Familiya - Surname

Ushbu maqola qo'rg'oshin bo'limi etarli emas xulosa qilish uning tarkibidagi asosiy fikrlar. Iltimos, ushbu yo'nalishni kengaytirish haqida o'ylang kirish uchun umumiy nuqtai nazarni taqdim eting maqolaning barcha muhim jihatlari. (2019 yil dekabr)

Birinchi / berilgan / ism, o'rta va oxirgi / oila / familiya bilan Jon Fitsjerald Kennedi misol sifatida. Bu ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan madaniyatlar uchun xos bo'lgan tuzilishni ko'rsatadi (va boshqalar). Boshqa madaniyatlar to'liq ismlar uchun boshqa tuzilmalardan foydalanadilar.

Ba'zi madaniyatlarda, a familiya, familiya, yoki familiya birining ulushi shaxsiy ism bu ularning oilasi, qabilasi yoki jamoasini bildiradi.^[1]

Amaliyot madaniyatga qarab farq qiladi. Familiya har qanday kishining to'liq ismining boshida, xuddi shunday qo'yilishi mumkin nom yoki oxirida; jismoniy shaxsga berilgan familiyalar soni ham turlicha. Familiya ko'rsatganidek genetik meros, a ning barcha a'zolari oila birligi bir xil familiyalarga ega bo'lishi yoki turli xil bo'lishi mumkin. Odatda familiyada ikki yoki undan ortiq so'zlarni ko'rish odatiy holdir, masalan, murakkab familiyalarda. Murakkab familiyalar an'anaviy kabi alohida nomlardan tuzilishi mumkin Ispaniya madaniyati, ular bo'lishi mumkin tire birgalikda yoki o'z ichiga olishi mumkin prefikslar.

Ismlardan foydalanish eng qadimiy tarixiy yozuvlarda ham qayd etilgan. Familiyalarga misollar 11-asr tomonidan baronlar yilda Angliya.^[2] Familiyalar ushbu shaxsning savdo-sotiq, otasining ismi, tug'ilgan joyi yoki jismoniy xususiyatlari kabi ma'lum bir tomonini aniqlash usuli sifatida boshlangan.^[2] Bu qadar emas edi 15-asr merosni belgilash uchun familiyalar ishlatilganligi.^[2]

Madaniy farqlar

In Ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan dunyo, familiya odatda familiya deb ataladi, chunki u odatda biron bir ismdan keyin odamning to'liq ismining oxiriga qo'yiladi. Osiyoning ko'plab joylarida, shuningdek Evropa va Afrikaning ba'zi joylarida familiya odamning ismidan oldin qo'yilgan. Ko'pchilikda Ispan tilida so'zlashuvchi va Portugal tilida so'zlashuvchi mamlakatlar, odatda ikkita familiyadan foydalaniladi va ba'zi oilalarda hatto uchta yoki undan ko'pi ishlatiladi (ko'pincha oilaviy zodagonlik da'vosi tufayli).

Familiyalar har doim ham mavjud bo'lmagan va bugungi kunda barcha madaniyatlarda universal emas. Ushbu an'ana dunyoning turli madaniyatlarida alohida-alohida paydo bo'lgan. Evropada familiyalar tushunchasi Rim imperiyasi va natijada O'rta er dengizi va G'arbiy Evropada kengaydi. O'rta asrlarda bu amaliyot nemis, fors va boshqa ta'sirlar kuchayib borishi bilan yo'q bo'lib ketdi. O'rta asrlarning oxirida familiyalar asta-sekin qayta paydo bo'lib, birinchi bo'lib ismlar (odatda shaxsning kasbi yoki yashash joyini ko'rsatuvchi) va asta-sekin zamonaviy familiyalarga aylanib boradi. Xitoyda familiyalar kamida miloddan avvalgi 2-asrdan beri odatiy holdir.^[3]

Familiya odatda odamning bir qismidir shaxsiy ism qonun yoki odat bo'yicha, ota-onalarining bir yoki ikkalasining familiyasidan bolalarga beriladi yoki beriladi. Oilaviy nomlardan foydalanish dunyoning aksariyat madaniyatlarida keng tarqalgan bo'lib, har bir madaniyat ushbu ismlarning qanday shakllanishi, o'tishi va ishlatilishi bo'yicha o'z qoidalariga ega. Shu bilan birga, familiya (familiya) va ma'lum bir ismga (familiya) ega bo'lish uslubi universaldan uzoqdir (qarang. §Tarix quyida). Ko'pgina madaniyatlarda odamlar bitta ismga ega bo'lishlari odatiy holdir mononim, ba'zi madaniyatlarda oila nomlarini ishlatmaslik bilan. Ko'pchilikda Slavyan davlatlari, shuningdek, boshqa mamlakatlar, shu jumladan Gretsiya, Litva va Latviya Masalan, oilaning erkak va ayol a'zolari uchun har xil familiya shakllari mavjud. Familiya masalalari, ayniqsa, yangi tug'ilgan bolaga ism berish, nikohda umumiy familiyani qabul qilish, familiyadan voz kechish va familiyani o'zgartirish bilan bog'liq.

Familiya to'g'risidagi qonunlar dunyo bo'ylab farq qiladi. An'anaga ko'ra ko'pchilikda Evropa So'nggi bir necha yuz yil ichida mamlakatlar odatiga ko'ra, ayol turmushga chiqqandan keyin erining familiyasini ishlatishi va har qanday tug'ilgan bolada otasining familiyasi bo'lishi kerak edi. Agar bolaning otaligi ma'lum bo'lmagan bo'lsa yoki agar taxmin otasi otalikni rad etishganida, yangi tug'ilgan bola onaning familiyasiga ega bo'lar edi. Ko'pgina mamlakatlarda bu odat yoki qonundir. Turmush qurgan ota-onalarning farzandlari uchun familiya odatda otadan meros bo'lib qolgan.^[4] So'nggi yillarda familiyalarga nisbatan teng munosabatda bo'lish tendentsiyasi kuzatilmoqda, ayollardan avtomatik ravishda talab qilinmasligi yoki kutilmasligi, hatto ba'zi joylarda nikohda erining familiyasini olish taqiqlangan, bolalarga avtomatik ravishda otasining otasi berilmaydi. familiya. Ushbu maqolada familiya va familiya ikkalasini ham anglatadi patilineal agar aniq boshqacha ko'rsatilmagan bo'lsa, otadan berilgan yoki meros qilib olingan familiya. Shunday qilib, "ona familiyasi" atamasi patilineal onasining ota-onasidan yoki ikkalasidan meros qilib olgan familiyasi. Munozarasi uchun matrilineal ('ona-line') familiyalar, onalardan qizlarga o'tish, qarang matrilineal familiya.

Ko'ngil ochish sohasidagi ayollar uchun odatiy holdir (masalan taniqli shaxslar ) ularni saqlab qolish qizning ismi ular turmush qurganlaridan keyin, ayniqsa, agar ular o'zlarining shon-sharafiga nikohdan oldin erishgan bo'lsalar. Xuddi shu narsani avvalgi nikoh paytida o'z shon-sharafiga erishgan ayollar uchun ham aytish mumkin; Masalan: Kris Jenner (tug'ilgan Kris Xyuton) ikkinchi turmush o'rtog'iga uylangan Keytlin Jenner u realiti-shouda mashhurlikka erishganida Kardashianlardan xabardor bo'lish va qo'shiqchi Britni Spirs mashhurlikka erishganidan keyin ikki marta turmush qurgan, ammo u hali ham qiz ismini uylangan paytida ishlatgan.

Yilda Ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan madaniyatlar, familiyalar ko'pincha bolalar tomonidan kattalarga murojaat qilishda ishlatiladi, lekin ular hokimiyatdagi kishiga, qariyalarga yoki rasmiy sharoitda murojaat qilish uchun ishlatiladi va ko'pincha sarlavha yoki sharafli kabi Janob., Xonim., Xonim., Miss, Doktor, va hokazo. Odatda ismi do'stlar, oila a'zolari va boshqa yaqinlar tomonidan shaxsga murojaat qilish uchun foydalanadigan narsadir. Shuningdek, u murojaat qilinayotgan kishidan qaysidir ma'noda kattaroq kishi tomonidan ishlatilishi mumkin. Ushbu amaliyot madaniyatlar o'rtasida ham farq qiladi; qarang T-V farqi.

Shaxsiy ismlarni o'rganish (familiyalar, shaxsiy ismlar yoki joylarda) deyiladi onomastika. A bitta nomli o'rganish butun dunyo bo'ylab ma'lum bir familiyani baham ko'rgan shaxslar haqida hayotiy va boshqa biografik ma'lumotlar to'plamidir.

