[14] Lingnan Xakka joy nomlari Xakaning madaniy jihatdan xitoylik bo'lganligini ko'rsatmoqda.[15]

Boshqa xan xitoy guruhlaridan farqli o'laroq, Hakkalar geografik mintaqa nomi bilan nomlanmagan, masalan. viloyat, tuman yoki shahar. Hakka xalqi o'ziga xos xususiyatga ega Kanton xalqi. Xitoyda Hakkasning 60% Guangdong viloyatida istiqomat qilganligi sababli, chet elda Hakkasning ota-bobolarining uylari 95% Guangdongda joylashgan. Hakkas Chaozhou, Xaynan va Fujian xaoshanaliklar, xaynanaliklar va xokkienslar deb adashadilar.

Qarama-qarshi tomonning Xakka ekanligini bilgan musofirlar bir-birlarini mehr bilan tan olishadi "chit-kâ-ngín" (自家人) "(bir) o'z oilasi" ma'nosini anglatadi.

Kelib chiqishi

Odatda, Hakkalar ning kichik guruhi hisoblanadi Xan xitoylari kelib chiqishi Shimoliy Xitoy.[16][17] Ularning kelib chiqishini aniqlash uchun antropologlar, tilshunoslar va tarixchilar orasida hozirgacha uchta qabul qilingan nazariya ilgari surilgan:[18]

  1. Xakkalar xan xitoylar bo'lib, ular faqat kelib chiqishi Markaziy tekislik Xitoyda (hozirgi Shanxi va Xenan viloyatlar);[18]
  2. Hakkalar Markaziy tekislikdan kelib chiqqan xan xitoylardir, ularning janubda joylashganlari ham bor.[18]
  3. Xakkalarning aksariyati janubdan kelgan xitoylar, shimoldagilarga to'g'ri keladi.[18]

Oxirgi ikkita nazariya eng katta ehtimollikdir va birgalikda ko'plab ilmiy tadqiqotlar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanmoqda.[17][18][14] Klayd Kiang Xakkasning kelib chiqishi Xanning qadimgi qo'shnilari bilan ham bog'liq bo'lishi mumkinligini aytdi Dongyi va Xionnu odamlar.[19] Biroq, bu ko'plab olimlar tomonidan bahslashmoqda va Kiangning nazariyalari ziddiyatli deb hisoblanadi.[20]

Xakka - xitoylik olim va tadqiqotchi doktor Siu-Leung Li Chun Yun-Nganning kitobida, Hakka xitoylari: ularning kelib chiqishi, xalq qo'shiqlari va bolalar bog'chalari, potentsial Hakka shimoliy Xan va Xionnu va mahalliy janub U (畬族) va Yue (越 族) qabilalar, "barchasi to'g'ri, ammo hech kim Hakkaning kelib chiqishini tushuntirib bermaydi", degan muammo bilan "DNKni terish "aholi hovuzlaridagi cheklangan miqdordagi odamlarning haqiqatan ham janubiy xitoyliklarni aniqlay olmaydi, chunki ko'plab janubiy xitoylar ham shimoliy Osiyodan; xakka yoki xakka tegishli emas.[21] Ma'lumki, Hakka ko'chishining dastlabki to'lqinlari yuqorida aytib o'tilgan ikki qabilaning hujumlari tufayli boshlangan. Szinlar sulolasi (265–420).[22]

Haqqa nisbatan kamsitish va nafrat

Tarix davomida o'zaro aloqada bo'lgan xitoyliklar boshqa xitoylik etnik guruhlar tomonidan nafrat va kamsitishlarga duch kelishgan. Boshqa etnik guruhlarning bunday xurofotlarini ifoda etishi, og'zaki haqorat qilishdan tortib, sodir etishga qadar bo'lgan genotsidlar Hakkaga qarshi.

Tsin sulolasi tomonidan

Tashkil etish uchun qasos sifatida Osmon Shohligi Taiping, Tsing sulolasi harbiylari Hakkalar, Haqqa qarshi ommaviy qirg'in amaliyoti avjiga chiqqan paytda har kuni Hakkadan 30000 kishining o'ldirilishi.[23]

Qing sulolasi zobitlar va odamlarni Xakkasni o'ldirish uchun safarbar qildi, qayta tiklandi Guangxay Hakkalar tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan va Hakkasning keksa va zaiflarini qirg'in qilgan qishloqlar. Birgina Guangxayning Dalongdong hududida o'ldirilgan Hakkas soni o'n minglab edi.[24]

Hunaniyalik uch zobitni o'ldirganligi uchun qasos sifatida, Xunanliklar Vuken va Chixining butun Hakka aholisini yo'q qildilar. Sian armiyasi 1888 yilda Xakkasga qarshi qarshi hujumlar.[25] Sian armiyasi, shuningdek, Guangxayda o'n minglab boshqa xakkaliklarni ham qirg'in qildi.

Kantonlar tomonidan

19-asrda Hakkasning ommaviy qotilliklari

Kantonlar Qizil salla qo'zg'olonchilar Qing sulolasiga qarshi qo'zg'olon paytida Hakkaslarga qarshi genotsid kampaniyasini olib borishdi. Kanton qizil sallalari Xeshanga ketayotganlarida Xakka qishlog'ining 13 boshlig'ini va boshqa 7630 xakkani o'ldirdilar, ular Fathni bosib olganlaridan keyin yana 1320 xakkani o'ldirdilar.[26]

Qonli Punti-Xakka klan urushi oxir-oqibat 500 mingga yaqin Hakkani o'ldirgan (yoki ehtimol undan ham ko'proq), Kanton kuchlari tomonidan Hakkalarga qarshi keng ko'lamli qirg'inlar sodir bo'lgan.[27] Ularga qarshi qilingan Hakka qirg'inlaridan so'ng, kanton dehqonlari Enping okrugida joylashgan qishloqda Xakkalarni qochishga majbur qilgan 500 ta xakkani so'yishdi, ammo keyinchalik ularning hammasi kanton dehqonlari tomonidan qo'lga olinib, qirg'in qilinganlarida o'ldirildi. Hakka, o'sha Hakkadan 4000 nafari o'ldirilgan.[28] Kantonlarning yana bir hujumida bir qishloqning Hakka aholisining yarmini tashkil etgan 2000 kishi yo'q qilindi.[27] Sian armiyasi yordami bilan ko'p sonli kaktonlar boshqa joylarda ham Kantonlar tomonidan o'ldirilgan.

Qing sulolasi mahalliy kanton dehqonlaridan ofitserlar va odamlarni xakkalarni o'ldirish uchun safarbar qildi, xakkalar tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan Guangxay qishloqlarini qaytarib oldi va xakkalarni qirg'in qildi. Birgina Guangxayning Dalongdong hududida o'ldirilgan Hakkas soni o'n minglab edi.[24]

Chet elda kanton

Kantonlar Shanxayda 70 dan ortiq Hakka viloyatlarini o'ldirdilar, ular Hakka fitnasini oqlashdi. Jiaying guruh shaharni chet el nazorati ostiga topshirayotgan edi.[29] 1925 yilda, 27 avgustda bir okrugdagi Hakka ozchiligiga qarashli qishloqlarga hujum uyushtirildi, Chiangning Punti (kanton) erkaklari va askarlari ayollarini zo'rlashdan va uylarini talon-taroj qilishdan tortinmadi.[30]

Hakkalar va kantonlarning bir-biriga nisbatan paydo bo'lgan etnik nafrat va ishqalanish hissi qayta tiklandi Larut urushi chet elda Malayziyada.

Madagaskarga etib borgach, kantonlar Madagaskarga Xakka ko'chib ketishining oldini olish uchun til biriktirdilar.[31]

Guangxi xalqi tomonidan

Guangxi viloyatida yana bir klan urushi paytida 100 mingdan ortiq Xakkas yana Punti xalqi tomonidan qatl etildi.[32] 1850 yil oktyabr oyida Kantonlar va Hakkalar 40 kundan ko'proq vaqt davomida bir-birlarini buzib, o'ldirishdi Gigang.

