Tomas Genri Xaksli - Thomas Henry Huxley

To'g'ri hurmatli Tomas Genri Xaksli FRS FLS
Woodburytype Xaksli nusxasi (1880 yoki undan oldingi)
Tug'ilgan	(1825-05-04)1825 yil 4-may Ovqatlanish, London, Midlseks, Angliya
O'ldi	1895 yil 29-iyun(1895-06-29) (70 yosh) Istburn, Sasseks, Angliya
Millati	Ingliz tili
Fuqarolik	Birlashgan Qirollik
Ta'lim	Sydenham kolleji, London[1] Charing Xoch kasalxonasi
Ma'lum	Evolyutsiya, ilmiy ta'lim, agnostitsizm
Mukofotlar	Qirollik medali (1852) Vollaston medali (1876) Klark medali (1880) Copley medali (1888) Linnean medali (1890) Xeyden yodgorlik geologik mukofoti (1893)
Ilmiy martaba
Maydonlar	Zoologiya; qiyosiy anatomiya
Institutlar	Qirollik floti, Qirollik jarrohlar kolleji, Qirollik minalar maktabi, Qirollik instituti London universiteti
Ilmiy maslahatchilar	Tomas Varton Jons
Taniqli talabalar	Maykl Foster H. G. Uells
Ta'sir	Edvard Forbs Charlz Darvin
Ta'sirlangan	Genri Feyrfild Osborn H. G. Uells E. Rey Lankester Uilyam Genri Gul Aldous Xaksli Julian Xaksli Xubert Xarrison

Tomas Genri Xaksli Kompyuter FRS HonFRSE FLS (1825 yil 4 may - 1895 yil 29 iyun) ingliz tili edi biolog va antropolog ixtisoslashgan qiyosiy anatomiya. U o'zining advokati sifatida "Darvinning Bulldogi" nomi bilan tanilgan Charlz Darvin nazariyasi evolyutsiya.^[2]

Xaksli haqidagi voqealar 1860 yilgi mashhur munozara bilan Samuel Uilberfors qabul qilishning asosiy lahzasi bo'lgan evolyutsiya va o'z karerasida, garchi tarixchilar munozaraning omon qolgan hikoyasini keyinroq uydirma deb o'ylashadi.^[3] Xaksli ketishni rejalashtirgan edi Oksford oldingi kuni, lekin, bilan uchrashuvdan keyin Robert Chambers, muallifi Vestiges, u fikrini o'zgartirdi va bahsga qo'shilishga qaror qildi. Wilberforce murabbiylik qilgan Richard Ouen, unga qarshi Xaksli ham odamlarning maymunlar bilan chambarchas bog'liqligi to'g'risida bahslashdi.

Xaksli Darvinning ba'zi g'oyalarini, masalan, sekin qabul qildi bosqichma-bosqichlik va haqida bir qarorga kelmagan edi tabiiy selektsiya Ammo, shunga qaramay u Darvinni jamoat tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatladi. Ilmiy rivojlanishga yordam beradigan vosita ta'lim Britaniyada u diniy urf-odatlarning o'ta keskin versiyalariga qarshi kurashgan.

Dastlab bu atamani 1869 yilda o'ylab topgan Xaksli "agnostitsizm "1889 yilda da'volarning mohiyatini nima bilishi mumkin va nima bo'lmaganligi nuqtai nazaridan shakllantirish. Xaksli ta'kidlaydi

Agnostitsizm, aslida, aqida emas, balki usuldir, uning mohiyati bitta printsipni qat'iy qo'llashda ... zamonaviy ilm-fanning asosiy aksiomasi ... Aql-idrok masalalarida o'zingizning fikringizga amal qiling chunki sizni boshqa biron bir masalani hisobga olmagan holda qabul qilishingiz mumkin ... Aql-idrok masalalarida siz ko'rsatilmagan yoki namoyish etilmaydigan xulosalar aniq bo'lib ko'ring.^[4]

Ushbu atamadan foydalanish hozirgi kungacha davom etmoqda (qarang Tomas Genri Xaksli va agnostitsizm ).^[5] Xaksli agnostitsizmining aksariyat qismiga Kantianlarning insonni idrok etish haqidagi qarashlari va e'tiqod tizimlariga emas, balki ratsional dalillarga tayanish qobiliyati ta'sir qiladi.^[6]

Xaksli ozgina rasmiy maktabda o'qigan va deyarli o'zini o'zi o'rgatgan. U, ehtimol, eng zo'rga aylandi qiyosiy anatomist keyingi 19-asrning.^[7] U ishlagan umurtqasizlar, ilgari unchalik tushunilmagan guruhlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlarni aniqlashtirish. Keyinchalik u ishladi umurtqali hayvonlar, ayniqsa, maymunlar va odamlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar to'g'risida. Taqqoslagandan so'ng Arxeopteriks bilan Kompsognatus, degan xulosaga keldi qushlar kichik yirtqichlardan rivojlandi dinozavrlar, bugungi kunda keng qabul qilingan nazariya.

Ushbu yaxshi anatomik ishning evolyutsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlashdagi g'ayratli va ziddiyatli faoliyati va Buyuk Britaniyada va boshqa joylarda jamiyat uchun sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatgan ilmiy ta'lim bo'yicha keng jamoat ishi soyasida qolishi istagi paydo bo'ldi.^[8][9] Xakslining 1893 y Romanes ma'ruzasi, "Evolyutsiya va etika" Xitoyda nihoyatda ta'sirchan; Xaksli ma'ruzasining xitoycha tarjimasi hatto Darvinning xitoycha tarjimasini o'zgartirdi Turlarning kelib chiqishi.^[10]

Hayotning boshlang'ich davri

Tomas Genri Xaksli tug'ilgan Ovqatlanish, keyinchalik u qishloq bo'lgan Midlseks. U Jorj Xaksli va Reychel Uitersning sakkiz farzandining ikkinchi kenjasi edi. XIX asrning ba'zi boshqa ingliz olimlari singari Alfred Rassel Uolles, Xaksli og'ir paytlarda tushib qolgan savodli o'rta sinf oilasida tarbiyalangan. Uning otasi a matematika u yopilguncha Ealing maktabida o'qituvchi,^[11] oilani moliyaviy qiyinchiliklarga duchor qilish. Natijada, Tomas 10 yoshida, atigi ikki yillik rasmiy maktabdan so'ng maktabni tark etdi.