Ismlarning tartibi

Ko'pgina madaniyatlarda (xususan Evropa va Amerika, Okeaniya va boshqalardagi Evropa ta'siridagi madaniyatlar, shuningdek G'arbiy Osiyo / Shimoliy Afrika, Janubiy Osiyo va aksariyat Sahroi Afrikadagi madaniyatlar) familiyasi yoki familiyasi ("familiyasi") keyin joylashtirilgan shaxsiy, nom (Evropada) yoki berilgan ism ("ism"). Boshqa madaniyatlarda avval familiya, so'ngra berilgan ism yoki ismlar qo'yiladi. Ikkinchisi ko'pincha deb nomlanadi Sharqiy nomlash tartibi chunki evropaliklar misollarni eng yaxshi bilishadi Sharqiy Osiyo madaniy sohasi, xususan, Buyuk Xitoy, Koreya (Koreya Respublikasi va Koreya Xalq Demokratik Respublikasi), Yaponiya va Vetnam. Bu ham shundaydir Kambodja, Laos, qismlari Janubiy Hindiston, Shri-Lanka va Madagaskar. Ammo Evropaning Sharqiy tartibiga amal qiladigan qismlari ham bor, masalan Vengriya, Avstriya va unga qo'shni hududlar Germaniya (anavi, Bavariya ),^{[eslatma 1]} Albaniya, Kosovo va Ruminiya.

Odatda familiyalar Evropa jamiyatlarida so'nggi yozilganligi sababli familiya uchun familiya yoki familiya atamalari keng qo'llaniladi, Yaponiyada (vertikal yozuv bilan) familiya yuqori ism (ue-no-namae (上 の 名 前)).

Sharqiy nomlash tartibidan foydalanadigan hududlardan odamlar o'zlarining ismlarini Lotin alifbosi, G'arbliklarga qulay bo'lishi uchun berilgan va familiyalar tartibini o'zgartirish odatiy holdir, shunda ular qaysi ism familiyani rasmiy / rasmiy maqsadlarda bilishlarini bilishadi. Xuddi shu sababga ko'ra ismlarning tartibini o'zgartirish ham odatiy uchun Boltiq fin xalqlari va Vengerlar, lekin boshqa Ural xalqlari an'anaviy ravishda familiyalari yo'q edi, ehtimol tufayli klan ularning jamiyatlari tuzilishi. The Samis ularning ismining o'zgarishi yoki o'zgarishini ko'rmadim. Masalan: ba'zi Sire Siri bo'ldi,^[5] Hætta Jákkoš Ásslat bo'ldi Aslak Jacobsen Htta - bo'lgani kabi norma. Yaqinda EI va chet elliklar bilan aloqalarning kuchayishi ko'plab samiyaliklarni o'z ismlarini familiya va familiya tartibida o'zgartirishga, ularning ismlari adashib ketmasliklari va familiyalar sifatida ishlatilishiga yo'l qo'ymaslikka undadi.

Hind familiyalari ko'pincha belgilanishi mumkin kast, kasb-hunar va qishloq va shaxsiy ismlar bilan birga doimo eslab turiladi. Biroq, irsiy familiyalar universal emas. Hind pasportlarida avval familiya ko'rsatiladi. Telefon ma'lumotnomalarida familiya ishlatiladi taqqoslash. Shimoliy Hindiston shtatlarida familiya mavjud bo'lgan nomlardan keyin qo'yiladi. Hindistonning janubiy qismlarida, ayniqsa Telugu - so'zlashuvchi oilalar, familiya shaxsiy ismingizdan oldin qo'yiladi va aksariyat hollarda u faqat bosh harf sifatida ko'rsatiladi (masalan, Suryapeth uchun "S.").^[6]

Ingliz tilida va ispan singari boshqa tillarda - nomlarning odatiy tartibi "birinchi o'rtada oxirgi" bo'lsa ham - kutubxonalarda kataloglashtirish va ilmiy ishlarda mualliflarning nomlarini keltirish uchun tartib "oxirgi, birinchi o'rtada", "familiyasi va ismi vergul bilan ajratilgan holda va elementlar familiyasi bilan alifbo qilingan.^[7][8] Yilda Frantsiya, Italiya, Ispaniya, Belgiya va lotin Amerikasi, ma'muriy foydalanish - rasmiy hujjatlarda familiyani birinchisidan oldin qo'yish.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Tarix

Shaxslarni aniqlash uchun ushbu ismlardan foydalanish eng qadimiy tarixiy yozuvlarda tasdiqlangan bo'lsa, familiyalar paydo bo'lishi nisbatan yaqinda^{[qachon? ]} hodisa.^[9] Boshchiligidagi to'rt yillik tadqiqot Angliya G'arbiy universiteti 2016 yilda yakun yasagan, 11-19 asrlarga tegishli manbalarni tahlil qilib, Britaniya orollari.^[10] Tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, lug'atdagi 45602 familiyaning 90% dan ortig'i Buyuk Britaniyada va Irlandiyada bo'lib, Buyuk Britaniyada eng keng tarqalgan Smit, Jons, Uilyams, jigarrang, Teylor, Devis va Uilson.^[11] Tadqiqot natijalari Buyuk Britaniya va Irlandiyada Oksford ingliz tilidagi oilaviy ismlar lug'ati, loyiha rahbari, professor Richard Kouts tadqiqotni avvalgilariga qaraganda "batafsilroq va aniqroq" deb atadi.^[10] U kelib chiqishi haqida batafsil ma'lumot berdi; "Ba'zi familiyalarning kelib chiqishi kasbga oiddir - aniq misollar Smit va Novvoy. Masalan, boshqa nomlarni joy bilan bog'lash mumkin Tepalik yoki Yashil, bu qishloq yashil rangiga tegishli. "Otasining ismi" bo'lgan familiyalar dastlab otasining ismini mustahkamlagan - masalan Jekson, yoki Jenkinson. Shuningdek, kelib chiqishi Braun, Qisqa, yoki ingichka - ammo Qisqa aslida baland bo'yli odam uchun kinoya bilan "laqab" familiyasi bo'lishi mumkin. "^[10]

1400 yilga kelib, ko'pchilik Ingliz tili va ba'zilari Shotlandiya odamlar familiyalardan foydalanganlar, ammo ko'pgina Shotlandiya va Uels xalqlari XVII asrga qadar yoki undan keyin familiyalarni olmaganlar. Genri VIII (1509–1547 yillarda hukmronlik qilgan) oilaviy tug'ilishni otasining familiyasi bilan qayd etishni buyurgan.^[9] Angliyada va u erdan kelib chiqqan madaniyatlarda qadimdan ayol o'z ayolidan nikohga kirganda o'z familiyasini o'zgartirishi an'anasi bo'lgan. tug'ilgan ism erining familiyasiga. (Qarang Qiz va uylangan ismlar.) Qo'shma Shtatlarda tug'ilgan ismidan foydalanishni talab qilgan ayolning birinchi ma'lum bo'lgan holati Lyusi Stoun 1855 yilda; va ayollarning tug'ma ismidan foydalanish darajasi umuman o'sdi. Biroq, bu oqim oqimini boshdan kechirdi va 1990-yillarda ayollar orasida ismlarning saqlanib qolish darajasi pasaygan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} 2006 yil holatiga ko'ra, amerikalik ayollarning 80% dan ortig'i turmush qurgandan keyin erining familiyasini qabul qilgan.^[12]

Ko'pgina madaniyatlar shaxslarni aniqlashda qo'shimcha tavsiflovchi atamalardan foydalangan va foydalanishda davom etmoqda. Ushbu atamalar shaxsiy xususiyatlarni, kelib chiqish joyini, kasbini, ota-onasini, homiyligini, farzandlikka olishini yoki klanga mansubligini ko'rsatishi mumkin. Ushbu identifikatorlar tez-tez aniq klan identifikatsiyasiga aylandi, bu esa o'z navbatida bugungi kunda biz bilgan familiyalarga aylandi.

Afsonaga ko'ra, Xitoyda familiyalar imperator bilan boshlangan Fu Si miloddan avvalgi 2852 yilda.^[13][14] Uning ma'muriyati ro'yxatga olish va ro'yxatga olish ma'lumotlaridan foydalanishni osonlashtirish uchun nomlash tizimini standartlashtirdi. Dastlab, Xitoy familiyalari matrilineally olingan,^[15] vaqtga kelib bo'lsa ham Shang sulolasi (Miloddan avvalgi 1600 yildan 1046 yilgacha) ular patilinealga aylanishgan.^[15][16] Xitoylik ayollar turmush qurgandan keyin ismlarini o'zgartirmaydilar. Ularni to'liq tug'ilgan ismlari yoki erining familiyasi, shuningdek xotin so'zi deb atash mumkin. Ilgari, ayollarning ismlari ko'p hollarda jamoatchilikka ma'lum bo'lmagan va ayollar rasmiy hujjatlarda familiyasi va "Shi" belgisi bilan, turmush qurganlarida esa erining familiyasi, tug'ilgan familiyasi va "Shi" belgisi bilan murojaat qilishgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Yilda Yaponiya, 19-asrga qadar aristokratlar bundan mustasno, familiyalar oddiy bo'lmagan.^[17]

Qadimgi Yunonistonda ba'zi davrlarda rasmiy identifikatsiya qilish odatda kelib chiqish joyini o'z ichiga olgan.^[18] Boshqa paytlarda urug 'nomlari va otasining ismi ("o'g'li") ham keng tarqalgan edi, chunki Aristidlar Lisimachu. Masalan, Buyuk Aleksandr sifatida tanilgan Heracleides, deb taxmin qilingan avlod sifatida Gerakllar va sulola nomi bilan Karanos/Karanus, bu asoschini nazarda tutgan u tegishli bo'lgan sulola. Biroq, ushbu holatlarning hech birida ushbu nomlar shaxs nomining muhim qismlari deb hisoblanmagan va ular bugungi kunda ko'plab madaniyatlarda keng tarqalgan tarzda aniq meros qilib olinmagan.