Lingao shahridagi Nanyue aholisi tomonidan

Mahalliy aholisi tomonidan Hakkosga nisbatan etnik nafrat paydo bo'lganda minglab odamlar o'ldirilgan va yaralangan Lingao shimoliy g'arbiy Xaynanda zo'ravonlikka aylandi.[33]

Madaniyat

Asosiy maqola: Hakka madaniyati

Hakka madaniyati, asosan, yangi muhit tufayli shakllangan bo'lib, ularning madaniyatini moslashishi uchun ko'p jihatlarini o'zgartirishlari kerak edi, bu ularning me'morchiligi va oshxonalariga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Xakka janubda avvalgi aholisi bo'lgan hududlarga kengayganida, ular etishtirish uchun ko'pincha ozgina qishloq xo'jaligi erlari qolgan edi. Natijada, ko'plab Hakka erkaklari harbiy yoki jamoat ishlarida kareraga murojaat qilishdi. Binobarin, Hakka madaniy jihatdan ta'kidlagan ta'limga ega, ammo bu xakkaliklarga xos emas, chunki boshqa xan xitoylarining aksariyati madaniy jihatdan ta'kidlagan.

Til

Asosiy maqola: Xakka xitoy

Hakka Xitoy - mahalliy Xitoy navlari Hakka xalqidan. Tayvanda Ta'lim vazirligi biri sifatida "Tayvanlik Hakka Xitoy" deb nomlangan Tayvan tillari.[34]

19-asrda olib borilgan lingvistik tadqiqotlar shaktu yoki guanchjou tillariga qaraganda xakka tili Mandarin bilan juda ko'p o'xshashliklarga ega ekanligini xabar qildi.[35]

Arxitektura

Tianluokeng Tulou klasteri. Hukeng Shahar, Yongding okrugi, Fujian.
Asosiy maqola: Xakka arxitekturasi

Hakka odamlar bir necha turlarini qurdilar tulou va dehqon mustahkam qishloqlar uzoq g'arbiy Fujianning tog'li qishloq qismlarida va unga qo'shni janubiy Tszansi va shimoliy Guangdong mintaqalarida. Ning vakili namunasi Fujian Tulou (10 ta bino yoki qurilish guruhlaridan iborat) Fujian shahrida 2008 yilda a YuNESKO Butunjahon merosi ro'yxati.[36]

Shimoliy sharqiy Guangdongdagi yana bir mashhur me'moriy uslub, masalan Xingning va Meixian, o'ralgan Dragon Village (xitoycha: 圍 龍 屋; pinyin: wéilóngwū).

San'at

Hakka tepalik qo'shig'i

Asosiy maqola: Hakka tepalik qo'shig'i

Hakka tepalik qo'shiqlari an'anaviy ravishda Tayvan va Xitoyning ayrim qismlarida joylashgan tog 'yonbag'iridagi dehqonlar tomonidan, asosan, dehqonchilik dalalarida ko'ngil ochish va tomosha qilish uchun ishlatiladi. Ular kuchli, jarangdor ohang va ovoz bilan ajralib turadi, ular tepaliklar atrofida jaranglaydi va atrofni bir chaqirimgacha eshitishi mumkin edi. Tepalik qo'shiqlarini bir shakli deb hisoblash mumkin aloqa, chunki uning ishtirokchilari ko'pincha sevgi qo'shiqlari yoki yangiliklarini etkazish uchun foydalanadilar.

Hakkapop

Hakkapop asosan Tayvan, Xitoy, Indoneziya va Malayziyada ishlab chiqarilgan Hakka pop musiqasining janridir.

OAV

Materik stantsiyasi Xitoy milliy radiosi "s Ilohiy yurt sadosi (神州 之 声) Hakka Xitoy radiosida tanaffusga ega. Tayvanda Xitoyning ettita Hakka radiokanali mavjud.

Hakka TV dunyodagi birinchi Hakka Xitoy telekanali edi. Meizhou TV-2 Xitoyda birinchi Hakka Xitoy telekanali edi.

Oziq-ovqat madaniyati

Asosiy maqola: Hakka oshxonasi

Hakka oshxonasi saqlanib qolgan go'shtlardan foydalanish bilan mashhur tofu shuningdek, dimlangan va moyli idishlar. Sifatida tanilgan mashhur taom Yong Tau Foo asosan tofudan iborat xakka xitoylik taom bo'lib, u maydalangan go'sht aralashmasi yoki baliq xamiri (surimi) bilan to'ldirilgan.

Oyoqni bog'lash

Tarixga ko'ra, Hakka ayollari bunday qilmagan oyoqlarini bog'lab qo'ying bu odat Xitoyda odatiy bo'lganida.[37]

Din

Odatiy tog 'yonbag'iridagi qabrlar. Hukeng Shahar, Yongding okrugi, Fujian.
Shuningdek qarang: Xitoyda din

Hakka odamlarining diniy odatlari asosan boshqa xitoyliklarga o'xshaydi. Ajdodlarga hurmat diniy ifodaning asosiy shakli hisoblanadi.[38] Haqqa xos diniy amaliyotlardan biri ajdaho xudolariga sig'inishni o'z ichiga oladi.[39]

Xitoy materikida, Gonkong, Makao va Tayvanda

Meychjou prefekturasi (sariq rangda) Guangdong viloyatida, qaerda Xingning va Meixian joylashgan.

Hakka populyatsiyasi 27 kishidan 13 tasida uchraydi viloyatlar va avtonom viloyatlar materik Xitoy.

Guandun

Xristian missionerlari qizlar maktabining Hakka talabalari bilan Waichow, Guandun, 1921.

Guangdongda yashovchi Hakkalar butun Hakka aholisining taxminan 60 foizini tashkil qiladi. Dunyo bo'ylab chet elda yashaydigan Hakkasning 95% dan ortig'i ushbu Guangdong mintaqasidan, odatda Meizhou va Heyuan kabi boshqa shaharlarda bo'lgani kabi Shenchjen, Jieyang, Dongguan va Huizhou. Hakkalar asosan viloyatning shimoli-sharqida, xususan Xing-Mei (Xingning –Meixian ) maydon. Fujian shahridagi qarindoshlaridan farqli o'laroq, Xingning va Meixian mintaqalarida joylashgan Hakka qal'aga o'xshash bo'lmagan noyob me'moriy uslubni, xususan, Weilongwu (xitoycha: 圍 龍 屋; pinyin: wéilóngwū yoki Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) va sijiaolou (四角 樓; sìjǐaolóu yoki Xakka: Si Kok Liu).

Fujian

Shuningdek qarang: Xitoyda qurolga egalik huquqi
Xengadagi Chengqilu qurol porti Fujian Tulou.
Hakkada dushmanlardan himoya qilish uchun qurol Fujian Tulou.

An'anaga ko'ra, Shimoliy Xitoydan sayohat qilgan dastlabki Hakka ajdodlari birinchi bo'lib Fujianga, so'ngra yo'l orqali kirishgan Ting daryosi ular Guangdong va Xitoyning boshqa qismlariga, shuningdek chet elga sayohat qilishdi. Shunday qilib, Tingzyan daryosi ham Hakka ona daryosi sifatida qaraladi.

Janubiy-g'arbiy Fujian provintsiyasining tog'li mintaqasida joylashgan Xakkas me'morchiligining o'ziga xos shaklini yaratdi tulou (土樓), to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ma'no tuproqli tuzilmalar. The tulou yumaloq yoki to'rtburchaklar shaklida bo'lib, katta qal'a va ko'p qavatli uylar majmuasi sifatida ishlab chiqilgan. Odatda inshootlarda faqat bitta kirish yo'li bor edi, ular er sathida derazalarsiz edi. Har bir qavat har xil vazifani bajargan: birinchi qavat quduq va chorva mollari, ikkinchi oziq-ovqat ombori, uchinchi va yuqori qavatlardagi yashash joylari bo'lgan. Tulou qaroqchilar va qaroqchilar hujumiga qarshi turish uchun qurilgan.