Ushbu aql bovar qilmaydigan boshlanishiga qaramay, Xaksli o'zini tarbiyalashga qat'iy qaror qildi. U buyuklardan biri bo'ldi autodidaktlar XIX asrning. Avvaliga u o'qidi Tomas Karleyl, Jeyms Xatton "s Geologiyava Xemilton "s Mantiq. O'smirligida u o'zini o'rgatgan Nemis, oxir-oqibat ravon va ishlatilgan bo'lib Charlz Darvin nemis tilidagi ilmiy materiallarning tarjimoni sifatida. U bilib oldi Lotin va etarli Yunoncha Aristotelni asl nusxasida o'qish.

Xaksli, 21 yoshda

Keyinchalik, yoshi kattaroq bo'lganida, u o'zini birinchi navbatda mutaxassisga aylantirdi umurtqasizlar va keyinroq umurtqali hayvonlar, hamma o'z-o'zini o'rgatgan. U rasm chizishni yaxshi bilar edi va dengiz umurtqasiz hayvonlar haqidagi nashrlari uchun ko'plab rasmlarni bajarardi. Keyingi munozaralarida va ilm-fan va dinda yozishlarida ilohiyotni tushunish uning ko'plab ruhoniy muxoliflariga qaraganda yaxshiroq edi. O'n yoshida maktabni tugatgan bola Xaksli Britaniyadagi eng bilimdon kishilardan biriga aylandi.^[12][13]

U qisqa vaqt ichida bir nechta tibbiyot amaliyotchilariga shogirdlik qildi: 13 yoshida Koventridagi qaynonasi Jon Kukga, u Tomas Chandlerga o'tqazdi, uning tajribalari yordamida tanilgan mesmerizm tibbiy maqsadlar uchun. Chandlerning amaliyoti Londonnikida bo'lgan Rotherhithe tomonidan chidagan shafqatsizlar orasida Dikensian kambag'al. Bu erda Tomas qashshoqlik, jinoyatchilik va keng tarqalgan kasallikni eng yomoni ko'rgan bo'lar edi.^[14] Keyin uni yana bir qaynonasi oldi: uning katta singlisining eri Jon Salt. Endi 16 yoshda Xaksli Sydenxem kollejiga o'qishga kirdi (ortda) Universitet kolleji kasalxonasi ), asoschisi anatomiya maktabi, Marshal Xoll, kashf etgan refleks yoyi. Bu vaqt davomida Xaksli o'zining o'qish dasturini davom ettirdi, bu esa uning rasmiy maktabda o'qimaganligi sababli amalga oshirildi.

Bir yil o'tgach, u ajoyib natijalar va kumush medal bilan mukofotlandi Aptekachilar ' Har yili o'tkaziladigan tanlovda Xaksli o'qishga qabul qilindi Charing Xoch kasalxonasi, u erda u kichik stipendiya oldi. Charing Xochda unga ta'lim berildi Tomas Varton Jons, Oftalmik tibbiyot va jarrohlik professori London universiteti kolleji. Jons edi Robert Noks yordamchisi, Noks kadavrlarni sotib olganida Burke va Xare.^[15] O'zaro aloqada bo'lgan yosh Varton Jons jinoyatdan oqlandi, ammo Shotlandiyani tark etishni yaxshi ko'rdi. U fiziologiya bo'yicha zamonaviy o'qituvchi va oftalmologik jarroh edi. 1845 yilda Uorton Jons rahbarligida Xaksli o'zining birinchi ilmiy ishini shu paytgacha ma'lum bo'lgan sochlarning ichki qavatida shu paytgacha tan olinmagan qatlam mavjudligini namoyish etdi. Xaksli qatlami. Shubhasiz, buni eslab, va, albatta, uning qadr-qimmatini bilib, keyinchalik hayotida Xaksli o'zining eski tarbiyachisi uchun nafaqa tayinladi.

Yigirma yoshida u o'zining birinchi M.B. da imtihon London universiteti, uchun oltin medalni qo'lga kiritish anatomiya va fiziologiya. Biroq, u o'zini yakuniy (Ikkinchi M.B.) imtihonlarga taqdim etmadi va natijada universitet diplomiga ega bo'lmadi. Uning shogirdligi va imtihon natijalari Qirollik flotiga murojaat qilish uchun etarli asos bo'ldi.^[12][13]

Ning sayohati Bog'doq iloni

20 yoshda, Xaksli ariza topshirishga juda yosh edi Qirollik jarrohlar kolleji amaliyot uchun litsenziya uchun, u "qarzga botgan".^[16] Shunday qilib, u do'stining taklifiga binoan u bilan uchrashuvga murojaat qildi Qirollik floti. Uning xarakteri va sertifikatlari, uning shogirdligi uchun o'tgan vaqtni ko'rsatadigan ma'lumotlari va disektsiya va dorixona kabi talablarga ega edi. Dengiz kuchlari general-shifokori Ser Uilyam Burnet u bilan suhbatlashdi va jarrohlar kollejida uning malakasini sinab ko'rishni tashkil qildi ( viva voce ).