Rim imperiyasida urug 'va familiyalarni berish va ulardan foydalanish sohadagi turli submulturalarning o'zgarishi bilan kuchayib, susaygan. (Qarang Rim nomlarini berish bo'yicha konventsiyalar.Jens nomi bo'lgan nom nom, familiyalar singari meros bo'lib o'tgan, ammo ularning maqsadlari umuman boshqacha edi^{[Qanaqasiga? ]}. Keyinchalik^{[qachon? ]} Evropa, familiyalar shaxslarni farqlash uchun ishlab chiqilgan. Nominal guruh qarindoshligini aniqlashi kerak edi. Praenomen "forename" bo'lgan va dastlab bugungi kunda birinchi ism kabi ishlatilgan. Keyingi paytlarda^{[qachon? ]}Praenomen odamlarni ajratish uchun unchalik foydasiz bo'lib qoldi, chunki bu nomen bilan birga erkaklar uchun ham o'tib ketgan ("Jon Smit, kichik" odat bo'lgan butun madaniyat kabi) va ayollarga ko'pincha umuman prenomen berilmagan yoki funktsional bo'lmagan Major va Minor ("Keksa" va "Yoshroq") yoki Maksima, Mayo va Mino ("Eng katta", "O'rta", "Littlest") kabi ismlar yoki biz nomlar deb o'ylashimiz mumkin bo'lgan narsalardan ko'ra tartib raqamlari: Prima, Secunda , Tertia, Quarta va boshqalar.^{[qachon? ]} nomidan keyin kognomen deb nomlangan bir yoki bir nechta qo'shimcha ismlar paydo bo'ldi. Ushbu kognomenlardan biri meros bo'lib o'tishi odatiy holga aylandi, ammo prenomen va nomen yanada qattiqroq qo'llanilib, shaxslarni aniqlash uchun foydasiz bo'lib qolganligi sababli, qo'shimcha shaxsiy kognomenlar tez-tez ishlatilib, birinchi bo'lib prenomenlar, keyin esa nominlar tushdi. to'liq foydalanish.^{[qachon? ]} Yunoniston va nasroniy madaniyatining butun imperiya bo'ylab asta-sekin ta'siri ostida xristian diniy ismlari ba'zan an'anaviy kongomenlarning oldiga qo'yilgan, ammo oxir-oqibat odamlar yagona ismlarga qaytishgan.^[19] 5-asrda G'arbiy Rim imperiyasi qulagan paytga kelib, familiyalar Sharqiy Rim imperiyasi. Germaniya madaniyati zodagonlarga ustun bo'lgan G'arbiy Evropada familiyalar deyarli mavjud emas edi. Ular 10-asrga qadar Sharqiy Rim jamiyatida yana paydo bo'lmaydilar, aftidan Armaniston harbiy aristokratiyasining oilaviy aloqalari ta'sirida edi.^[19] Oila nomlarini ishlatish amaliyoti Sharqiy Rim imperiyasi orqali va asta-sekin G'arbiy Evropaga tarqaldi, garchi zamonaviy davrga kelibgina familiyalar hozirgi kabi aniq meros bo'lib o'tdi.

Irlandiyada familiyalardan foydalanish juda qadimgi tarixga ega. Irlandiya Evropada birinchi bo'lib familiyalardan foydalangan^{[iqtibos kerak ]}.

Angliyada familiyalarning kiritilishi odatda ularni tayyorlashga tegishli Domesday kitobi 1086 yilda,^{[iqtibos kerak ]} quyidagilarga rioya qilish Norman fathi. Dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, familiyalar birinchi bo'lib feodal dvoryanlar va janoblar orasida qabul qilingan va asta-sekin jamiyatning boshqa qismlariga tarqalib ketgan. Norman zabt etilishi paytida Angliyaga kelgan ba'zi dastlabki Norman zodagonlari o'zlarini Frantsiyadagi qishloqlari nomidan oldin 'de' (of) belgisini qo'yish bilan ajralib turdilar. Bu hududiy familiya, feodal yer egaligining natijasi deb nomlanadi. O'rta asrlarda Frantsiyada bunday nom qishloqning lordligi yoki egaligini ko'rsatgan. Angliyadagi ba'zi dastlabki Norman zodagonlari tanladilar^{[iqtibos kerak ]} frantsuzcha hosilalarni tashlab, o'zlarini yangi inglizcha xoldingi ortidan o'zlarini chaqirish.

Familiyalar XII asrgacha kamdan-kam uchragan, XIII asrgacha ham kamdan-kam uchragan; aksariyat Evropa familiyalari dastlab kasbga oid yoki joylashuvga tegishli bo'lib, agar ular tasodifan bir-birlariga yaqin joyda yashasalar, bir odamni boshqasidan ajratib turishga xizmat qilgan (masalan, Jon ismli ikki xil odamni "Jon Butcher" va "Jon Chandler" deb bilish mumkin edi). Bu hali ham familiya keng tarqalgan ba'zi jamoalarda sodir bo'ladi.

O'rta asrlarda, past darajadagi oiladan bir kishi, yuqori darajadagi oilaning yolg'iz qiziga uylanganida, u ko'pincha xotinining familiyasini qabul qilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} XVIII-XIX asrlarda Britaniyada meros qoldirish ba'zan erkakning familiyasini o'zgartirishi (yoki defis) bilan bog'liq bo'lib, shuning uchun vasiyat qiluvchi davom etdi. Shaxsiy sabablarga ko'ra yoki urf-odatlarga ko'ra (masalan, orasida) ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan erkak uchun xotinining familiyasini olish kamdan-kam uchraydi, ammo noma'lum emas. matrilineal Kanadalik mahalliy aholi kabi guruhlar Xayda va Gitxsan ); bu juda kam uchraydi, lekin Qo'shma Shtatlarda sodir bo'ladi, u erda er-xotin ismini qonuniy ravishda o'zgartirish orqali butunlay yangi familiyani tanlashi mumkin. Shu bilan bir qatorda, har ikkala turmush o'rtog'i a ni qabul qilishi mumkin ikki barreli nomi. Masalan, Jon Smit va Meri Jons bir-biriga uylanishganda, ular "Jon Smit-Jons" va "Meri Smit-Jons" deb nomlanishlari mumkin. Turmush o'rtog'i, shuningdek, tug'ilgan ismini ikkinchi ism sifatida ishlatishni tanlashi mumkin va h.k. "Meri Jons Smit" nomi bilan tanilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Qo'shimcha variant, kamdan-kam hollarda qo'llanilsa ham^{[iqtibos kerak ]}, "Simones" kabi oldingi ismlarning aralashmasidan kelib chiqqan familiyani qabul qilish, bu ham qonuniy ismni o'zgartirishni talab qiladi. Ba'zi juftliklar o'zlarining familiyalarini saqlab qolishadi, lekin farzandlariga tireli yoki qo'shma familiyalar berishadi.^[20]

O'rta asrlarda Ispaniya, otasining ismi tizimi ishlatilgan. Masalan, Rodrigoning o'g'li Alvaro Alvaro Rodriges deb nomlangan bo'lar edi. Uning o'g'li Xuan ismini Xuan Rodriges emas, balki Xuan Alvares deb atashadi. Vaqt o'tishi bilan ushbu otalik ismlarning ko'pi familiyalarga aylandi va ispan tilida so'zlashadigan dunyodagi eng keng tarqalgan ismlar. Familiyalarning boshqa manbalari - bu shaxsiy ko'rinish yoki odat, masalan. Delgado ("ingichka") va Moreno ("qorong'u"); geografik joylashuvi yoki millati, masalan. Aleman ("nemis"); yoki kasblar, masalan. Molinero ("tegirmonchi"), Zapatero ("poyabzal ishlab chiqaruvchi") va Gerrero ("jangchi"), garchi kasb nomlari savdo-sotiqning o'ziga ishora qilgan holda qisqartirilgan shaklda tez-tez uchraydi, masalan. Molina ("tegirmon"), Guerra ("urush") yoki Sapata (ning arxaik shakli) zapato, "poyabzal").

Zamonaviy davr

Zamonaviy davrda dunyodagi ko'plab madaniyatlar, ayniqsa ma'muriy sabablarga ko'ra, ayniqsa Evropaning ekspansiyasi davrida va ayniqsa 1600 yildan beri oilaviy ismlarni qabul qildilar. E'tiborli misollarga Gollandiya (1795-1811), Yaponiya (1870-yillar), Tailand (1920) kiradi. ) va Turkiya (1934). Shunga qaramay, ulardan foydalanish universal emas: Islandiya, Birma, Yava va Sharqiy Afrikadagi ko'plab odamlar guruhlari familiyalardan foydalanmaydi.

Quvg'inlardan qochish uchun siyosiy bosim ostida ba'zan familiyalar o'zgaradi yoki familiyali bo'lmagan familiyalar bilan almashtiriladi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Bunga misollar Xitoy indoneziyaliklar va Xitoylik taylar 20-asr davomida u erga ko'chib kelganidan keyin yoki Yahudiylar Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida fashistlarning ta'qibidan qochish uchun turli Evropa mamlakatlariga qochib ketganlar.