Bugungi kunda G'arbiy Fujianda 3 million Xakkalar yashaydi, ular Longyan va Sanming prefekturalaridagi 10 ta okrugdagi (tuman darajasidagi 'shahar' va tumanlar) qishloqlari atrofida tarqalib ketgan, ularning 98% Changing, Liancheng, Shanxang, Vuping, Yongdingda yashaydi. , Ninghua, Tsingliu va Mingxi okruglari.[40]

Tszansi

Tsziansi ikkinchi yirik xakka jamoasini o'z ichiga oladi. Jiangxi viloyatining deyarli barcha janublari Xakka, ayniqsa Ganzhou. Song sulolasida ko'plab janubiy xitoyliklar delta hududiga ko'chib o'tdilar, chunki sud shimoliy ozchilikni bosib olganligi sababli janubga qarab siljidi. Ular Tszansida yashagan va She va Yao ozchiliklari bilan aralashgan. Ganzhou G'arbiy Fujian va Sharqiy Guangdongga ko'chib o'tishdan oldin Hakka yashagan joy edi. Dastlabki Tsing sulolasi davrida Gannan shahrida vabo va urushlar vayron bo'lganligi sababli ommaviy ravishda aholi yo'q bo'lib ketgan. Biroq, g'arbiy Fujian va sharqiy Guangdong bir vaqtning o'zida aholi portlashiga duch keldi. Ba'zi farmonlar qirg'oq bo'yidagi hududlarni to'sib qo'yish, qirg'oq aholisini ichki qismga ko'chib o'tishga buyruq berdi. Aholining bosimi va erlarni taqsimlashning keskin qarama-qarshiligi ba'zi aholini ketishga majbur qildi. Ulardan ba'zilari Gannanga qaytib kelib, u erda avlodlar davomida yashagan boshqa xakkaliklar bilan birlashdilar. Shunday qilib, zamonaviy Gannan Xakka jamoati shakllandi.[41]

Sichuan

Kansi imperatori (taxminan 1662–1722), mamlakat bo'ylab sayohatdan so'ng, Sichuan provinsiyasini vayronagarchilikdan keyin aholi sonini ko'paytirishga qaror qildi. Chjan Xianzhong. Xakkaning Guangdong viloyatidagi qirg'oq mintaqalarida qashshoqlikda yashayotganini ko'rib, imperator janubdagi Hakkalarni Sichuan viloyatiga ko'chib o'tishga undadi. U Sichuanga ko'chib o'tishga tayyor bo'lganlarga moddiy yordam taklif qildi: erkak boshiga sakkiz unsiya kumush va ayol yoki bolaga to'rt untsiya.

Sichuan dastlab Deng nasabining kelib chiqishi edi, chunki ulardan biri Min sulolasi davrida Guangdongda amaldor sifatida yollangan edi, ammo 1671 yilda Tsing aholisini ko'paytirish rejasida ular yana Sichuanga kelishdi. Den Syaoping Sichuan shahrida tug'ilgan.[42]

Xunan

Hakka aholisi asosan sharqiy qismida to'plangan Xunan.

Xenan

Sichuanliklardagidek, ko'plab Hakka ko'chib ketgan Sinyan prefektura (janubiy Xenan viloyatida), qaerda Li Zicheng Guanchjouda qatliomni amalga oshirdi (hozirda.) Xuangchuan ) 1636 yil 17-yanvarda.[43]

Gonkong

Kechki payt Ming va Qing sulolalar, Gonkong ning imperatorlik tumanida bo'lgan Sin'an (hozir Shenchjen ) Okrug.[44] The 1819 gazeter ro'yxatlar 570 Punti va butun tumandagi 270 zamonaviy zamonaviy aholi punktlari.[45] Biroq, Sin'an okrugi qamrab olgan hudud Buyuk Britaniyaning Gonkong imperatorlik anklaviga aylanadigan joydan kattaroqdir 1898 yilga kelib. Tan sulolasidan oldin ham materikdan kelib chiqqan ko'chmanchilar bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, bu odamlarning tarixiy ma'lumotlari mavjud emas, ammo arxeologik manbalardan kelib tushganligi haqidagi dalillarni topish mumkin.[46] The Yangi hududlar pasttekisliklarga dastlab bir necha urug 'nasablari o'rnashgan edi Kam Tin, Sheung Shui, Fanling, Yuen Long, Lin Ma Xang va Tai Po va shuning uchun Punti Xakka kelguniga qadar va baliqchilar oilalari Tanka va Xoklo hududga guruhlar.[47] Qishloq xo'jaligining asosiy erlari allaqachon dehqonchilik qilinganligi sababli, Xakka aholisi kamroq va tog'li hududlarga joylashdilar. Hakka aholi punktlarini Punti hududlari atrofida keng tarqalgan, ammo kichikroq jamoalarda topish mumkin. Ko'pchilik qirg'oq bo'ylab tepaliklar bilan o'ralgan kirish va koylarda joylashgan.

Hakka tilida so'zlashadigan jamoalar Gonkong hududiga qutqarilgandan keyin etib kelgan deb o'ylashadi qirg'oq evakuatsiyasi 1688 yilda buyurtma,[48] masalan, Xakka gapiradigan Li klanining nasl-nasabi Voy Hang, uning ajdodlaridan biri bu hududga 1688 yilda kelganligi qayd etilgan.

Kuchli Punti nasablari shimoliy g'arbiy Yangi Hududlarning aksariyat qismida hukmronlik qilganligi sababli, Xakka jamoalari mahalliy naslchilik ittifoqlarini tashkil qila boshladilar. Sha Tau Kok O'nlik ittifoqi yoki Shap Yeuk kabi Patrik Xeyz yozadi.[48] Wo Xangdan g'arbga qadar bo'lgan Hakka qishloqlari va Yantian Sha Tau Kokning sharqida uni mahalliy bozor shaharchasi sifatida ishlatishga kirishdi va u Hakka hukmronligining markaziga aylandi. Bundan tashqari, Shap Yeukniki melioratsiya 19-asrning boshlarida bo'ron toshqini oldini olish uchun dayklar va dovonlarni yaratish bilan botqoqlarni ekin maydonlariga aylantirish loyihasi, o'nta ittifoqdagi mahalliy hamkorlik va quruqlik nasllarining tobora ko'payib borishi kuchli madaniy, ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy Xakka ta'sirini ta'minlaganligining namunasini ko'rsatadi. maydonda.

Dehqonchilik va dehqonchilik imperatorlik davridan 1970-yillarga qadar Xakka oilalarining an'anaviy kasbi bo'lib kelgan. Dehqonchilik asosan Hakka ayollari tomonidan amalga oshirilayotganda, ularning odamlari shahar va shaharlarda ishchi ish qidirib yurishgan. 19-asrning oxiridan Ikkinchi Jahon Urushigacha odatdagidek ko'plab erkaklar chet elda mehnatga jalb qilingan. Urushdan so'ng, erkaklar imkoniyatdan foydalanib, keyinchalik Buyuk Britaniyada va boshqa mamlakatlarda ish haqini qoplash uchun pulni qaytarib yuborganlaridan so'ng, oilalarini o'zlariga qo'shilishga yuborish uchun ish qidirishdi.

Urushdan keyingi ta'lim Gonkongdagi barcha bolalar uchun mavjud bo'lganligi sababli, Xakkaning yangi ma'lumotli sinflari o'zlarining martabalarida yanada harakatchan bo'lishdi. Ko'pchilik ko'chib o'tdi hukumat yangi shaharlarni rejalashtirgan 1960-yillarda paydo bo'lgan. Odamlar chet elga ko'chib, shaharlarda ishlash uchun ketayotganlarida qishloqdagi Hakka aholisi kamaya boshladi. 70-yillarning oxiriga kelib, Xakka qishloqlarida qishloq xo'jaligi keskin pasayib ketdi.[49] Bugungi kunda Gonkong atrofida hali ham Hakka qishloqlari mavjud, ammo ularning ko'pgina aholisi urushdan keyingi yangi shaharlarga ko'chib ketishgan. Sheung Shui, Tai Po, Sha Tin va uzoqroqda.

Tayvan

Shuningdek qarang: Xan tayvanliklar
Hakka ayollari an'anaviy kiyimda Kaosyun, Tayvan, 1945 yilgacha.