HMS Bog'doq iloni kema rassomi tomonidan Osvald Brierli

Nihoyat Xaksli tayyorlandi Jarroh yordamchisi ("jarrohning umr yo'ldoshi", lekin amalda dengiz tabiatshunosi) to HMS Bog'doq iloni, Yangi Gvineya va Avstraliyaga kashfiyot va geodeziya safariga suzmoqchi. The Bog'doq iloni 1846 yil 3-dekabrda Angliyani tark etdi va ular janubiy yarim sharga etib kelishganidan so'ng, Xaksli o'z vaqtini dengiz umurtqasiz hayvonlarini o'rganishga bag'ishladi.^[17] U o'z kashfiyotlari haqidagi tafsilotlarni Angliyaga yuborishni boshladi, u erda nashrni tashkil etishdi Edvard Forbs FRS (u ham Noksning o'quvchisi bo'lgan). Forbes sayohatdan oldin ham, undan keyin ham Xaksli uchun maslahatchi bo'lgan.

Xakslining "Medusa oilasining anatomiyasi va yaqinliklari to'g'risida" maqolasi 1849 yilda nashr etilgan. Qirollik jamiyati unda Falsafiy operatsiyalar. Xaksli Gidroid va Sertularian poliplarini Medusey bilan birlashtirib, keyinchalik sinfini tashkil qildi. Gidrozoa. U bog'laydigan narsa shundaki, sinfning barcha a'zolari markaziy bo'shliqni yoki oshqozonni o'rab turgan ikkita hujayra qatlamidan iborat edi. Bu xarakterli filum endi Knidariya. U bu xususiyatni yuqori hayvonlar embrionlarining seroz va shilliq tuzilmalari bilan taqqosladi. Nihoyat u Qirollik jamiyatidan plitalarni chop etish uchun grant olganida, Xaksli bu asarni sarhisob qila oldi Okean gidrozoasitomonidan nashr etilgan Rey Jamiyati 1859 yilda.^[18][19]

Avstraliyalik ayol: Xaksli tomonidan qalam bilan chizilgan rasm

Xaksli ishining qiymati tan olindi va 1850 yilda Angliyaga qaytib kelgach, u Qirollik jamiyati a'zosi etib saylandi. Keyingi yilda, yigirma olti yoshida u nafaqat Qirollik jamiyati medalini oldi, balki Kengashga saylandi. U uchrashdi Jozef Dalton Xuker va Jon Tindal,^[20] u umrbod do'stlari bo'lib qoldi. Admiraltiya uni nominal yordamchi-jarroh sifatida saqlab qoldi, shuning uchun u to'plagan namunalar va sayohat paytida qilgan kuzatuvlari ustida ishlashi mumkin edi. Bog'doq iloni. U muammoni hal qildi Appendikulyariya, hayvonot dunyosidagi o'rni Yoxannes Piter Myuller o'zini tayinlashga qodir emasligini topgan edi. Bu va Ascidiyaliklar ikkalasi ham Xaksli ko'rsatganidek, tunikalar, bugungi kunda filumdagi umurtqali hayvonlar uchun birodar guruh sifatida qaraladi Chordata.^[21] Boshqa hujjatlar morfologiya ning sefalopodlar va boshqalar brakiyopodlar va rotifers ham diqqatga sazovordir.^[12][13][22] The Bo'g'irlagan ilon 'rasmiy tabiatshunos, Jon MacGillivray, botanika bo'yicha bir oz ish olib borgan va Avstraliyaning tub aholisi bo'lgan tillarni qayd etishda hayratlanarli darajada yaxshi ekanligi isbotlangan. U safarni Viktorianning standart ikki jildli formatida yozdi.^[23]

Keyinchalik hayot

Xaksli dengiz flotidan samarali ravishda iste'foga chiqdi (faol xizmatga qaytishni rad etish bilan) va 1854 yil iyulda u Tabiatshunoslik professori bo'ldi. Qirollik minalar maktabi va tabiatshunos Britaniya geologik xizmati keyingi yilda. Bundan tashqari, u Fullerian professori edi Qirollik instituti 1855-58 va 1865-67; Hunterian professori Qirollik jarrohlar kolleji 1863-69; Prezidenti Britaniya ilm-fanni rivojlantirish bo'yicha assotsiatsiyasi 1869-1870; Prezidenti Quekett mikroskopik klubi 1878 yil; Prezidenti Qirollik jamiyati 1883–85; Baliqchilik inspektori 1881–85; va Prezidenti Dengiz biologik assotsiatsiyasi 1884–1890.^[13]

Xaksli Qirollik minalar maktabida tabiiy tarix kafedrasini egallagan o'ttiz bir yil davomida umurtqali hayvonlar paleontologiyasi va ingliz hayotida fanning o'rnini egallashga qaratilgan ko'plab loyihalar ustida ish olib borildi. 1884 yilda boshlangan depressiya kasalligidan so'ng Xaksli 1885 yilda nafaqaga chiqqan. U o'rta muddatli davrda Qirollik jamiyati prezidentligidan, Baliqchilik inspektorligidan va uning kafedrasidan (iloji boricha iloji boricha) iste'foga chiqdi va olti oy davom etdi. qoldiring. Uning pensiyasi yiliga juda yaxshi £ 1200 edi.^[24]

Xakslining qabri Sharqiy Finchli qabristoni Londonning shimolida

1890 yilda u Londondan ko'chib o'tdi Istburn u erda o'zining to'qqiz jildini tahrir qilgan To'plangan insholar. 1894 yilda u bu haqda eshitgan Evgeniy Dubois "Java-da qoldiqlarning topilishi Pitekantrop erectus (endi nomi bilan tanilgan Homo erectus ). Nihoyat, 1895 yilda u yurak xurujidan vafot etdi (gripp va pnevmoniya bilan kasallanganidan keyin) va Shimoliy Londonda dafn qilindi. Sent-Merilbone. Ushbu kichik oilaviy uchastka vafot etgan sevimli to'ng'ich o'g'li Noel vafotidan keyin sotib olingan qizil olov 1860 yilda; U erda Xakslining rafiqasi Henrietta Anne ne Heathorn va o'g'li Noel ham dafn etilgan. Hech qanday taklifnoma yuborilmadi, ammo marosimga ikki yuz kishi tashrif buyurdi; ular kiritilgan Jozef Dalton Xuker, Uilyam Genri Gul, Mulford B. Foster, Edvin Lankester, Jozef Lister va, ehtimol, Genri Jeyms.^[25]