Qo'shma Shtatlar ingliz umumiy qonunlari va urf-odatlariga nom berish urf-odatlari va amaliyotlariga yaqin vaqtgacha amal qilib kelgan^{[qachon? ]} marta. 20-asrning ikkinchi yarmidan boshlab an'anaviy nomlash amaliyotlari, deb yozadi bir sharhlovchi, "bolalar va ayollar huquqlari to'g'risidagi dolzarb sezgirlik bilan to'qnashuv" deb tan olindi.^[21] Ushbu o'zgarishlar ota-onalar manfaatlaridan voz kechib, bolaning manfaatlariga e'tiborni qaratishni tezlashtirdi. Ushbu sohadagi qonun bugungi kunda, asosan, otalik va homiylikni saqlash harakatlari doirasida rivojlanib bormoqda.^[22]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda erkaklar ayol bilan turmush qurganlarida o'z familiyalarini o'zlarining familiyalariga osongina o'zgartirishi yoki federal hukumat bilan ikkala ismning kombinatsiyasini qabul qilishi mumkin. Ijtimoiy ta'minot ma'muriyati. Ba'zi shtatlarda erkaklar buni davlat darajasida qilishda qiynalishi mumkin. Ba'zi joylarda fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi da'volar yoki konstitutsiyaviy tuzatishlar qonunchilikni o'zgartirdi, shunda erkaklar ham o'zlarining turmush o'rtog'ini osongina o'zgartirishi mumkin edi (masalan, Britaniya Kolumbiyasi va Kaliforniyada).^[23] Kvebek qonunga ko'ra, turmush o'rtog'ining ham familiyasini o'zgartirishi mumkin.^[24]

BMTning Ayollarga nisbatan kamsitilishning barcha turlarini yo'q qilish to'g'risidagi konvensiyasi

1979 yilda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ayollarga nisbatan kamsitilishning barcha turlarini yo'q qilish to'g'risidagi konventsiya ("CEDAW"), amalda ayollar va erkaklar, xususan, xotin va er, "familiya" ni tanlashda bir xil huquqlarga ega, shuningdek, kasb va kasbni.^[25]

Frantsiyada, 2005 yil 1-yanvargacha, bolalar qonun bo'yicha o'z otalarining familiyasini olishlari shart edi. Frantsuzlarning 311-21 moddasi Fuqarolik kodeksi endi ota-onalarga o'z farzandlariga otasining, onasining familiyasini yoki ikkalasining ham defisini qo'yishga ruxsat beriladi - garchi ikkitadan ko'p bo'lmagan ismlarni defislash mumkin bo'lsa. Kelishmovchilik holatlarida otaning ismi qo'llaniladi.^[26] Bu Frantsiyani 1978 yilgi deklaratsiyasiga muvofiqlashtirdi Evropa Kengashi a'zo hukumatlardan familiyalarni uzatishda huquqlar tengligini qabul qilish choralarini ko'rishni talab qilish, bu chorani 1979 yilda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti ham qo'llab-quvvatlagan.^[27] Shu kabi choralar tomonidan qabul qilingan G'arbiy Germaniya (1976), Shvetsiya (1982), Daniya (1983) va Ispaniya (1999). Evropa hamjamiyati gender kamsitishlarini yo'q qilishda faol ish olib bormoqda. Familiyalarning kamsitilishiga oid bir nechta ishlar sudlarga etib bordi. Burghartz Shveytsariyaga qarshi bu imkoniyat ayollar uchun mavjud bo'lganda, erlar o'zlarining familiyasi sifatida tanlagan xotinining familiyasini o'z familiyasiga qo'shish imkoniyatining yo'qligiga qarshi chiqishdi.^[28] Losonci Rouz va Rouz Shveytsariyaga qarshi Shveytsariya ayollari bilan turmush qurgan chet ellik erkaklar o'zlarining familiyalarini saqlashlarini taqiqlashdi, agar bu imkoniyat ularning milliy qonunlarida, ayollar uchun mavjud bo'lgan variantda nazarda tutilgan bo'lsa.^[29] Ünal Tekeli Turkiyaga qarshi o'z familiyasini familiya sifatida ishlatadigan ayollarga qo'yilgan taqiqlarga qarshi chiqdi, bu variant faqat erkaklar uchun mavjud.^[30] Sud ushbu barcha qonunlarni konventsiyani buzgan deb topdi.^[31]

Evropa familiyalarining tasnifi

Fesleğenli kotlet Evropa familiyalarini kelib chiqishiga qarab to'rtta keng toifaga ajratadi: berilgan ism (otasining ismi), kasb nomi, mahalliy ism (toponimika) va taxallus.^[32] Ushbu tasnif boshqa joylardan kelib chiqqan familiyalargacha kengaytirilishi mumkin. Boshqa ismli etimologlar to'liqroq tasnifni qo'llaydilar, ammo bu to'rt tur ularning asosida yotadi.^[33]

Berilgan ismdan kelib chiqqan

Bu familiyaning eng qadimgi va eng keng tarqalgan turi.^[33] Ular "Vilgelm" kabi ism bo'lishi mumkin, a otasining ismi kabi "Andersen ", a matronimik kabi "Beaton "yoki" kabi klan nomiO'Brayen ". Bir nechta familiyalar bitta berilgan ismdan kelib chiqishi mumkin: masalan, ushbu ism asosida 90 dan ortiq italiyalik familiyalar mavjud"Jovanni ".^[33]

Islandiyaning otasining ismini belgilash tizimini ko'rsatadigan nasl-nasab shajarasi.

Ilgari Skandinaviyaning ko'p qismida ishlatilgan Island tizimida familiyalar ishlatilmaydi. Odamning familiyasi otasining ismini bildiradi (otasining ismi ) yoki ba'zi hollarda ona (matronimik ). Boshqa Skandinaviya mamlakatlaridagi ko'plab umumiy familiyalar ushbu nomlash amaliyotining natijasidir, masalan Xansen (o'g'li Xans ), Yoxansen (o'g'li Yoxan ) va Olsen (o'g'li Ole / Ola), uchta eng keng tarqalgan familiyalar Norvegiya.^[34] Bu boshqa madaniyatlarda ham uchraydi: ispan va portugal tillarida (Lopes yoki Lopes, Lope o'g'li; Alvares yoki Alvares, Alvaroning o'g'li; Dominuez yoki Domingues, Domingo yoki Domingos o'g'li; va boshqalar); Arman (Gregoryan, Gregorning o'g'li; Petrosyan, Petrosning o'g'li va boshqalar); ingliz tilida (Jonson, Jonning o'g'li; Richardson, Richardning o'g'li) va boshqalar.

Otasining ismi konventsiyalari ba'zi boshqa xalqlarda, shu jumladan Malayziyada o'xshashdir (qarang) Malayziya nomi ) va boshqa musulmon mamlakatlari, Hindiston shtatlarining aksariyat aholisi orasida Tamil Nadu va Kerala (boshqa Hindiston shtatidan farqli o'laroq Andxra-Pradesh, bu erda ajdodlardan kelib chiqqan qishloq nomlari odamlar uchun familiyaga aylangan), yilda Mo'g'uliston va Shotland Gael shaxsiy nomlash tizimi. Yilda Rossiya va Bolgariya, otasining ismi ham, familiya ham ismning majburiy qismlari: masalan. agar rus Ivan Andreevichevich Sergeyev deb nomlansa, demak uning otasining ismi Andrey va uning familiyasi Sergeyevdir. Xuddi shunday tizim ham ishlatiladi Gretsiya.

Yilda Efiopiya va Eritreya, bola o'z ota-onalaridan birining ismini, odatda otasining ismini, yolg'on familiya sifatida qabul qiladi. Masalan, Ibrohim Mesfinning otasining ismi Mesfin bo'lar edi, Ibrohim Mesfinning bolasi "Netsanet Ibrohim" deb nomlanishi mumkin edi. Xuddi Islandiyada bo'lgani kabi, Ibrohim Mesfinga "janob Mesfin" deb murojaat qilish noto'g'ri bo'lar edi: to'g'ri atama "janob Ibrohim" bo'ladi. Juda kamdan-kam hollarda bolalar har qanday holatda ham "psevdo-familiyasini" saqlab qoladigan onasining ismini qabul qiladilar.

An'anaviy ravishda Ibroniycha otasining ismlari, erkakning ismidan keyin keladi ben (Ibroniycha: בֶּן‎, o'g'li) va otasining ismi, masalan. Ben Adam (Ibroniycha: בן אדם) Yoki Ibrohim ibn Ibrohim. Xuddi shunday ayolning ismi ham keladi Vanna, "ning qizi" (shuningdek ko'chirilgan ko'rshapalak), "Elishevah hammom Shemuel" da bo'lgani kabi, bu erda Elishevaning otasining ismi Shemuel. Ben tarkibiga kiradi Ibroniycha ismlar, masalan. Benjamin. Ba'zi zamonaviy Isroil familiyalari Oromiy versiyasi ben, Bar-, masalan. Meir Bar-Ilan. Isroilda an'anaviy patronimik shakllar Evropa uslubidagi patilineal familiyalarga aylandi. Masalan, Yoram ben Yahuda yoki Xanna Bar-Ilan so'zma-so'z Yahudo va Ilanning o'g'li va qizi emas, balki erkak va ayol avlodlari, o'z navbatida, Ben Yudah va Bar-Ilan deb nomlangan.