Tayvondagi Hakka aholisi bugungi kunda 4,6 million kishini tashkil qiladi.[50] Hakka odamlar taxminan 15-20 foizni tashkil qiladi Tayvan aholisi va orolda ikkinchi yirik etnik guruhni tashkil qiladi. Ular asosan janubiy va shimoliy Guangdongdan Tayvanga ko'chib o'tgan Xakkadan kelib chiqqan Min sulolasi va boshlanishi Tsing sulolasi (taxminan 1644).[6] Dastlabki Hakka muhojirlari orolning birinchi dehqonlari bo'lgan va o'sha paytda o'n minglab kishilik Xitoy aholisining yadrosini tashkil etgan.[51] Ular "olish uchun er bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan va rasmiy zulmdan ma'lum bir ozodlik ta'minlangan vahshiy chegara tumanlarida" istiqomat qilishgan.[52] Davomida Qing davri, Tayvondagi Hakka notinch va qonunga zid bo'lgan rasmiylar orasida obro'-e'tibor qozongan edi.[53]

Yilda Tayvan Qing hukmronligi ostida Tayvondagi Hakka gugurt qulfidagi mushaklar. Xan xalqi gugurt mushkini savdosi va sotishi Tayvanlik mahalliy aholi. Aboriginallar amerikaliklarni mag'lub etish uchun o'zlarining gugurtli mushaklaridan foydalanganlar Formosa ekspeditsiyasi. Davomida Xitoy-Frantsiya urushi Hakka va Aboriginallar o'zlarining gugurt mushklarini frantsuzlarga qarshi ishlatishgan Keelung kampaniyasi va Tamsui jangi.

Lyu Mingchuan Tamsuyni kuchaytirish choralarini ko'rdi, daryoda to'qqizta torpedo koni o'rnatildi va 3-sentabr kuni cho'kib ketgan tosh bilan to'ldirilgan balastli qayiqlar bilan kirish to'sib qo'yildi, materik Xitoy batalyonini mustahkamlash uchun gugurt qulfidan qurollangan "Hakka tepalik odamlari" ishlatilgan, Buyuk Britaniyaning konsulligi va Red Fort tepasidagi bojxona uyi atrofida "Shanxay Arsenal" tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan Krupp qurollari qo'shimcha batareyani yaratish uchun ishlatilgan.[54]

Hakka davra uyi yilda Miaoli okrugi.

Lin Ch'ao-tung (林朝棟) Liu Min-chuan tomonidan yollangan Hakka militsiyasining etakchisi edi.[55]

Xakka gugurtga o'xshash mushklardan foydalangan Yaponiyaning Tayvanga bostirib kirishi (1895) va Tayvanlik Xan va Aboriginallar Yaponiya hukmronligiga qarshi qo'zg'olon o'tkazdilar. Xakka yaponlarga qarshi ko'tarildi Beypu qo'zg'oloni.

Tayvanning Xakka aholisi diqqat markazida Xsinchu va Sinchu okrugi, Miaoli okrugi va atrofida Zhongli tumani yilda Taoyuan shahri va Meinong tumani yilda Kaosyun va Pingtun okrugi, kichikroq ko'rinish bilan Hualien okrugi va Taitung okrugi. So'nggi o'n yilliklarda,[qachon? ] ko'plab Hakka, shu jumladan, eng yirik metropolitenlarga ko'chib ketgan Taypey va Taichung.

1988 yil 28 dekabrda Taypeyda 14000 xakkalik namoyishchilar millatchilar hukumatidan "Sun Yat-Sen" portretlarini ko'tarib, "ona tilimizni qaytarib berishni" talab qilishdi. Keyinchalik bu harakat "1228 Ona tilimizni qaytarish harakati" deb nomlandi.

Tayvanda hakka bilan bog'liq ishlar Hakka ishlari bo'yicha kengash. Tayvanda Hakka bilan bog'liq turistik joylar Dongshih Hakka madaniyat parki, Hakka davra uyi, Kaohsiung Hakka madaniy muzeyi, Meinong Hakka madaniyat muzeyi, Yangi Taipei Siti Hakka muzeyi, Taipei Hakka madaniyat zali va Taoyuan Hakka madaniyat zali.

Hakkalar boshqa joylarda

Xakka so'zlari bor: "有 陽光 的 地方 就有 華人, 有 華人 的 地方 就有 客家人", bu so'zma-so'z" Qaerda quyosh bo'lmasin, xitoyliklar ham bor; qaerda xitoy bo'lsa, u erda ham Xakka bor ".[56]

Xakka dunyoning ko'plab mintaqalariga ko'chib ketgan, xususan Surinam, Hindiston, Bangladesh, Vetnam (nomi bilan tanilgan Ngay xalqi ), Tailand, Singapur, Bruney, Malayziya, Indoneziya, Timor-Leste va Birma.

Shuningdek, xakkaliklar Evropaning ko'plab mamlakatlariga, jumladan Buyuk Britaniya, Italiya, Frantsiya, Portugaliya, Ispaniya, Germaniya, Avstriya, Belgiya, Shvetsiya va Gollandiyaga ko'chib ketishgan. Ular, shuningdek, topilgan Janubiy Afrika va Mavrikiy, Karib dengizi orollarida (Yamayka va Trinidad va Tobago ), Amerikada, xususan AQSh, Kanadada, Panama, Argentina va Braziliyada, shuningdek Avstraliyada. Buyuk Britaniyadagi aksariyat chet ellik Xakkasning Gonkong bilan aloqasi bor, chunki Gonkong hanuzgacha Britaniyaning mustamlakasi bo'lgan paytda ko'pchilik ko'chib kelgan. Madaniy inqilob Xitoy va Gonkongdagi kichik iqtisodiy depressiya.

Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo

Vetnam

Vetnamda Hakkaning ikki guruhi mavjud. Ulardan biri sifatida tanilgan Ngay xalqi va Shimoliy Vetnamda Xitoy bilan chegarada yashaydi. Yana bir guruh - Vetnamning janubiy qismiga ko'chib kelgan xitoylik muhojirlar Người Hẹ va atrofida joylashgan Sai Gòn va Vũng Tàu.

Kambodja

Taxminan 65% Xakka ularning ildizlarini orqaga qaytaring Meizhou va Heyuan Guandun viloyatidagi prefekturalar. Hakkolarning taxminan 70% Pnomenda joylashgan bo'lib, ular bu sohadagi kasblarni egallaydi An'anaviy xitoy tibbiyoti va poyabzal tikish. Hakkalar ham topilgan Takeo viloyati, Stung Treng va Rattanakiri sabzavot yetishtiruvchilar va rezina plantatsiyalar ishchilaridan iborat. Viloyatlardagi xakka jamoalari 18-19 asrlarda Tonkin va Cochinchina orqali Kambodjaga ko'chib kelgan.[57]

Tailand

Xakkaning avlodlari Tailandga qachon kelganligi haqida hech qanday yozuvlar mavjud emas. 1901 yilda Xitoyning Liga Jamiyatining Hakka a'zosi Yu Cipeng Tailandga tashrif buyurdi va Xakka orasida turli xil tashkilotlarning tashkil etilishi birlashishga yaramasligini aniqladi. U ikki partiyani birlashtirmoqchi bo'ldi va yangisini birlashtirish uchun ularni uyushmalarni tarqatib yuborishga ishontirdi. 1909 yilda Siamning Xakka Jamiyati tashkil topdi va Xitoyning "Li Tee Biao" ibodatxonasi oldida joylashgan jamiyat nomini belgilashning ochilish marosimiga o'sha paytdagi ichki ishlar vaziri Chao Phraya Yommarat taklif qilindi. Yang Litsing uning birinchi prezidenti bo'lgan.[58]

Singapur

Asosiy maqola: Xitoylik Singapurliklar

2010 yilda Singapurda 232 914 kishi Hakka ajdodi haqida xabar bergan.

Malayziya

Asosiy maqola: Malayziya xitoylari
Muar Hakka uyushmasi Johor.

Hakka xalqi etnik guruhning ikkinchi kichik guruhini tashkil qiladi Xitoy aholisi Malayziya, xususan yarimorol, davomida paydo bo'lgan bir necha taniqli Hakka arboblari bilan mustamlaka Angliya hukmronligi. Malayziyada 2016 yil holatiga ko'ra Xakka nasabidan 1 million 729 ming kishi bor.[59] Chung Keng Quee, "Kapitan Xitoy" ning Perak va Penang, konchilar shaharchasining asoschisi bo'lgan Tayping, rahbari Xay San, millioner xayr-ehsonchi va qalay qazib olish, dastlabki mustamlakachilik qarorida ham Xitoy, ham Evropa jamoalari tomonidan hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan. Yana bir mashhur Hakka edi Yap Ah Loy, kim asos solgan Kuala Lumpur va edi Kapitan Cina 1868 yildan 1885 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda muhim iqtisodiy hissa qo'shgan va shu bilan birga etnik xitoyliklar orasida nufuzli shaxs bo'lgan.