Xaksli va uning rafiqasi beshta qiz va uch o'g'il ko'rgan:

Jamoat vazifalari va mukofotlari

1870 yildan boshlab Xaksli ma'lum darajada jamoat majburiyati da'volari bilan ilmiy tadqiqotlardan chetlashtirildi. U sakkizda xizmat qildi Qirollik komissiyalari, 1862 yildan 1884 yilgacha. 1871 yildan 1880 yilgacha u kotib bo'lgan Qirollik jamiyati va 1883 yildan 1885 yilgacha u prezident bo'lgan. U prezident edi Geologik jamiyat 1868 yildan 1870 yilgacha. 1870 yilda u prezident Britaniya assotsiatsiyasi "Liverpul" da va o'sha yili yangi tashkil etilgan a'zosi etib saylandi London maktab kengashi. U prezident edi Quekett mikroskopik klubi 1877 yildan 1879 yilgacha. U Qirollik jamiyatini isloh qilganlar, hukumatni ilm-fanga ishontirgan va Britaniya maktablari va universitetlarida ilmiy ta'limni yo'lga qo'yganlar orasida etakchi shaxs edi.^[28] Undan oldin ilm-fan asosan janoblarning mashg'uloti edi; undan keyin fan kasb edi.^[29]

U Britaniyaning ilm-fan ahli uchun ochiq bo'lgan eng yuqori mukofotlar bilan taqdirlandi. The Qirollik jamiyati uni 25 yoshida (1851) da Fellow sifatida saylagan, uni mukofotladi Qirollik medali keyingi yil (1852), bir yil oldin Charlz Darvin xuddi shu mukofotni olgan. U bunday tan olingan eng yosh biolog edi. Keyinchalik hayotda paydo bo'ldi Copley medali 1888 yilda va Darvin medali 1894 yilda; The Geologik jamiyat uni taqdirladi Vollaston medali 1876 ​​yilda; The Linnean Jamiyati uni taqdirladi Linnean medali 1890 yilda. Taniqli ilmiy tashkilotlarga ko'plab boshqa saylovlar va tayinlovlar bo'lib o'tdi; ushbu va uning ko'plab ilmiy mukofotlari ro'yxatda keltirilgan Hayot va xatlar. U boshqa ko'plab uchrashuvlarni rad etdi, xususan, Oksford va Magistrlik zoologiyasi bo'yicha Linacre kafedrasi Universitet kolleji, Oksford.^[30]

Xaksli
tomonidan Bassano v. 1883 yil

1873 yilda Shvetsiya qiroli Xaksli, Xuker va Tindal ritsarlarini yaratdi "Polar Star" ordeni: ular farqli belgini kiyishlari mumkin, ammo Britaniyada unvondan foydalanmasliklari mumkin.^[31] Xaksli xorijiy jamiyatlarning ko'plab faxriy a'zolarini, akademik mukofotlarini va Buyuk Britaniya va Germaniyaning faxriy doktorlik unvonlarini yig'di. Shuningdek, u chet el a'zosi bo'ldi Niderlandiya Qirollik san'at va fan akademiyasi 1892 yilda.^[32]

Uning ko'plab davlat xizmatlarini e'tirof etish uchun unga davlat tomonidan pensiya tayinlandi va tayinlandi Maxfiy maslahatchi 1892 yilda.

Ko'p yutuqlariga qaramay, unga Britaniya davlati tomonidan umrining oxirigacha mukofot berilmagan. Bu ishda u davlatdan hech qanday mukofot olmagan Darvindan yaxshiroq ishladi. (Darvin taklif qilgan ritsarlikka cherkov maslahatchilari, shu jumladan Wilberforce veto qo'ygan)^[33] Ehtimol, Xaksli o'zining hurmatni yoqtirmasligi yoki uyushgan dinning an'anaviy e'tiqodiga qilingan ko'plab xujumlari tashkilotni dushmanlarga aylantirganligi haqida tez-tez izoh bergan bo'lishi mumkin - u bosma nashrlarda kuchli bahs-munozaralar olib borgan. Benjamin Disraeli, Uilyam Evart Gladstoun va Artur Balfour va uning munosabati Lord Solsberi tinchlikdan kam edi.^[13][34]

Xaksli taxminan o'ttiz yil davomida evolyutsiyaning eng samarali himoyachisi bo'lgan va ba'zi birlari uchun Xaksli "The XIX asrda butun ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan dunyo uchun ilm-fanning bosh advokati ".^[35]

Uning muxlislari va shogirdlari ko'p bo'lganiga qaramay, uning iste'foga chiqishi va keyinchalik vafoti ingliz zoologiyasini etakchilikdan birmuncha mahrum qildi. U to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita keyingi avlodning martaba va tayinlanishlariga rahbarlik qilgan, ammo hech kim uning darajasiga ega emas edi. Yo'qotish Frensis Balfur 1882 yilda Kembrijdagi kafedraga tayinlanganidan keyin Alp tog'iga ko'tarilish fojia edi. Xaksli o'zini "mening ishimni bajara oladigan yagona odam" deb o'ylardi: Balfurning o'limi va W. K. Clifford "bizning davrimizdagi ilm-fan uchun eng katta yo'qotish" edi.^[13]