• Otasining ismi, matronimika yoki ajdodlar, ko'pincha odamning ismidan. masalan, erkak ismidan: Richardson, Stivenson, Jons (Yuhanno uchun uelscha), Uilyams, Jekson, Uilson, Tompson, Benson, Jonson, Xarris, Evans, Simpson, Uillis, Tulki, Devis, Reynolds, Adams, Douson, Lyuis, Rojers, Merfi, Morrow, Nikolson, Robinson, Pauell, Fergyuson, Devis, Edvards, Xadson, Roberts, Xarrison, Vatson yoki ayol ismlari Molson (Maryam uchun Molldan), Medison (Moddan), Emmott (Emma'dan), Marriott (Maryamdan) yoki klan nomidan (kelib chiqishi Shotlandiya uchun, masalan, MacDonald, Forbes, Xenderson, Armstrong, Grant, Kemeron, Styuart, Duglas, Krouford, Kempbell, Ovchi ) "Mac" bilan Gael o'g'il uchun.^[35]
• Patronal homiylikdan (Hikman Xikning odamini anglatadi, bu erda Xik Richard ismining uy hayvonidir) yoki dinning mustahkam aloqalari Kilpatrik (izdoshi Patrik ) yoki Kilbrid (izdoshi Bridjet ).

Keng doirasi mavjud familiya affikslari otasining ismi bilan. Ba'zilari prefikslar (masalan, galiya) Mac), ammo ko'proq narsa qo'shimchalar.

Kasb familiyasi

Kasbiy kabi oddiy misollarni o'z ichiga oladi Smit (a. uchun temirchi ), Miller (a. uchun tegirmonchi ), Fermer (uchun soliq fermerlari yoki ba'zan fermerlar ), Tetcher (a. uchun qassob ), Cho'pon (a. uchun cho'pon ), Potter (a. uchun kulol ) va boshqalar, shuningdek, ingliz bo'lmaganlar, masalan, nemis Eyzenhauer (temir hewer, keyinchalik Amerikada Angliya sifatida Eyzenxauer ) yoki Shnayder (tikuvchi) - yoki ingliz tilidagi kabi, Shmidt (smith). Kasbiy unvonlarga asoslangan murakkabroq ismlar ham mavjud. Angliyada xizmatchilar o'zlarining ish beruvchisi kasbining o'zgartirilgan versiyasini yoki familiyasini familiyasi sifatida qabul qilishlari odatiy hol edi,^{[kimga ko'ra? ]} xatni qo'shish s so'zga, garchi bu shakllanish ham bo'lishi mumkin a otasining ismi. Masalan, familiya Vikers vikerning xizmatkori tomonidan qabul qilingan kasb nomi sifatida paydo bo'lgan deb o'ylashadi,^[36] esa Roberts yoki o'g'li yoki Robert ismli kishining xizmatkori tomonidan qabul qilinishi mumkin edi. Ingliz tilidagi kasb nomlarining bir qismi o'rta asrlardan kelib chiqqan deb o'ylangan ismlardir sirli o'yinlar. Ishtirokchilar ko'pincha bir xil rollarni o'ynaydilar, bu qismni eng katta o'g'illariga topshirdilar. Bundan kelib chiqqan ismlar o'z ichiga olishi mumkin Qirol, Rabbim va Bokira. O'rta asr kasblariga asoslangan ismlarning asl ma'nosi zamonaviy ingliz tilida endi aniq bo'lmasligi mumkin (shuning uchun familiyalar) Kuper, Chandlerva Kesuvchi mos ravishda bochka, sham va vilkalar pichoqlarni tayyorlash kasblaridan kelib chiqadi).

Misollar

Archer, Beyli, Bailxache, Novvoy, Pivo ishlab chiqaruvchisi, qassob, duradgor, Karter, Chandler, Klark yoki Klark, Kollier, Kuper, Kuk yoki Kuk, Dempster, Bo'yoq, Fermer, Folkner, Fisher, Fletcher, Fowler, To'liq, Bog'bon, Glover, Xeyvord, Xokins, Bosh, Ov yoki Ovchi, Hakam, Ritsar, Meyson, Miller, O'roqchi, Sahifa, Palmer, Parker, Porter, Potter, Rahatla yoki Rivz, Soyer, Poyafzal, Slater, Smit, Stringer, Teylor, Tetcher, Turner, Walker, To'quvchi, Yog'ochchi va Rayt (yoki kabi farqlar Kartriyat va Vaynrayt ).

Toponimik familiya

Joylashuv (toponimik, yashash joyi) nomlari ushbu ism berilgan shaxs bilan bog'liq bo'lgan yashash joyidan kelib chiqadi. Bunday joylar har qanday turar-joy binolari bo'lishi mumkin, masalan: uylar, fermer xo'jaliklari, binolar, qishloqlar, qishloqlar, qal'alar yoki kottejlar. Uy-joy nomining bir elementi turar-joy turini tavsiflashi mumkin. Misollari Qadimgi ingliz elementlar odatiy nomlarning ikkinchi elementida tez-tez uchraydi. Bunday nomlardagi yashash elementlari ma'no jihatidan har xil davrlarga, turli xil joylarga yoki boshqa ba'zi elementlar bilan ishlatilishiga qarab farq qilishi mumkin. Masalan, qadimgi ingliz elementi tūn dastlab bitta nom bilan "to'siq" degan ma'noni anglatishi mumkin, ammo boshqa nomlarda "tomorqa", "qishloq", "manor" yoki "mulk" degan ma'noni anglatishi mumkin.

Joylashuv nomlari yoki yashash joylari nomlari "Monte" (portugalcha "tog '" ma'nosini anglatadi), "Gorski" (polyakcha "tepalik") yoki "Pitt" ("pit" varianti) kabi umumiy bo'lishi mumkin, shuningdek, aniq joylar. Masalan, "Vashington" "Vassa oilasining uyi" degan ma'noni anglatadi,^[32] "Lucci" esa "rezidenti" degan ma'noni anglatadi Lucca ".^[33] "London", "Lisboa" yoki "Bialostok" kabi ba'zi familiyalar katta shaharlardan olingan bo'lsa-da, ko'proq odamlar kichik jamoalarning nomlarini aks ettiradi, xuddi Ó Creachmhaoil, qishloqlaridan olingan Geyvey okrugi. Bu O'rta asrlarda Evropada asosan kichik jamoalardan shaharlarga ko'chish tendentsiyasi va yangi kelganlarga aniqlovchi familiyani tanlash zarurati bilan bog'liq deb o'ylashadi.^[32][37]

Yilda Portugal tilida so'zlashadigan mamlakatlar, Portugaliya, Frantsiya, Brasil, Xolanda kabi mamlakatlar nomlaridan kelib chiqqan familiyalarni topish odatiy, ammo misli ko'rilmagan emas. Mamlakat nomlaridan olingan familiyalar "Angliya", "Uels", "Ispaniya" singari ingliz tilida ham uchraydi.

Ko'pchilik Yaponiya familiyalari geografik xususiyatlardan kelib chiqadi; Masalan, Ishikava (石川) "tosh daryo", Yamamoto (山 本) "tog 'poydevori", Inoue (井上) esa "quduq ustida" degan ma'noni anglatadi.

Arabcha ismlarda ba'zida kelib chiqadigan shaharni ko'rsatadigan familiyalar mavjud. Masalan, holatlarda Saddam Xuseyn al Tikriti,^[38] Saddam Husayn kelib chiqishi degan ma'noni anglatadi Tikrit, shahar Iroq. Ismning ushbu komponenti a deb nomlanadi nisbah.