Tumanida Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan, Xakka odamlari Xitoy subgrupsining 90% dan ortig'ini tashkil qiladi, shevasi o'zi a lingua franca U yerda. Bu joy xakka xitoylari orasida odatda "Hakka qishlog'i" nomi bilan mashhur bo'lishiga katta hissa qo'shdi. Malayziyaning shimoliy yarim orolidagi Hakkasning eng katta kontsentratsiyasi Ipoh, Perak va Kuala-Lumpur va uning sun'iy yo'ldosh shaharlarida Selangor. Ipoh va uning atrofidagi xakkaliklarning kontsentratsiyasi ayniqsa yuqori. Hakkalar Kinta vodiysi asosan kelgan Tszaying prefekturasi yoki Meixian, Kuala-Lumpurdagilar esa asosan Huizhou kelib chiqishi.[60]

Shuningdek, ko'plab Hakka odamlari topilgan Saravak, xususan, Kuching shahrida va Miri, qaerda "Xakka" ning so'zlashadigan taniqli aholisi bor.Ho Poh "[tushuntirish kerak ] Hakka varianti.

Sabah

Yilda Sabah, etnik xitoyliklarning aksariyati nasl-nasabi Xakka. 1990-yillarda Hakkalar umumiy etnik guruhning 57 foizini tashkil qilgan Xitoy Sabahdagi aholi.[61] Xakka Sabahdagi xitoyliklar orasida shu darajadadirki, Sabohga Malayziyaning boshqa shtatlaridan va boshqa joylardan ko'chib kelgan boshqa kichik guruhlarning xitoylari odatda turli darajadagi ravonlik bilan Hakka lahjasini o'rganadilar.[62]

1882 yilda Shimoliy Borneo Chartered kompaniyasi dan Hakka ishchilarini olib kelishni ma'qul topdi Longchuan okrugi, Guangdong. Sabaxga olib kelingan 96 Hakkoning birinchi partiyasi kelib tushdi Qudat 4 aprel 1883 yilda Luo Daifeng (Hakka: Lo Tai Fung) boshchiligida. Keyingi o'n yilliklarda Hakka immigrantlari shtat bo'ylab joylashdilar, ularning asosiy aholi punktlari Kota Kinabalu (keyinchalik Jesselton nomi bilan tanilgan) va uning atrofi (tumanlarida Tuaran, Penampang, Ranau, Papar, Kota Belud shuningdek, kamroq darajada Kota Marudu ) yashaydigan sezilarli ozchilik bilan Sandakan (asosan sobiqTaiping inqilobchilari ) va boshqa shahar va tumanlardagi boshqa yirik aholi, eng muhimi Tavau, Tenom, Kuala Penyu, Tambunan, Lahad Datu, Semporna, Sipitang, Bofort, Keningau va Qudat. Britaniyaliklar Shimoliy Borneo rivojlanishining sustligini sezishdi va 1920 yilda Hakka Sabahga immigratsiyasini rag'batlantirishga qaror qilishdi. 1901 yilda Sabahdagi jami xitoyliklar soni 13897 kishini tashkil etdi; 1911 yilga kelib, u 100% o'sib, 27801 ga etdi.[63] Hakka immigratsiyasi Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida susayib bordi va 1940-yillarning oxirlarida ahamiyatsiz darajaga tushib qoldi.

Indoneziya

Indoneziya Hakka muzeyi yilda Jakarta.
Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (Tjung Ban Xok), birinchi etnik Xitoy Jakarta gubernatori bahsli ravishda Islomni haqorat qilgani uchun qamoqqa tashlandi.[64]

Xakkaliklarning Indoneziyaga ko'chishi bir necha to'lqinlarda sodir bo'ldi. Birinchi to'lqin tushdi Riau orollari kabi Bangka oroli va Belitung 18-asrda qalay qazib oluvchilar sifatida. Bo'ylab ikkinchi koloniyalar tashkil etildi Kapuas daryosi yilda Borneo 19-asrda, Singapurning dastlabki aholisi uchun avvalgilar. 20-asr boshlarida yangi kelganlar o'z vatandoshlariga Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan va boshqalar kabi yirik shaharlarda savdogar, savdogar va mardikor sifatida qo'shilishdi.

Indoneziya, Malayziya va Singapurda xakka odamlar ba'zan shunday tanilgan Xek, dan Xokkien (Janubiy min) talaffuz kheh of (Hakka: xak). Biroq, "khek" so'zidan foydalanish asosan mahalliy xitoyliklar asosan kelib chiqishi xokkien bo'lgan hududlarda cheklangan. Xitoyning boshqa kichik guruhlari ustun bo'lgan joylarda "Hakka" iborasi hali ham tez-tez ishlatiladi.

Bangka

Xakka ham Indoneziyaning eng kattasida yashaydi qalay ishlab chiqaruvchi orollar Bangka Belitung orollari viloyat. Ular keyin ikkinchi ko'pchilik etnik guruh Malaylar. Viloyatdagi Xakka aholisi soni bo'yicha ham Indoneziyada ikkinchi o'rinda turadi G'arbiy Kalimantan va Indoneziyada yashovchi xitoyliklarning eng yuqori foizlaridan biri.

Bangka va Belitungdagi Hakka guruhining birinchi guruhi orollarga 18-asrda Guangdongdan etib kelgan. Ularning ko'plari qalay qazib olishda mardikor bo'lib ishladilar. O'shandan beri ular orolda mahalliy Malay bilan birga qolishdi. Ularning ahvoli 1960 yildan 1999 yilgacha huquqiy madaniy to'qnashuvlar keng tarqalgan xitoylik va boshqa mintaqalarning mahalliy aholisidan ancha farq qilar edi. Indoneziyalik xitoylar nihoyat madaniy erkinliklarini tikladilar. Bu erda ular tinchgina birga yashab, o'zlarining urf-odatlari va madaniy bayramlarini davom ettirdilar, boshqa mintaqalarda esa 1999 yilgacha hukumat qonunchiligi tomonidan qat'iyan taqiqlangan edi.[65] Bangka orolidagi Hakka xopo shevasida malaycha bilan aralashgan, ayniqsa yosh avlodlarda gaplashgan. Bangka shahridagi Belinyu hududida so'zlangan xakka odatiy hisoblanadi.

G'arbiy Kalimantan

Hakka odamlar Pontianak yonma-yon yashash Teochew xitoycha gapirish. Pontianak markazida techechelar hukmronlik qilsalar, xakka sohil bo'yidagi kichik shaharlarda ko'proq hukmronlik qiladi. Kapuas daryosi Sanggau, Sekadau va Sintang reglamentlarida. Ularning Hakka lahjasi dastlab xeo tilida bo'lib, u techeche lahjasi ta'sirida bo'lgan, shuningdek mahalliy malay va boshqa so'z birikmalariga ega. Dayak qabilalar. Yilda Hakka muhim rol o'ynagan Lanfang Respublikasi.

Ushbu mintaqadagi xakkalar - XIX asr oxirida Xitoydan ko'chib kelgan oltin izlovchilarning avlodlari.

Xakka Singkawang va atrofidagi regregatlar Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang va Landak, Kapuas daryosi bo'yidagi Hakkasga nisbatan Hakka shevasining boshqa me'yorida gaplashadi. Dastlab G'arbiy Borneo turli xil Hakka kelib chiqishiga ega edi, ammo 19-asrda Jiexi shahridan ko'p sonli odamlar kelib tushishdi, shu sababli mintaqadagi ko'proq Hakkalar Xopo tilida Wuhua va Huilai talaffuzlari bilan gaplashib, oxir-oqibat Singkavang Xakka shevasini shakllantirdilar.[66]

Jakarta

Jakartadagi Hakka odamlari asosan kelib chiqishi bor Meizhou, 19-asrda kelgan. Bangkaning Belitung orollari va G'arbiy Borneo kabi boshqa viloyatlardan Hakkolarning ikkinchi darajali ko'chishi keyinroq sodir bo'ldi. Jakartada asosan Hakka aholisi yashagan Kelapa Gading, Suyuq, Penjaringan va atrofdagi hududlar, boshqa xitoyliklar esa Glodok, Taman Sari Hokkien ma'ruzachilari.

Sharqiy Timor

Asosiy maqola: Sharqiy Timordagi xitoyliklar
Sharqiy Timoriya va Xakkaning aralash to'yi Sharqiy Timor, qaerda to'rttasi gul qizlar o'ng tomonda kelinning onasi esa Xakka naslidan.