Umurtqali hayvonlarning paleontologiyasi

Xaksli paleontolog sifatida faoliyatining birinchi yarmi "turg'un turlar" ga juda g'alati moyillik bilan ajralib turadi, chunki u evolyutsion rivojlanish (hayvonlar va o'simliklarning asosiy yangi guruhlari ma'nosida) kamdan-kam uchragan yoki yo'q edi, deb ta'kidlagan edi. Fenerozoy. Xuddi shu nuqtai nazardan u qushlar va sutemizuvchilar kabi yirik guruhlarning kelib chiqishini orqaga qaytarishga intildi Paleozoyik davr va o'simliklarning biron bir tartibi yo'q bo'lib ketmaganligini da'vo qilish.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Ushbu g'alati va bir muncha noaniq g'oyani yorituvchi ilm-fan tarixchilari tomonidan juda ko'p qog'oz iste'mol qilingan.^[36] Xaksli yutqazishni pichirlashi bilan yanglishdi buyurtmalar Fenerozoyda 7% gacha bo'lgan va u rivojlangan yangi buyurtmalar sonini taxmin qilmagan. Doimiy turlar Darvinning ko'proq g'oyaviy fikrlari yonida ancha noqulay o'tirishdi; uning aql-idrokiga qaramay, evolyutsiyaning ba'zi oqibatlarini baholash uchun Xaksli hayratlanarli darajada uzoq vaqt talab qildi. Biroq, asta-sekin Xaksli paleontologiya va uning intizomi rivojlangani sababli ushbu konservativ fikrlash uslubidan uzoqlashdi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Xakslining batafsil anatomik ishi har doimgidek birinchi darajali va samarali bo'ldi. Uning ishi fotoalbom baliqlar uning o'ziga xos yondashuvini namoyish etadi: Darvindan oldingi tabiatshunoslar to'plagan, aniqlagan va tasniflagan bo'lsa, Xaksli asosan guruhlar o'rtasidagi evolyutsion munosabatlarni ochish uchun ishlagan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Wirgman tomonidan yaratilgan Xaksli
qalam bilan chizilgan rasm, 1882 yil

The qanotli baliq (kabi coelacanths va o'pka baliqlari ) ichki skeletlari bitta suyak, yelka suyagi yoki son suyagi bilan elkasiga yoki tos suyagiga bog'langan juft qo'shimchalarga ega. Ushbu baliqlarga bo'lgan qiziqishi uni kelib chiqishiga yaqinlashtirdi tetrapodlar, umurtqali paleontologiyaning eng muhim yo'nalishlaridan biri.^[37][38][39]

Qoldiq sudralib yuruvchilarni o'rganish uning qushlar va sudralib yuruvchilarning tubdan yaqinligini ko'rsatib berdi va u shu nom bilan birlashdi. Sauropsida. Uning hujjatlari Arxeopteriks va qushlarning kelib chiqishi o'sha paytda katta qiziqish uyg'otdi va hozir ham shunday.^[22][40][41]

Dunyo odamni primat ekanligiga va maymunlar bilan bir xil nasldan naslga o'tishiga ishontirishga bo'lgan qiziqishidan tashqari, Xaksli, faqat bitta istisno bilan, sutemizuvchi hayvonlar ustida ozgina ish olib borgan. Amerikaga qilgan safari davomida Xaksli tomonidan kashf etilgan fotoalbom otlarning ajoyib seriyasi namoyish etildi O. C. Marsh, yilda Yel "s Peabody muzeyi.^[42][43] Sharqshunos Marsh, Amerikadagi birinchi paleontologiya professori, shuningdek, g'arbiy qismga qoldiqlarni qidirib Hindistonning dushman hududiga kirib kelgan, buffalo ovlagan va uchrashgan. Qizil bulut (1874 yilda).^[44] Amakisi tomonidan moliyalashtiriladi Jorj Pibodi, Marsh bir nechta ajoyib kashfiyotlarni amalga oshirdi: ulkan Bo'r suvda yashovchi qush Hesperornis va bo'ylab dinozavrlarning izlari Konnektikut daryosi sayohat qilishning o'zi kerak edi, ammo ot qoldiqlari haqiqatan ham alohida edi.^{[kimga ko'ra? ]} Marsh va uning qoldiqlari bilan bir hafta o'tgach, Xaksli hayajon bilan shunday deb yozdi: "Qoldiqlar to'plami men ko'rgan eng ajoyib narsa".^[45]

Xakslining o'sha paytdagi faraziy besh barmog'ining eskizi Eohippus "Eohomo" tomonidan minib olingan

O'sha paytda kollektsiya to'rtta barmoqli kichik o'rmonzorlardan olingan Orohippus dan Eosen kabi uch barmoqli turlar orqali Miohippus zamonaviy otga o'xshash turlarga. Ularning tishlariga qarab, u kattalashib, oyoq barmoqlarining kichrayishi bilan tishlarning brauzerdan o'tlovchiga o'tishini ko'rdi. Bunday o'zgarishlarning barchasi o'rmondan o'tloqgacha yashash muhitining umumiy o'zgarishi bilan izohlanishi mumkin.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Va endi ma'lumki, Shimoliy Amerikaning Eosendan tortib to katta hududlarida sodir bo'lgan narsa Pleystotsen: yakuniy qo'zg'atuvchisi global haroratni pasaytirish edi (qarang) Paleotsen-Eosen termal maksimal ). Ning zamonaviy hisobi otning rivojlanishi ko'plab boshqa a'zolarga ega va nasl daraxtining umumiy ko'rinishi to'g'ri chiziqdan ko'ra tupga o'xshaydi.