• Uy-joy (joy) nomlari masalan, Berton, Xemilton, London, Leyton, Myurrey, Satton, Flint, Laughton
• Mulk nomlari Er egalaridan kelib chiqqanlar uchun ularning egalik qilish joylari, qal'asi, imorat yoki ko'chmas mulk nomi, masalan. Ernle, Vindzor, Stonton
• Topografik nomlar (geografik xususiyatlar) masalan, Ko'prik, Lager, Tepalik, Bush, Ko'l, Li, Yog'och, Grove, Xolms, O'rmon, Underwood, Zal, Bruk yoki Bruks, Maydonlar, Tosh, Morley, Mur, Perri

Taxallusdan olingan

Bu familiyalarning kelib chiqishi turlarini o'z ichiga olgan eng keng sinf. Bunga ismlar, shuningdek, eke-names deb nomlanadigan,^[39] "Shvartskopf", "Qisqa" va ehtimol "Qaysar" kabi ko'rinishga asoslangan,^[33] va "Daft", "Gutman" va "Maiden" kabi temperament va shaxsiyatga asoslangan ismlar, bir qator manbalarga ko'ra, "effeminate" ma'nosini beruvchi inglizcha taxallus bo'lgan.^[33][32]

• Shaxsiy xususiyatlar masalan, Qisqa, jigarrang, Qora, Whitehead, Yosh, Uzoq, Oq

Dekorativ familiya

Familiya sifatida ishlatiladigan bezak nomlari 18-19 asrlarda familiyalar qabul qilgan (yoki majburan qabul qilingan) jamoalarda ko'proq uchraydi.^[37] Ular Skandinaviyada, odatda, uchraydi Sinti va Roma Germaniya va Avstriyadagi yahudiylar.^[33] Bunga "Shtaynbax" ("Shtaynbax deb ataladigan joydan olingan"), "Rozenberg" ("atirgul tog'i") va "Vinterşteyn" (Vintershteyn nomli joydan olingan) kiradi. 19-asrda majburan qabul qilish latishlarning "Rozentāls (Rosental)" ("gul vodiysi"), "Eyzenbaums (Eisenbaum") ("po'lat yog'och"), "Fraybergs (") kabi nemis, polyak va hatto italyan dekorativ familiyalarining manbai hisoblanadi. Freiberg) "(" erkin tog '"). Ba'zi hollarda, masalan Xitoy indoneziyaliklar va Xitoylik taylar, ma'lum bir etnik guruhlar o'zlarining familiyalarini o'zgartirishlari uchun siyosiy bosimga duchor bo'lishadi, bu holda familiyalar o'zlarining familiyasi ma'nosini yo'qotishi mumkin. Masalan, indoneziyalik biznes-magnat Liem Swie Liong (林绍良) o'z ismini "indonezianized" Sudono Salim. Bu holda "Liem" (林) arab tilidan kelib chiqqan "Salim" tomonidan berilgan bo'lsa, "Sudono", sharafli "su-" (sanskritcha kelib chiqishi) prefiksli yava ismidir.^{[kim tomonidan? ]} "Swie Liong" ning namoyishi bo'lish.

Davrida Transatlantik qul savdosi ko'plab afrikaliklar o'zlarining mahalliy ismlarini yo'qotdilar va egalari tomonidan egalarining familiyasini va "egasi" yoki qul egasi xohlagan har qanday ismni olishga majbur bo'lishdi. Amerikada ko'plab afroamerikaliklarning familiyalari qullikdan kelib chiqqan (ya'ni qul nomi ).^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Ularning ko'plari sobiq egalarining familiyalarini ko'tarish uchun kelgan. Ko'plab ozod qilingan qullar o'zlari familiyalar yaratdilar yoki o'zlarining sobiq xo'jayinining ismini oldilar.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Familiyaning jinsga xos versiyalari

Ba'zi madaniyatlarda va tillarda, ayniqsa slavyan tillarining aksariyati (masalan, bolgar, rus, slovakiya, chexiya va boshqalar) va boshqa ba'zi millatlar - Gretsiya, Islandiya, Latviya va Litva - familiyalar tashuvchisining jinsiga qarab o'zgaradi.

Ba'zi slavyan madaniyatlari dastlab qiz familiyalarini xotin familiyalaridan turli xil qo'shimchalar bilan ajratishgan, ammo bu farq asosan tark qilingan. Slavyan tillarida substantivatsiyalangan sifat familiyalarida erkaklar va ayollar uchun odatda nosimmetrik sifatlar mavjud (Polshada Podwikiski / Podwińska, chex tilida Nový / Nová va boshqalar). Nominativ va kvazi-nominativ familiyalarda ayol variant erkak variantidan egalik qo'shimchasidan kelib chiqqan (Novák / Nováková, Hromada / Hromadová). Chexiya va slovak tilida sof egalik Novákova, Hromadova bo'ladi, ammo familiya tarixiy egalikni bostirish uchun Novakova, Hromadova ismiga aylantirildi. Ba'zi noyob familiyalar universal va jinsga xos emas: chex tilida masalan. Oilaning ko'plik nomi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan arxaik egalik shakli bo'lgan Janů, Martinů, Foytů, Kovářů va boshqalar. Such rare surnames are also often used for transgender persons during transition, because most of common surnames are gender-specific. Some Czech dialects (Southwest-Bohemian) use the form "Novákojc" as informal for both genders. In culture of Sorbs (Lusatians), Sorbiy used different female form for unmarried daughters (Jordanojc, Nowcyc, Kubašec, Markulic), and different form for wives (Nowakowa, Budarka, Nowcyna, Markulina). In Polish, typical daughter surnames ended -ówna, -anka or -ianka, while wife surnames used possessive suffixes -ina or -owa. Informal dialectal female form in Polish and Czechs dialects was also -ka (Pawlaczka, Kubeška). Polish language tends to abandon both form of feminized surnames. In Czech language, a trend to use male surnames for women is popular among cosmopolitans or celebrities, but is often criticized from patriotic views and can be seen as ridiculous and as degradation and disruption of Czech grammar. Adaptation of surnames of foreign women by suffix "-ová" is currently a hot linguistic and political question in Czechia; is massively advocated as well as criticized and opposed.

Generally, inflected languages use names and surnames as living words, not as static identifiers. Thus, the pair or the family can be named by plural form which can differ from the singular male and female form. E.g., when the male form is Novák and the female form Nováková, the family name is Novákovi in Czech and Novákovci in Slovak. When male form is Hrubý and female form is Hrubá, the plural family name is Hrubí (or "rodina Hrubých").

In Greece, if a man called Papadopoulos has a daughter, she will likely be named Papadopoulou (if the couple have decided their offspring will take his surname), the genitive form, as if the daughter is "of" a man named Papadopoulos.

In Lithuania, if the husband is named Vilkas, his wife will be named Vilkienė and his daughter will be named Vilkaitė. Male surnames have suffixes -as, -is, -ius, or -us, unmarried girl surnames aitė, -ytė, -iūtė or -utė, wife surnames -ienė.

Latvian uses strictly feminized surnames for women, even in case of foreign names. The function of the suffix is purely grammar. Male surnames ending -e or -a need not to be modified for women. An exception is: 1) the female surnames which correspond to nouns in the sixth declension with the ending "-s" – "Iron", ("iron"), "rock", 2) as well as surnames of both genders, which are written in the same nominative case because corresponds to nouns in the third declension ending in "-us" "Grigus", "Markus"; 3) surnames based on an adjective have indefinite suffixes typical of adjectives "-s, -a" ("Stalts", "Stalta") or the specified endings "-ais, -ā" ("Čaklais", "Čaklā") ("diligent").

In Iceland, surnames have a gender-specific suffix (-dóttir = daughter, -son = son).

Finnish language used gender-specific sufix up to 1929, when the Marriage Act forced women to use the husband's form of surname. In 1985, this sentence was removed from the act.

Boshqalar

The meanings of some names are unknown or unclear. The most common European name in this category may be the English (Irish derivative) name Rayan, which means 'little king' in Irish.^[32][36] Also, Celtic origin of the name Arthur, meaning 'ayiq '. Other surnames may have arisen from more than one source: the name De Luka, for instance, likely arose either in or near Lucania or in the family of someone named Lucas or Lucius;^[33] in some instances, however, the name may have arisen from Lucca, with the spelling and pronunciation changing over time and with emigration.^[33] The same name may appear in different cultures by coincidence or romanization; the surname Li is used in English culture, but is also a romanization of the Chinese surname Li.^[36] Surname origins have been the subject of much xalq etimologiyasi.

Yilda Frantsiya Kanadasi until the 19th century, several families adopted surnames that followed the family name in order to distinguish the various branches of a large family. Such a surname was preceded by the word xit ('so-called,' lit.'said') and was known as a nom-dit ('said-name'). (Compare with some Rim nomlarini berish bo'yicha konventsiyalar.) While this tradition is no longer in use, in many cases the nom-dit has come to replace the original family name. Thus the Bourbeau family has split into Bourbeau dit Verville, Bourbeau dit Lacourse, and Bourbeau dit Beauchesne. In many cases Verville, Lacourse, or Beauchesne has become the new family name. Likewise, the Rivard family has split into the Rivard dit Lavigne, Rivard dit Loranger and Rivard dit Lanoie. Ning kelib chiqishi nom-dit can vary. Often it denoted a geographical trait of the area where that branch of the family lived: Verville lived towards the city, Beauchesne lived near an oak tree, Larivière near a river, etc. Some of the oldest noms-dits are derived from the war name of a settler who served in the army or militia: Tranchemontagne ('mountain slasher'), Jolicœur ('braveheart'). Others denote a personal trait: Lacourse might have been a fast runner, Legrand was probably tall, etc. Similar in German it is with "genannt" – "Vietinghoff genannt Scheel".

Compound surnames

While in many countries surnames are usually one word, in others a surname may contain two words or more, as described below.

Spanish compound surnames

In traditional Spanish culture, and as is still the case in many Spanish-speaking countries, an individual does not have only a single surname. Instead an individual inherits the surnames of all of their ancestors, in particular their father and mother. In practice individuals mostly use only the two surnames of their parents. For instance, Spanish ex-premier Xose Luis Rodriges Sapatero bor Xose Luis as his given name, Rodriges as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname. But in reality an individual can be referred to by any number of his or her surnames as the occasion may require. For example, Rodríguez Zapatero could also be referred to as

José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero García Valero García Asensio

Additional surnames refer to grandmothers, great-grandmothers, and so forth. The number of surnames a person has is theoretically unlimited though it is rare to use more than a few (and indeed an individual may not know more than a few of his or her ancestors' names).