1975 yilgacha Sharqiy Timorda nisbatan katta va jonli Hakka jamoati mavjud edi Indoneziya bosqini. Mahalliy xitoylik Timor uyushmasining taxminiga ko'ra, Hakka aholisi Portugaliyalik Timor 1975 yilda taxminan 25000 (shu qatorda boshqa xitoylik etnik ozchilikni ham tashkil etadi) deb taxmin qilingan Makao, Sharqiy Timor singari Portugaliyaning mustamlakasi bo'lgan). Kitob manbasiga ko'ra, bosqinchilikning birinchi haftasida 700 ga yaqin Hakka o'ldirilgan Dili yolg'iz. Ko'plab Hakka qo'shni Avstraliyaga qochib ketganidan beri aniq raqamlar qayd etilmagan edi. Yaqinda mamlakatda Hakka uyushmalarining qayta tiklanishi natijasida 400 ga yaqin oilalar, shu jumladan qisman Timor oilalari tarkibiga kirgan 2400 ga yaqin xakka ro'yxatdan o'tkazildi.

Hozirda Timoralik Hakka diasporasini topish mumkin Darvin, Brisben, Sidney va Melburn Avstraliyada; Portugaliyada; Makaoda; va dunyoning boshqa qismlarida kamroq sonlarda. They often are highly educated, and many continue their education in either Taiwan or the People's Republic of China, while a majority of the younger generation prefer to study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to be genuine qochqinlar and not illegal immigrants, as partially related to the political situation in East Timor at the time. As Asian countries were neither willing to accept them as residents nor grant them political asylum to the Timorese in general, they were forced to live as fuqaroligi bo'lmagan shaxslar bir muncha vaqt. Despite this condition, many Hakka had become successful, establishing restaurant chains, shops, supermarkets, and import operations in Australia. Beri the independence of East Timor in 2000, some Hakka families had returned and invested in businesses in the newborn nation.

Janubiy Osiyo

Hindiston

Asosiy maqola: Hindistondagi xitoyliklar

There used to be sizable Hakka communities at Tangra yilda Kolkata, poytaxti G'arbiy Bengal va Mumbay (formerly known as Bombay). However, from the 1960s, when the Vetnam urushi broke out, there has been a steady migration to other countries, which accelerated in the succeeding decades. The majority moved to Canada, while others went to the United States, Australia, Taiwan, Austria and Sweden. The predominant dialect of Hakka in these communities is Meixian.

During the time he held office in Kolkata until the late 2000s, Yap Kon Chung, the hakka ambassador for The Republic of China (Taiwan), protected and helped the Chinese residents in India. Specifically, during the Indo-Chinese war of 1962, oppression of Sino-Indian residents was escalated. Yap then made appeals to Prime Minister Nehru to bridge a bond between the Indian and Chinese people. During his office, he was also the principal at a highly regarded school as well as a political facilitator who helped many families migrate to other countries such as Canada, the United States and parts of Europe until he himself migrated to Toronto, Canada to join his family. Yap died surrounded by family on April 18, 2014, at the age of 97.

Afrika

Janubiy Afrika

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Xitoyning Janubiy Afrikaliklari

Some Hakka people, notably from Taiwan, migrated to South Africa.

Mavrikiy

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid-1940s came from northeastern Guangdong, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.

As of 2008, the total population of Xitoy-mavritiyalik, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.

Reunion

Asosiy maqola: Chinayn (Reunion)

Ko'pchilik Chinese people in Réunion are of Hakka origin.[67] They either came to Reunion kabi ishdan bo'shatilgan ishchilar yoki kabi voluntary migrants.[67]

Amerika

Qo'shma Shtatlar

Hakka from all over the world have also migrated to the USA. One group is the New England Hakka Association, which reminds its members not to forget their roots. One example is a blog by Ying Han Brach called "Searching for My Hakka Roots".[68] Another group is the Hakka Association of New York, which aims to promote Hakka culture across the five boroughs of Nyu-York shahri.[69] In the mid 1970s, the Hakka Benevolent Association in San Francisco was founded by Tu Chung. The association has strong ties with the San Francisco community and offers scholarships to their young members. Muhim ahamiyatga ega Hakka American jamoalar San-Fransisko, San-Xose, Sietl va Los Anjeles.

There are around 20,000 Taiwanese Hakkas in the United States.[70]

Kanada

There are several Hakka communities across Canada. One group that embraces on Hakka culture in this diverse country is the Hakka Heritage Alliance.

Yamayka

Ko'pchilik Xitoy yamaykaliklari are Hakka; they have a long history in Yamayka. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakkas arrived in Jamaica in three major voyages. The Hakkas seized the opportunity to venture into a new land, embracing the local language, customs and culture. During the 1960s and 1970s, substantial migration of Jamaican Hakkas to the US and Canada have occurred.[71] The Hakkas in Jamaica came mainly from Dongguan, Xuyan va Bao'an counties of Guangdong Province.[60]

Surinam

The Chinese in Surinam are homogeneous as a group and the great majority can trace their roots to Huidong'an (惠东安) ichida Guandun.[60]

Okeaniya

Avstraliya

Asosiy maqola: Xitoylik avstraliyaliklar

Hakka people first arrived in Australia in the 1880s. Hakka arrivals were halted along with other Chinese immigrants during the Oq Avstraliya siyosati era from 1901 to 1973 and resumed thereafter. Some estimate that there are now 100,000 Hakka people in Australia.[72]

Yangi Zelandiya

Asosiy maqola: Xitoy Yangi Zelandiyaliklar

There are people of Hakka descent in New Zealand.[73][74]

Taiti

Hakka people first arrived in Papara, Taiti 1865 yilda [75]

Aholisi

At a 1994 seminar of the World Hakka Association held in Meixian, statistics showed that there were 6,562,429 Hakkas living abroad.[22]

In 2000, the worldwide population of Hakka was estimated at 36,059,500 and in 2010 it was estimated at 40,745,200.[iqtibos kerak ]

Another estimate is that approximately 36 million Hakka people are scattered throughout the world. More than 31 million lives in over 200 cities and counties spread throughout five provinces of China (Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Fujian, Hunan) as well as Hong Kong.[76]

MintaqaXakka
aholi		Xitoy
aholi		Jami
aholi		Foiz
Xitoy aholisi		Ko'pchilikManba
Tayvan Tayvan4,202,00022,813,00023,374,00018.4%Second largestHakka ishlari bo'yicha kengash, Taiwan, 2014[77]
 Gonkong1,250,000 est6,643,0007,300,00018.8%Second largestProf Lau Yee Cheung, Gonkong xitoy universiteti, 2010 [78]
 Singapur232,9142,794,0003,771,7008.3%Fourth largestSingapore Census, 2010[79]
 Malayziya1,650,0006,550,00030,116,00025.2%Second largestMalaysia Census, 2015[80][81]
 Tailand1,502,8469,392,79267,091,37116.0%Second largestThe World Factbook, 2012[82]

Hakkaology

Hakkaology (客家學) is the academic study of the Hakka people and their culture. It encompasses their origins, identity, language, traits, architecture, customs, food, literature, history, politics, economics, diaspora and genealogical records.

The study of the Hakka people first drew attention to Chinese and foreign scholars, missionaries, travellers and writers during the Osmon Shohligi Taiping era in the middle of the nineteen century. Many wanted to know more about the Hakka people who had started the Taiping isyoni which almost overthrew the Tsing sulolasi. Ernest John Eitel, a prominent German missionary, was one of those who took a great interest in this area.[83] Teodor Xamberg, who also wrote an early English-language account of the Taiping Rebellion, is also considered a forefather of Hakka studies in the West.[iqtibos kerak ]

Many foreign scholars were full of admiration of the Hakka people. According to prominent sinolog Viktor Purcell, the Hakkas "have a stubbornness of disposition that distinguishes them from their fellow Chinese".

Revolutionary, political and military leadership

Shuningdek qarang: List of notable Hakkas

The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of modern Chinese and chet elda Xitoy history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.[37]

Hakkas started and formed the backbone of the Taiping isyoni,[84] the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian qo'zg'oloni, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi province. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Syuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionerlar. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces.

The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. Four of the six top Taiping leaders are Hakkas: Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan, Yang Syuing va Shi Dakai. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the [[Taias established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China and almost toppled the Tsing sulolasi. Xong Rengan, the Premier of the Kingdom, was the first person in China to advocate modern-style government and opening up reforms. The kingdom lasted for thirteen years, from 1851 to 1864.