Otlar seriyasida ham bu jarayon asta-sekinlik bilan amalga oshirilganligi va zamonaviy otning kelib chiqishi Evrosiyoda emas, Shimoliy Amerikada bo'lganligi haqida qat'iy fikrlar bildirilgan. Agar shunday bo'lsa, unda Shimoliy Amerikada otlarga biron narsa bo'lgan bo'lishi kerak, chunki evropaliklar kelganda u erda yo'q edi. Marsh bilan bo'lgan tajriba Xaksli uchun Darvinning bosqichma-bosqichligiga ishonch bildirishi va ot haqidagi hikoyani uning ma'ruzalar qatoriga kiritishi uchun etarli edi.^{[iqtibos kerak ][46]}

Marsh va Xakslining xulosalari dastlab butunlay boshqacha edi. Biroq, Marsh Xaksleyga uning qoldiqlarning to'liq ketma-ketligini diqqat bilan ko'rsatdi. Marsh aytganidek, Xaksli "shundan keyin menga bularning barchasi yangi bo'lganligi va mening faktlarim otning evolyutsiyasini shubhasiz ko'rsatib berganligi to'g'risida xabar berdi va birinchi bor mavjud bo'lgan hayvonning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri kelib chiqish yo'nalishini ko'rsatdi. Saxiyligi bilan haqiqiy buyuklik, u yangi haqiqat oldida o'z fikrlaridan voz kechdi va mening xulosalarimni o'zining Nyu-Yorkdagi ot haqidagi ma'ruzasining asosi sifatida qabul qildi. "^[47]

Darvin buldogi

Xakslining old qismi Insonning tabiatdagi o'rni haqida dalillar (1863): tasvir maymunlarning skeletlarini odamlarga qiyoslaydi. The gibbon (chapda) ikki baravar katta.

Dastlab Xaksli "rivojlanish nazariyasi" ga ishontirilmagan, chunki ilgari evolyutsiya deb nomlangan. Buni uning vahshiyona sharhida ko'rish mumkin^[48] ning Robert Chambers ' Yaratilishning tabiiy tarixining Vestiges, evolyutsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlovchi ba'zi bir dalillarni o'z ichiga olgan kitob. Xaksli ham rad etgan edi Lamarkniki transmutatsiya nazariyasi, uni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun etarli dalillar yo'qligi asosida. Bu shubhalarning barchasi Qirollik Institutidagi ma'ruzada birlashtirildi,^[49] Bu Darvinni yosh Xakslining fikrini o'zgartirish uchun harakat qilish uchun etarlicha tashvishga solgan. Bu Darvin o'zining eng yaqin ilmiy do'stlari bilan qilgan ishi edi, lekin u hatto yoshligidayoq eng ta'sirchan odam bo'lgan Xaksli haqida o'ziga xos sezgi sezgan bo'lsa kerak.^[50][51]

Shuning uchun Xaksli Darvinning g'oyalari nashr etilishidan oldin ularni bilgan kichik guruhlardan biri edi (guruhga kiritilgan) Jozef Dalton Xuker va Charlz Layl ). Darvin tomonidan o'z g'oyalarining birinchi nashr etilishi Uolles Darvinga o'zining tabiiy tanlanish haqidagi mashhur maqolasini yuborganida paydo bo'ldi, u Layl va Xuker tomonidan taqdim etilgan. Linnean Jamiyati 1858 yilda Darvinning daftaridan parchalar va Darvinning maktubi bilan Asa Grey.^[52][53] Tabiiy tanlanish g'oyasiga Xakslining mashhur munosabati: "Buni o'ylamaganlik naqadar ahmoq!"^[54] Biroq, u tabiiy tanlanish evolyutsiyaning asosiy usuli ekanligi to'g'risida hech qachon qat'iy qaror qilmagan, garchi u bu yaxshi ishchi asos bo'lgan gipoteza bo'lsa ham.

Mantiqan gapiradigan bo'lsak, avvalgi savol evolyutsiya umuman ro'y berganmi degan savol edi. Darvinning ko'p savollari aynan shu savolga tegishli Turlarning kelib chiqishi to'g'risida bag'ishlangan edi. 1859 yilda nashr etilishi Xaksleyni evolyutsiyaga to'liq ishontirdi va aynan shu bilan Darvinning dalillarni yig'ish va ulardan foydalanish uslubiga qoyil qolishi kitobni nashr etishdan keyingi bahslarda Darvinni qo'llab-quvvatlashiga asos bo'ldi.

Xakslining ko'magi uning noma'lum ijobiy ko'rib chiqilishidan boshlandi Kelib chiqishi ichida Times 1859 yil 26-dekabr uchun,^[55] va bir nechta davriy nashrlarda maqolalar bilan davom etdi va Qirollik instituti 1860 yil fevralda.^[56] Xuddi shu paytni o'zida, Richard Ouen, ni juda dushmanona anonim sharhini yozish paytida Kelib chiqishi ichida Edinburg sharhi,^[57] shuningdek astarlangan Samuel Uilberfors kim yozgan Har chorakda ko'rib chiqish, 17000 so'zgacha ishlaydi.^[58] Ushbu so'nggi sharhning muallifi Wilberforce o'g'li uning biografiyasini yozmaguncha aniq ma'lum emas edi. Demak, shuni aytish mumkinki, Darvin Xakslini kiydirgani kabi, Ouen Uilberforsni ham kuydirgan; va ikkala ishonchli shaxs ham o'zlarining direktorlari nomidan ommaviy janglarda qatnashishdi. Biz Oksforddagi munozaralarning aniq so'zlarini bilmasak ham, Xakslining sharh haqida fikrlarini bilamiz. Har chorakda:

Xakslining karikaturasi
Karlo Pellegrini yilda Vanity Fair 1871

Beri Lord Brougham hujum qilgan doktor Yosh, dunyodagi ilm-fan magistriga sayoz bir da'vogarning shafqatsizligi namunasi bu ajoyib mahsulot sifatida ko'rilmagan, unda eng aniq kuzatuvchilardan biri, mulohazakorlarga nisbatan juda ehtiyotkor va ekspozitorlardan biri bu yoki boshqa boshqa yosh, "o'zining butunlay chirigan matosini ko'tarish uchun" harakat qiladigan va "tabiat bilan ishlash tartibi" "Tabiiy fanlar uchun mutlaqo nomusiz" deb nomlangan "uchuvchi" odam sifatida haqoratlanadi. "