This custom is not seen in the Hispanic world as being a true compound surname system o'z-o'zidan, since it is widely understood that the first surname denotes one's father's family, and the second surname denotes one's mother's family. So "Rodríguez Zapatero" is not considered one surname; it is two distinct surnames. Given that it is not a true compound surname, his children do not inherit the "compound" surname "Rodríguez Zapatero". Only the paternal surname of both father and mother are passed on. The father's paternal surname becomes the child's own paternal surname, while the mother's paternal surname becomes the child's second surname (as the child's own maternal surname). Thus, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero would pass on only Rodríguez to his children as their first (i.e. paternal) surname.

An additional complication is introduced by marriage. Rodríguez Zapatero's wife was born Sonsoles Espinosa Díaz. Under Spanish tradition she is still known by that name, even after marriage. But she may also be known as

Sonsoles Espinosa Díaz de Rodríguez

Sonsoles Espinosa de Rodríguez

Sonsoles de Rodríguez

These other forms, particularly the last, are becoming less common^{[qachon? ]} as they are increasingly seen as sexist (i.e. that a wife is expected to take her husband's name but not the other way around).^[40][41] Additionally, in Spain and some other countries it is becoming more common, in law and in practice, to allow placing the mother's name before the father's in a child's surname rather than insisting that the privilege belongs exclusively to the father.^[42]

True compound surnames

Beyond this seemingly "compound" surname system in the Hispanic world, there are also true compound surnames in the Spanish-speaking countries. These true compound surnames are passed on and inherited as compounds. For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta ning Ekvador, General Luis Telmo Paz va Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.

Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño, Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño. He would never be regarded as Luis Estrella, Telmo Estrella, or Luis Telmo Estrella, nor as Luis Paz, Telmo Paz, or Luis Telmo Paz. This is because "Paz" alone is not his surname (although other people use the "Paz" surname on its own).

^[4] Ushbu holatda, Paz y Miño is in fact the paternal surname, being a true compound surname. His children, therefore, would inherit the compound surname "Paz y Miño" as their paternal surname, while Estrella would be lost, since the mother's paternal surname becomes the children's second surname (as their own maternal surname). "Paz" alone would not be passed on, nor would "Miño" alone.

To avoid ambiguity, one might often informally see these true compound surnames hyphenated, for instance, as Paz-y-Miño. This is true especially in the Ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan dunyo, but also sometimes even in the Hispanic world, since to many Hispanics unfamiliar with this and other compound surnames, "Paz y Miño" might be inadvertently mistaken as "Paz" for the paternal surname and "Miño" for the maternal surname. Although Miño did start off as the maternal surname in this compound surname, it was many generations ago, around five centuries, that it became compounded, and henceforth inherited and passed on as a compound.

Other surnames which started off as compounds of two or more surnames, but which merged into one single word, also exist. An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the "Paz Miño" family of five centuries ago.

Alava, Spain is known for its incidence of true compound surnames, characterized for having the first portion of the surname as a patronymic, normally a Spanish patronymic (i.e. from the Kastiliya tili ) or more unusually a Bask tili patronymic, followed by the predlog "de", with the second part of the surname being a local toponymic surname from Álava.

English compound surnames

Compound surnames in English and several other European cultures feature two (or occasionally more) words, often joined by a defis or hyphens. However, it is not unusual for compound surnames to be composed of separate words not linked by a hyphen, for example Iain Dunkan Smit, a former leader of the British Konservativ partiya, whose surname is "Duncan Smith". A surname with the prefix "Fitz" can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, as in "Fitz William", as well as "FitzWilliam" or "Fitzwilliam". Like, for example, Robert FitzRoy.

Scottish and Irish compound surnames

Irish surnames are the oldest surnames in Europe. The common prefixes "Ó" and "Mac" can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, yielding "Ó Briain" or "Mac Millan" as well as the anglicized "O'Brien" and "MacMillan" or "Macmillan".

Chinese compound surnames

Biroz Xitoy familiyalari use more than one belgi.

Culture and prevalence

Rank and frequency of some US surnames

In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50% of the population, and about 1% of the population has the surname Smith,^[43] which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker"), a contraction, for instance, of temirchi yoki boshqa metalsozlar. Several American surnames are a result of corruptions or phonetic misappropriations of European surnames, perhaps as a result of the registration process at the immigration entry points. Spellings and pronunciations of names remained fluid in the United States until the Social Security System enforced standardization.

Approximately 70% of Canadians have surnames that are of English, Irish, French, or Scottish derivation.

According to some estimates, 85% of China's population shares just 100 surnames. The names Wang (王), Zhang (张) and Li (李) are the most frequent.^[44]

Ispan tilida so'zlashadigan dunyo

Yilda Ispaniya and in most Ispan tilida so'zlashadigan mamlakatlar, the custom is for people to have two surnames. Usually the first surname comes from the father and the second from the mother, but it could be the other way round. When speaking or in informal situations only the first one is used, although both are needed for legal purpose. A child's first surname will usually be their father's first surname, while the child's second surname will usually be the mother's first surname. For example, if José García Torres and María Acosta Gómez had a child named Pablo, then his full name would be Pablo García Acosta. One family member's relationship to another can often be identified by the various combinations and permutations of surnames.

In some instances, when an individual's given name and first family name are too common (such as in Xose Luis Rodriges Sapatero va Mario Vargas Llosa ), both family names are used (though not necessarily both given names). A person could even take the maternal name for informal situations instead of the paternal name, for personal preferences or if the maternal name is somehow "special" (José Luís Rodríguez Zapatero is known in Spanish as "José Luis Zapatero" or just as "Zapatero"). In Spain, a new law approved in 1999 allows an adult to change the order of his/her family names, and parents can also change the order of their children's family names if they (and the child, if over 12) agree.^[45]

In Spain, especially Kataloniya, the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using the conjunction y ("and" in Ispaniya ) yoki men ("and" in Kataloniya ), see for example the economist Xaver Sala-i-Martin or painter Salvador Dali i Domènech.

In Spain, a woman does not change her legal surnames when she marries. In some Spanish-speaking countries in lotin Amerikasi, a woman may, on her marriage, drop her mother's surname and add her husband's surname to her father's surname using the preposition de ("of"), del ("of the", when the following word is masculine) or de la ("of the", when the following word is feminine). For example, if "Clara Reyes Alba" were to marry "Alberto Gómez Rodríguez", the wife could use "Clara Reyes de Gómez" as her name (or "Clara Reyes Gómez", or, rarely, "Clara Gómez Reyes". She can be addressed as Sra. de Gomes corresponding to "Mrs Gómez"). In some countries, this form may be mainly social and not an official name change, i.e. her name would still legally be her birth name. This custom of adding the husband's surname is slowly fading.

Sometimes a father transmits his combined family names, thus creating a new one e.g., the paternal surname of the son of Xaver (ismi) Reys (paternal family name) de la Barrera (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname Reyes de la Barrera. De ham nobiliy zarracha used with Spanish surnames. This can not be chosen by the person, as it is part of the surname, for example "Puente" and "Del Puente" are not the same surname.

Children take the surnames of both parents, so if the couple above had two children named "Andrés" and "Ana", then their names would be "Andrés Gómez Reyes" and "Ana Gómez Reyes". Yilda Ispaniya, a 1995 reform in the law allows the parents to choose whether the father's or the mother's surname goes first, although this order must be the same for all their children. For instance, the name of the son of the couple in the example above could be either "Andrés Gómez Reyes" or "Andrés Reyes Gómez".^[46] Sometimes, for single mothers or when the father would or could not recognize the child, the mother's surname has been used twice: for example, "Ana Reyes Reyes". In Spain, however, children with just one parent receive both surnames of that parent, although the order may also be changed. In 1973 in Chile, the law was changed to avoid stigmatizing illegitimate children with the maternal surname repeated.

Some Hispanic people, after leaving their country, drop their maternal surname, even if not formally, so as to better fit into the non-Hispanic society they live or work in. Dropping the paternal surname is not unusual when it is a very common one. For instance, painter Pablo Ruiz Pikasso va Ispaniya Bosh vaziri Xose Luis Rodriges Sapatero are known by their maternal surnames as "Picasso" and "Zapatero". Similarly, Anglophones with just one surname may be asked to provide a second surname on official documents in Spanish-speaking countries. When none (such as the mother's maiden name) is provided, the last name may simply be repeated.

Traditionally in most countries, and currently in some Spanish-speaking countries, women, upon marrying, keep their own family names. It is considered impolite towards her family for a woman to change her name. The higher class women of Kuba and Spain traditionally never change their names. In certain rare situations, a woman may be addressed with her paternal surname followed by her husband's paternal surname linked with de. For example, a woman named Ana García Díaz, upon marrying Juan Guerrero Macías, could be called Ana García de Guerrero. This custom, begun in medieval times, is decaying and only has legal validity^{[iqtibos kerak ]} yilda Dominika Respublikasi, Ekvador, Gvatemala, Nikaragua, Gonduras, Peru, Panama, and to a certain extent in Meksika (where it is optional but becoming obsolete), but is frowned upon by people in Spain, Cuba, and elsewhere. In Peru and the Dominican Republic, women normally conserve all family names after getting married. Masalan, agar Rosa María Pérez Martínez uylanadi Juan Martín De la Cruz Gómez, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez de De la Cruz, and if the husband dies, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez Vda. de De la Cruz (Vda. being the abbreviation for viuda, "widow" in Spanish). The law in Peru changed some years ago, and all married women can keep their maiden last name if they wish with no alteration.