Hakkas continued to play leading roles during the Sinxay inqilobi that overthrew the Qing dynasty and the republican years of China. Qachon Sun Yatsen was small, together with other children in his village, he used to listen to an old Taiping soldier telling them stories about the heroics of the Taipings.[85] This influenced Sun and he proclaimed that he shall be the second Hong Xiuquan. Sun was to become the Father of modern China and many of his contemporaries were his fellow Hakkas.[86]

Zheng Shiliang, a medical student and classmate of Sun, led the Huizhou qo'zg'oloni (惠州起義) in 1900. Huizhou is an area in Guangdong province where most of the population are Hakkas. Deng Zhiyu led the Huizhou Qinuhu qo'zg'oloni (惠州七女湖起義) in 1907. All of the Four Martyrs of Honghuagang (紅花崗四烈士) are Hakkas – one of which was Wen Shengcai who assassinated the Manchu general, Fu Qi, in 1911.[87]

Brothers Hsieh Yi-qiao and Hsieh Liang-mu raised the 100,000 Xitoy yuani uchun kerak Xuangxuang qo'zg'oloni from the overseas Chinese community in Nanyang (Southeast Asia) in 1911.[88] At least 27 of the 85 (initially 72 because only 72 bodies could be identified) martyrs of Huanghuagang are Hakkas. Yao Yuping led the Guangdong Northern Expeditionary Force (廣東北伐軍) to successive victories against the Qing Army which were vital in the successful defence of the Muvaqqat hukumat yilda Nankin and the early abdication of Xuan Tong Emperor.[89]

Liao Zhongai and Deng Keng were Sun Yat-sen's main advisors on financial and military matters respectively. A big majority of the soldiers in the Guangdong Army (粵軍) were Hakkas.[90] Evgeniy Chen, whose father was a former Taiping, was an outstanding foreign minister in the 1920s. Some of the best of Nationalist China generals: Chen Mingshu, Chen Jitang, Xue Yue[91] va Chjan Fakui amongst many others are Hakka as well.

The Xitoy Kommunistik partiyasi already had many Hakkas in its ranks before the outbreak of the Fuqarolar urushi. Li Lisan was the top leader of the party from 1928 to 1930. The Tszansi-Fujian Sovet was the largest component territory of the Xitoy Sovet Respublikasi which was founded in 1931. It reached a peak of more than 30,000 square kilometres and a population that numbered more than three million, covering mostly Hakka areas of two provinces: Jiangxi and Fujian. The Hakka city of Ruijin was the capital of the republic.[92][93][94]

When it was overrun in 1934 by the Nationalist army in the Beshinchi uning Atrofni o'rab olish bo'yicha kampaniyalar, the Communists began their famous Uzoq mart with 86,000 soldiers, of which more than 70% were Hakkas. The Fifth Encirclement Campaign was led by Nationalist Hakka general, Xue Yue. During the retreat, the Communists managed to strike a deal with the Hakka warlord controlling Guangdong province, Chen Jitang, to let them pass through Guangdong without a fight. Qachon Xalq ozodlik armiyasi had its rank structure from 1955 to 1964, the highest number of generals, totalling 54, came from the small Hakka county of Singuo in Jiangxi province. The county had also previously produced 27 Nationalist generals. Xingguo county is thus known as the Generals' County.[92][95][96]

During the same period, there were 132 Hakkas out of 325 generals in Jiangxi, 63 Hakkas out of 83 generals in Fujian, and 8 Hakkas out of 12 generals in Guangdong respectively, not mentioning those from Guangxi, Sichuan and Hunan. The number could have been significantly higher if the majority of the personnel who started the Long March had not perished before reaching its destination. Only less than 7,000 of the original 86,000 personnel had survived it.[92][95][96]

Prominent Hakka communist leaders include: Marshal Chju De, the founder of the Red Army, later known as the People's Liberation Army; Ye Ting, Commander-in-chief, Yangi to'rtinchi armiya, one of the two main Chinese communist forces fighting the Yaponiya imperatorlik armiyasi davomida Ikkinchi Xitoy-Yaponiya urushi (the other main communist force, Sakkizinchi marshrut armiyasi, was commanded by Zhu De); Marshal Ye Jianying, who led the overthrow of the To'rt kishilik to'da in 1976, which marked the end of the Madaniy inqilob; va Xu Yaobang, where the memorial service for his death sparked off a pro-democracy movement which led to the Tiananmen maydonidagi norozilik namoyishlari in 1989. In Guangdong, China's most prosperous province, the "Hakka clique" (客家帮) has consistently dominated the provincial government. Guangdong's Hakka governors include Ye Jianying, Ding Sheng, Ye Syuanping va Xuang Xuaxua.[97]

Besides playing leading roles in all the three major revolutions of China, Hakkas had also been prominently involved in many of the wars against foreign intrusion of China. Davomida Birinchi afyun urushi, Lay Enjue led the Qing navy against the British at the Kovulondagi jang in 1839 and Yan Botao commanded the coastal defence at the Amoy jangi 1841 yilda. Feng Zicai va Lyu Yongfu were instrumental in the defeat of the French at the Bang Bo jangi which led to the French Lạng Sơn-dan chekining and the conclusion of the war in 1885. During the Yaponiyaning Tayvanga bostirib kirishi in 1895, the Taiwanese militia forces led by Qiu Fengjia and formed mainly by Hakkas, were able to put up a stiff resistance to the Japanese when the Qing army could not. Davomida Shanxay jangi in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the heroism of Xie Jinyuan and his troops, known as the "Eight Hundred Warriors" (八百壯士) in Chinese history, gained international attention and lifted flagging Chinese morale in their successful Defence of Sihang Warehouse against the more superior Japanese Imperial Army. However, in the ensuing Nankin jangi, seventeen Nationalist generals were killed in action, of which six were Hakkas.[98]

During the war against the Japanese, both the commander-in-chiefs of the two main Chinese communist forces, Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army, are Hakkas: Zhu De and Ye Ting. On the Nationalist side, Xue Yue and Zhang Fakui were commander-in-chiefs for the 9th and 4th War Zones respectively. "Deb nomlanganPatton of Asia" by the West and the "God of War" (戰神) by the Chinese, Xue was China most outstanding general during the war, having won several major battles which killed hundreds of thousands of Japanese troops. Luo Chjuying was the commander-in-chief for the 1st Route Expeditionary Forces, Burma (China's first participation of a war overseas), 1942.

Davomida Yaponiyaning Gonkongni bosib olishi from 1941–1945, the Dong River Column guerrilla force (東江縱隊) was a constant harassment to the Japanese troops. The force, whose members were mostly Hakkas and led by its legendary commander, Zeng Sheng, was highly successful due to its strong Hakka network. Noteworthy accomplishments of the guerrilla force included the aiding of British and Commonwealth prisoners of war to escape successfully from Japanese internment camps and the rescuing of twenty American pilots who parachuted into Hong Kong when they were shot down.[99] Since the Xinhai Revolution, Meizhou alone which consisted of 7 Hakka counties has produced 474 generals (there are more than 200 Hakka or partial-Hakka counties iIn the book, "My father Deng Xiaoping" (我的父亲邓小平), by China paramount leader Den Syaoping qizi, Deng Rong, she had mentioned that the Deng family's ancestry is possibly Hakka, but not definitely.