Agar men qabul qilish haqidagi retrospektimni cheklasam Turlarning kelib chiqishi nashr etilgan paytdan boshlab o'n ikki oygacha yoki u erda bo'lganidek, men juda ahmoqona va vijdonsiz narsani eslamayman. Har chorakda ko'rib chiqish maqola ...^[59][60]

Xaksli "Men Darvinning bulldogiman" dedi. Darvin hayotining ikkinchi yarmi asosan uning oilasida o'tgan bo'lsa, yoshroq jangchi Xaksli asosan dunyoda faoliyat yuritgan. Xakslining Ernst Gekkelga yozgan maktubida (1871 yil 2-noyabr) shunday deyilgan: "Itlar [Darvinning] etagiga juda kech kirib kelishdi". Oksford va Kembrij universitetlarida "Bulldog" xatoga yo'l qo'ygan talabalarni tuzatish va ularning axloqiy to'g'riligini saqlab qolish bo'lgan universitet politsiyachisi uchun talaba jargoni bo'lgan va hozir ham shunday bo'lib kelmoqda.

Wilberforce bilan munozara

Mashhur tarzda, Xaksli Wilberforce-ga munozarada javob qaytardi Britaniya assotsiatsiyasi uchrashuv, 1860 yil 30-iyun, shanba kuni Oksford universiteti muzeyida. Oldingi oqshomda Oksford ko'chalarida tarqoq holatda yurgan Shotlandiyalik noshir va "Vestiges" muallifi Robert Chambers bilan uchrashganida va yordam so'rab murojaat qilganida Xakslining borligi rag'batlantirildi. Munozara tomonidan taqdim etilgan qog'ozdan keyin Jon Uilyam Dreyper Darvinzning botanika bo'yicha sobiq o'qituvchisi tomonidan boshqarilgan Jon Stivens Xenslov. Darvin nazariyasiga Oksford lord episkopi qarshi chiqdi, Samuel Uilberfors Darvinni qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar orasida Xaksli va ularning do'stlari bor edi Fahr va Lubbok. Platforma namoyish etildi Brodi va professor Beale va Robert FitzRoy, HMS kapitani bo'lgan Beagle Darvin safari paytida, Darvinga qarshi gapirdi.^[61]

Wilberforce evolyutsiyaga qarshi oldingi Oksford B.A. 1847 yilda u Chambersga hujum qilganida uchrashuv Vestiges. Qarama-qarshi vazifani bajarish uchun Kelib chiqishiva odam maymunlardan kelib chiqqan degan xulosani unga astoydil murabbiylik qilgan Richard Ouen —Ouen munozaradan bir kun oldin u bilan qoldi.^[62] O'sha kuni Uilberfors o'zining ba'zi dalillarini takrorladi Har chorakda ko'rib chiqish maqola (yozilgan, ammo hali nashr etilmagan), keyin silliq erga yo'l oldi. Uning Xaksli shahridagi mashhur jibasi (Xaksli onasi yoki otasi tarafidagi maymundan kelib chiqqanmi), ehtimol rejalashtirilmagan va aqlsiz edi. Xakslining munozarani bostirish uchun o'zining buyuk iste'dodidan suiiste'mol qilgan odamdan ko'ra, maymundan kelib chiqishini afzal ko'rgan degan javobi - aniq so'zlar aniq emas - risolalarda va soxta o'yinlarda keng aytildi.

Ning harflari Alfred Nyuton munozarani guvohi sifatida bergan va keyin bir oy o'tmasdan yozgan akasiga yozib qo'ygan.^[63] Boshqa guvohlar, bir yoki ikkita istisno bundan mustasno (Xuker ayniqsa o'yladi u tadbirdan keyin turli kunlarda shunga o'xshash hisobotlarni taqdim eting).^[64] Umumiy nuqtai nazar shuki, Xaksli almashinuvni ancha yaxshilab oldi, garchi Uilberfors o'zini juda yaxshi ishladi deb o'ylardi. Og'zaki ma'ruza bo'lmagan taqdirda, turli xil tushunchalarni adolatli baholash qiyin; Xaksli Darvin uchun batafsil ma'lumot yozgan, bu xat omon qolmaydi; ammo, uning do'sti Frederik Daniel Dysterga yozilgan xat, voqeadan uch oy o'tgach, hisob qaydnomasi bilan omon qoladi.^{[65][66][67][68][69][70]}

Debatlarning bir samarasi, gazetalar va davriy nashrlardagi hisobotlar orqali Xakslining o'qimishli odamlar orasida ko'rinishini oshirish edi. Yana bir natija uni jamoat munozarasi muhimligi to'g'risida ogohlantirish edi: u hech qachon unutmagan saboq. Uchinchi ta'sir, Darvin g'oyalarini osongina yo'q qilish mumkin emasligini ta'kidlash edi: aksincha, ular pravoslav hokimiyatdan qat'iy himoya qilinadi.^[71][72] To'rtinchi ta'sir, ilm-fan sohasida professionallikni targ'ib qilish edi, chunki uning ilmiy ta'limga bo'lgan ehtiyoji. Beshinchi natija bilvosita edi: Wilberforce qo'rqqanidek, evolyutsiyani himoya qilish, tom ma'noda e'tiqodga putur etkazdi. Eski Ahd, ayniqsa Ibtido kitobi. Uchrashuvdagi ko'pgina liberal ruhoniylar bahs natijalaridan juda mamnun edilar; ular, ehtimol, munozarali tarafdorlari edilar Insholar va sharhlar. Shunday qilib, ilm tarafida ham, din tarafida ham munozara muhim va uning natijasi muhim edi.^[73] (Shuningdek qarang quyida )

Bahsdan keyin Xaksli va Uilberfors muloyim munosabatda bo'lishgan (va Metropoliten Ta'lim Kengashi kabi loyihalarda birgalikda ishlashga qodir) ikkala odam haqida ham bir narsa deyishadi, Xaksli va Ouen esa hech qachon yarashmagan.