In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage, the wife is referred to as "germana" [sister] plus the surname of her husband. And most records of the church follow that structure as well.

A new trend in the United States for Hispanics is to hyphenate their father's and mother's last names. This is done because American born English-speakers are not aware of the Hispanic custom of using two last names and thus mistake the first last name of the individual for a middle name. In doing so they would, for example, mistakenly refer to Esteban Álvarez Cobos as Esteban A. Cobos. Such confusion can be particularly troublesome in official matters. To avoid such mistakes, Esteban Álvarez Cobos, would become Esteban Álvarez-Cobos, to clarify that both are last names.

In Spanish villages in Catalonia, Galisiya va Asturiya and in Cuba, people are often known by the name of their dwelling or collective family nickname rather than by their surnames. For example, Remei Pujol i Serra who lives at Ca l'Elvira would be referred to as "Remei de Ca l'Elvira"; and Adela Barreira López who is part of the "Provisores" family would be known as "Adela dos Provisores". Bo'lgan holatda Kantabriya the family's nickname is used instead of the surname: if one family is known as "Ñecos" because of an ancestor who was known as "Ñecu", they would be "José el de Ñecu" or "Ana la de Ñecu" (collective: the Ñeco's). Some common nicknames are "Rubiu" (blonde or ginger hair), "Roju" (reddish, as referred to ginger hair), "Chiqui" (small), "Jinchu" (big), and a bunch of names about certain characteristics, family relationship or geographical origin (pasiegu, masoniegu, sobanu, llebaniegu, tresmeranu, pejinu, naveru, merachu, tresneru, troule, mallavia, marotias, llamoso, lipa, ñecu, tarugu, trapajeru, lichón, andarível).

Portugal tilida so'zlashadigan mamlakatlar

Bo'lgan holatda Portugal naming customs, the main surname (the one used in alphasorting, indexing, abbreviations, and greetings), appears last.

Each person usually has two family names: though the law specifies no order, the first one is usually the maternal family name, whereas the last one is commonly the paternal family name. In Portugal, a person's full name has a minimum legal length of two names (one given name and one family name from either parent) and a maximum of six names (two first names and four surnames – he or she may have up to four surnames in any order desired picked up from the total of his/her parents and grandparents' surnames). The use of any surname outside this lot, or of more than six names, is legally possible, but it requires dealing with bureaucracy. Parents or the person him/herself must explain the claims they have to bearing that surname (a family nickname, a rare surname lost in past generations, or any other reason one may find suitable). In Brazil there is no limit of surnames used.

In general, the traditions followed in countries like Braziliya, Portugaliya va Angola are somewhat different from the ones in Spain. In the Spanish tradition, usually the father's surname comes first, followed by the mother's surname, whereas in Portuguese-speaking countries the father's name is the last, mother's coming first. A woman may adopt her husband's surname(s), but nevertheless she usually keeps her birth names, or at least the last one. Since 1977, a husband can also adopt his wife's surname. When this happens, usually both spouses change their name after marriage.

The custom of a woman changing her name upon marriage is recent. It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence, and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940, it became socially almost obligatory. Nowadays, fewer women adopt, even officially, their husbands' names, and among those who do so officially, it is quite common not to use it either in their professional or informal life.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The children usually bear only the last surnames of the parents (i.e., the paternal surname of each of their parents). Masalan, Carlos da Silva Gonçalves va Ana Luísa de Albuquerque Pereira (Gonçalves) (in case she adopted her husband's name after marriage) would have a child named Lucas Pereira Gonçalves. However, the child may have any other combination of the parents' surnames, according to evfoniya, social significance or other reasons. For example, is not uncommon for the first born male to be given the father's full name followed by "Júnior" or "Filho" (son), and the next generation's first born male to be given the grandfather's name followed by "Neto" (grandson). Shuning uchun Carlos da Silva Gonçalves might choose to name his first born son Carlos da Silva Gonçalves Júnior, who in turn might name his first born son Carlos da Silva Gonçalves Neto, in which case none of the mother's family names are passed on.

In ancient times a patronymic was commonly used – surnames like Gonsalvesh ("o'g'li Gonsalo"), Fernandes ("o'g'li Fernando"), Nunes ("o'g'li Nuno"), Soares ("o'g'li Soeyro"), Sanches ("o'g'li Sancho"), Genriklar ("o'g'li Anrique"), Rodriges ("o'g'li Rodrigo") which along with many others are still in regular use as very prevalent family names.

In Medieval times, Portuguese nobility started to use one of their estates' names or the name of the town or village they ruled as their surname, just after their patronymic. Soeiro Mendes da Maia bore a name "Soeiro", a patronymic "Mendes" ("son of Hermenegildo – shortened to Mendo") and the name of the town he ruled "Maia ". He was often referred to in 12th-century documents as "Soeiro Mendes, senhor da Maia", Soeiro Mendes, lord of Maia. Noblewomen also bore patronymics and surnames in the same manner and never bore their husband's surname. First-born males bore their father's surname, other children bore either both or only one of them at their will.

Only during the Early Modern Age, lower-class males started to use at least one surname; married lower-class women usually took up their spouse's surname, since they rarely ever used one beforehand. Keyin 1755 yil Lissabon zilzilasi, Portuguese authorities realized the benefits of enforcing the use and registry of surnames. Henceforth, they became mandatory, although the rules for their use were very liberal.

Until the end of the 19th century it was common for women, especially those from a very poor background, not to have a surname and so to be known only by their first names. A woman would then adopt her husband's full surname after marriage. With the advent of republicanism in Brazil and Portugal, along with the institution of civil registries, all children now have surnames.During the mid-20th century, under French influence and among upper classes, women started to take up their husbands' surname(s). From the 1960s onwards, this usage spread to the common people, again under French influence, this time, however, due to the forceful legal adoption of their husbands' surname which was imposed onto Portuguese immigrant women in France.

From the 1974 Chinnigullar inqilobi onwards the adoption of their husbands' surname(s) receded again, and today both the adoption and non-adoption occur, with non-adoption being chosen in the majority of cases in recent years (60%).^[47] Also, it is legally possible for the husband to adopt his wife's surname(s), but this practice is rare.

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Bowman, Uilyam Dodgson. Familiyalar haqida hikoya (London, George Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1932)
• Blark. Gregori va boshq. O'g'il ham ko'tariladi: familiyalar va ijtimoiy mobillik tarixi (Princeton University Press; 2014) 384 bet; turli xil jamiyatlarda va tarixiy davrlarda ijtimoiy harakatchanlikni baholash uchun avlodlar davomida oila nomlari to'g'risidagi statistik ma'lumotlardan foydalanadi.
• Kottle, reyhan. Pingvin familiyalar lug'ati (1967)
• Xenks, Patrik va Xodjes, Flaviya. Familiyalar lug'ati (Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 1989)
• Xenks, Patrik, Richard Kouts va Piter Makklur, nashr. Buyuk Britaniya va Irlandiyadagi Oksford lug'ati (Oxford University Press, 2016), juda ko'p taqqoslash materiallari bilan uzoq kirish.
• Reaney, PH va Wilson, R.M. Inglizcha familiyalar lug'ati (3-nashr. Oxford University Press, 1997)

Tashqi havolalar

• Uilkinson, Xyu E. (2010 yil dekabr). "Ba'zi keng tarqalgan ingliz familiyalari: ayniqsa, shaxsiy ismlardan olingan" (PDF). Aoyama Keiei Ronshu. 45 (3). Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2013 yil 15-yanvarda.
• Oilaviy faktlar arxivi, Ancestry.com jumladan, Buyuk Britaniyada va AQShda aholini ro'yxatga olishni tarqatish, immigratsiya va familiyaning kelib chiqishi (shu jumladan)Amerikalik oilaviy ismlar lug'ati, Oksford universiteti matbuoti )
• Bir nomli tadqiqotlar gildiyasi
• Nil Summers (2006 yil 4-noyabr). "Uelsning familiyalari va ularning ma'nosi". Amlwch tarixi ma'lumotlar bazalari. Olingan 19 sentyabr 2008.
• Yahudiylarning familiyalari tarixi
• France de d'ailleurs de famille de lug'at dasturi, Frantsuzcha familiya lug'ati
• Familiya tarixi va kelib chiqishi haqida ma'lumot
• Dunyo aholisi soni bo'yicha ikkinchi o'rinda turadigan Hindistonda eng ko'p ishlatiladigan ismlar
• Polsha familiyasining tugashi va ularning kelib chiqishi haqida qisqacha tushuntirish
• Italiya familiyalari, Italiya familiyalarining bepul ma'lumotlar bazasi.
• To'liq familiya haqida ma'lumot va sayt