Overseas Hakkas have also been prominent politically in the countries they had migrated to, many of which are leading political figures of the countries or the Chinese communities there. Since the 20th century, there have been twenty Hakkas who had become davlat rahbarlari yoki hukumat rahbarlari turli mamlakatlarda.[100]

Quotes on the Hakka

  • "The Hakka are able to mould outstanding military men, their hardworking conduct having been developed through years of arduous livelihood in the mountainous regions. Praises of the Guangdong spirit by the Japanese actually refer to the Hakka spirit. A big majority of the officers and soldiers in the Guangdong army are Hakkas, the distinguished successes of Hakka military men have been attested by the modern history of China." – Zhang Fakui, Commander-in-Chief, Republic of China Army (1980)[101]
  • "Fortunately for me, I have a very high threshold for pain. I am a Hakka. Hakkas can take a lot of pain. So, I survived." – Lee Kuan Yew, founding father of modern Singapore (1997)[102]
  • "All of you should know that I, Lee Teng-hui, am a Hakka. Many of mainland China's leaders are also Hakkas. Hakka people are brilliant, isn't it?" – Lee Teng-hui, President of Taiwan (2000)[103]
  • "My grandfather is Hakka. The origin of Hakka is at the Central Plains. A Hakka cultural centre is opening in Zhengdong economic centre. I will be unveiling a statue of my grandfather in the cultural centre, to promote the Hakka spirit." – Sun Huifang, granddaughter of Sun Yat-sen, founding father of modern China (2003)[104]
  • "There is a piece of important experience not found in books, that is the Hakka people fine moral qualities in doing business based on integrity. This is the most precious legacy left behind by my Hakka forefathers." – Thaksin Shinawatra, Prime Minister of Thailand (2005)[105]
  • "The Hakka spirit in my blood has been calling me to take the challenge and shoulder the responsibility of being president like numerous Hakka women have done for the past hundreds of years." – Tsai Ing-wen, President of Taiwan (2011)[106]
  • "And I nearly broke down, but I won't break down. I am a Hakka woman. So farewell, Papa. I will miss you. Rest in peace. And...be as tough as Hakkas come." – Lee Wei Ling, daughter of Lee Kuan Yew (2015)[107]

Arzimas narsalar

Ommaviy madaniyatda

  • The Guest People (Xitoy : 客家之歌), a 1997 30-episode Singapore television drama about four young Hakka men who migrated from China to Singapore in the 1950s and were caught in the tumultuous anti-colonial period of the country's history. The Hakka-language version of the drama was broadcast in Taiwan. The drama was nominated for the Best Drama Series awards in the Osiyo televizion mukofotlari va Nyu-York televizion festivali, 1998.
  • 1895 yoki Moviy jasur: Formosa afsonasi 1895 yil (Xitoy : 1895 乙未), a 2008 Taiwan Hakka-language film about the Hakka militsiyalar fighting the Japanese during the Yaponiyaning Tayvanga bostirib kirishi in 1895. The edited version for television won the Best Drama Series award in the Asian Television Awards, 2009.
  • (Xitoy : 滚滚血脉 or 填四川), a 2009 29-episode China-Taiwan television drama about a Hakka family spanning 300 years, with the Hakkas' migration from Guandun ga Sichuan during the Great Migration Wave to Sichuan (湖广填四川) as backdrop. The Hakka-language version of the drama, titled One Hundred Thousand Miles Away from Home (Xitoy : 离家十万里), was broadcast in Taiwan.
  • Manba (Xitoy : 源), a 2010 20-episode Taiwan Hakka-language television drama about Hakka settlers in Miaoli, Taiwan, who founded Asia's first oil well in 1861. A-wei Chang won the Best Drama Performance by An Actor in a Leading Role (Highly Commended) award in the Asian Television Awards, 2010
  • Down To Nanyang (Xitoy : 下南洋), a 2011 40-episode China television drama about Fujian Yongding Hakkas' migration to Nanyang (Southeast Asia) during the late Tsing sulolasi va erta Respublika davri, and their involvement as chet elda Xitoy ichida inqilob to overthrow the Qing government. The theme song of the drama is in the Hakka language.
  • Buyuk janubiy migratsiya (Xitoy : 大南迁 or 葛藤凹), a 2012 32-episode China television drama about the Hakkas' migration to Janubiy Xitoy kech paytida Tang sulolasi 9-asrda.
  • Hakka Women (Xitoy : 客家女人) yoki Bo'lish yoki bo'lmaslik (Xitoy : 来生不做香港人), a 2014 25-episode Hong Kong television drama about the lives of two Hakka sisters separated when young, one in Hong Kong and the other in China.

Shuningdek qarang

Qo'shimcha o'qish

People and identity

  • Char, Tin-yuke (1969). The Hakka Chinese – Their Origin & Folk Songs. Jade Mountain Press.
  • Eberhard, Wolfram (1974). Studies in Hakka Folktales. Taipei: Chinese Association for Folklore.
  • Kiang, Clyde (July 1991). The Hakka Search for a Homeland. Allegheny Press. ISBN  9780910042611.
  • Constable, Nicole, ed. (1996). Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad. Vashington universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780295984872.
  • Leong, Sow-Theng (1997). Wright, Tim (ed.). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin and Their Neighbors. Stenford universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780804728577.
  • Chung, Yoon-Ngan (2005). The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs and Nursery Rhymes. Poseidon Books. ISBN  978-1921005503.
  • Leo, Jessieca (September 2015). Global Hakka: Hakka Identity in the Remaking. BRILL. ISBN  9789004300262.

Siyosat

  • Erbaugh, Mary S. (December 1992). "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise". Xitoy har chorakda. 132 (132): 937–968. doi:10.1017/S0305741000045495. JSTOR  654189.
  • Spence, Jonathan D. (December 1996). God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN  9780393315561.
  • Zhang, Delai (2002). The Hakkas of Sabah: A Survey of Their Impact on the Modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State. Sabah Theological Seminary. ISBN  9789834084004.
  • Yong, Kee Howe (July 2013). The Hakkas of Sarawak: Sacrificial Gifts in Cold War Era Malaysia. Toronto universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9781442615465.
  • Lee, Wei Ling (January 2015). Yap, Koon Hong (ed.). A Hakka Woman's Singapore Stories: My Life as a Daughter, Doctor and Diehard Singaporean. Straits Times Press. ISBN  9789814642477.
  • Liu, L. Larry (January 2015). Hakkas in Power: A Study of Chinese Political Leadership in East and Southeast Asia, and South America. Space Mustaqil nashriyot platformasini yarating. ISBN  9781505429435.

Til

  • Lee, T.H. (1955). Hakka Lessons for Malayan Students. Government Federation of Malaya.
  • Tsang, Joseph Mang Kin (January 2003). The Hakka Epic. President's Fund for Creative Writing in English. ISBN  9789990397406.
  • Chen, Matthew Y.; Lian, Hee Wee; Yan, Xiuhong (2004). The Paradox of Hakka Tone Sandhi. Dept of Chinese Studies, National University of Singapore. ISBN  9789810519438.
  • Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (June 2010). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780521133678.

Din

  • Constable, Nicole (August 1994). Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: A Hakka Community in Hong Kong. Kaliforniya universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780520083844.
  • Luts, Jessi G.; Lutz, Rolland Ray (January 1998). Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850-1900: With the Autobiographies of Eight Hakka Christians, and Commentary. Yo'nalish. ISBN  9780765600387.
  • Christofferson, Ethan (September 2012). Negotiating Identity: Exploring Tensions between Being Hakka and Being Christian in Northwestern Taiwan. Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN  9781610975032.

Ovqat

  • Anusasananan, Linda Lau (October 2012). The Hakka Cookbook: Chinese Soul Food from around the World. Kaliforniya universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780520273283.

Family stories

  • Tan, Amy (October 1995). Yuz maxfiy tuyg'u. Pingvin kitoblari. ISBN  9780399141157. The book was shortlisted for the 1996 Badiiy adabiyot uchun apelsin mukofoti.[113]
  • Lee, J.P. (January 2004). Breaking the Curse of the Green Dragon (A Hakka Story). Instrument of Truth. ISBN  9789810480424.
  • Chin, Woon Ping (June 2008). Hakka Soul: Memories, Migrations and Meals. Gavayi universiteti. ISBN  9780824832896.
  • Huang, Suhua (April 2012). A Faithful Reading Partner: A Story from a Hakka Village. Muallif uyi. ISBN  9781468562675.
  • Lampotang, Peggy (January 2014). The Coral Heart: A Shopkeeper's Journey. Atelier d'ecriture. ISBN  9789990336924.
  • Sze, Elsie (February 2014). Ghost Cave: A Novel of Sarawak. Hong Kong Women in Publishing Society. ISBN  978-1496073945.
  • Hsiung, C. Fong (September 2014). Rasmdagi kelin. Mawenzi House/TSAR Publishers. ISBN  9781927494394.
  • Lin Ung, Charlene (March 2015). Nam Moi: A Young Girl's Story of Her Family's Escape from Vietnam. Createspace mustaqil nashr platformasi. ISBN  9781508700791.
  • Madison, Paula Williams (April 2015). Finding Samuel Lowe: China, Jamaica, Harlem. Amistad. ISBN  9780062331632.

Adabiyotlar

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  8. ^ "客家文化探密：怀念先人 感念生活 客家人闹元宵". news.sina.com.cn.
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