Insonning tabiatdagi o'rni

Taxminan o'n yil davomida uning ishi asosan odamlarning maymunlarga bo'lgan munosabatlariga yo'naltirilgan. Bu uni to'g'ridan-to'g'ri to'qnashuvga olib keldi Richard Ouen, odam o'zini tutishi uchun juda yoqmadi, shu bilan birga uning qobiliyatiga qoyil qolishdi. Bu kurash Ouen uchun ba'zi og'ir mag'lubiyatlar bilan yakunlanishi edi. Xaksli Croonian ma'ruzasi, 1858 yilda Qirollik jamiyati oldida topshirilgan Umurtqali kalla suyagi nazariyasi boshlanish edi. Bu bilan u Ouenning bosh suyagi va umurtqa pog'onasi suyaklari degan nazariyasini rad etdi gomologik, ilgari o'tkazilgan fikr Gyote va Lorenz Oken.^[74]

Xaksli 32 yoshda

1860-63 yillarda Xaksli o'z g'oyalarini rivojlantirdi, ularni ishchilarga, talabalarga va keng jamoatchilikka ma'ruzalarda taqdim etdi, so'ngra nashr etdi. Shuningdek, 1862 yilda mehnatkash erkaklar bilan bir qator suhbatlar ma'ruzalar orqali risolalar sifatida chop etildi, keyinchalik kichik yashil kitob sifatida bog'landi; birinchi nusxalari dekabr oyida sotuvga chiqarildi.^[75] Boshqa ma'ruzalar Xakslining eng taniqli asariga aylandi Insonning tabiatdagi o'rni haqida dalillar (1863) bu erda u muhim masalalarni ancha oldin hal qilgan Charlz Darvin uni nashr etdi Insonning kelib chiqishi 1871 yilda.

Garchi Darvin uni nashr qilmagan bo'lsa ham Insonning kelib chiqishi 1871 yilgacha ushbu mavzu bo'yicha umumiy munozaralar bir necha yil oldin boshlangan (hatto 18-asrda oldingi bahs ham bo'lgan) Monboddo va Buffon ). Darvin, xulosaga kelganda, bir maslahat bermadi Kelib chiqishi, u shunday deb yozgan edi: "Uzoq kelajakda ... insonning kelib chiqishi va uning tarixiga nur sochiladi".^[76] Ma'lum bo'lishicha, unchalik uzoq emas. Asosiy voqea 1857 yilda sodir bo'lgan edi Richard Ouen (Linnea Jamiyatiga) odam boshqa barcha sutemizuvchilardan miyaga xos xususiyatlarga ega bo'lganligi bilan ajralib turishi haqidagi nazariyasini taqdim etdi. Homo. Ushbu fikrga kelgach, Ouen odamni boshqa barcha sutemizuvchilardan ajratib oldi.^[77] Hech bir biolog bunday ekstremal qarashga ega emas edi. Darvin "Inson ... shimpanzedan farqli o'laroq (platipusdan) maymun kabi ... Men uni yutolmayman!"^[78] Ouenning g'oyasi mutlaqo noto'g'riligini namoyish eta olgan Xaksli ham mumkin emas edi.

Xaksli eskiz bilan
gorilla bosh suyagi (c1870)

Bu mavzu 1860 yil BA Oksforddagi uchrashuvda ko'tarilgan edi, o'shanda Xaksli Ouenga mutlaqo zid edi va keyinchalik dalillarni namoyish qilishni va'da qildi. Aslida Londonda va viloyatlarda qator namoyishlar bo'lib o'tdi. 1862 yilda B.A.ning Kembrij yig'ilishida. Xakslining do'sti Uilyam Gul xuddi shu tuzilmalar (lateral qorinchaning orqa shoxi va hipokampus minorasi) haqiqatan ham maymunlarda mavjudligini ko'rsatish uchun ommaviy diseksiya o'tkazdi. Bahs keng ommalashtirildi va parodiya sifatida Ajoyib Gipokampus savoli. Bu Ouenning eng katta qo'pol xatolaridan biri sifatida qaraldi va Xakslini nafaqat bahsda xavfli, balki eng yaxshi anatomist sifatida ko'rsatdi.

Ouen maymunlarda hipokampus minorasi deb atash mumkin bo'lgan narsa borligini tan oldi, ammo u juda kam rivojlanganligini va bunday mavjudlik oddiy miya hajmini umuman ajratib turmasligini aytdi.^[79]

Xakslining ushbu mavzu bo'yicha g'oyalari 1861 yil yanvarda o'zining jurnalining birinchi sonida (yangi seriyasida) umumlashtirildi. Tabiiy tarixni ko'rib chiqish: "u tuzgan eng zo'ravon ilmiy maqola".^[52] Ushbu maqola 1863 yilda 2-bob sifatida qayta nashr etilgan Insonning tabiatdagi o'rni, maymun miyasi haqidagi Ouen / Xaksli bahslari haqida o'z ma'lumotlarini qo'shgan holda.^[80] Uning ichida To'plangan insholar ushbu qo'shimcha olib tashlandi.

Maymun miyasida kengaytirilgan bahs, qisman munozarada va qisman bosma nashrlarda, dissektsiyalar va namoyishlar bilan qo'llab-quvvatlangan, Xakslining karerasida muhim voqea bo'ldi. Bu qiyosiy anatomiyaning ustunligini tasdiqlashda juda muhim edi va uzoq vaqt davomida biologlar orasida evolyutsiyani o'rnatishda Wilberforce bilan bo'lgan munozaradan ko'ra ko'proq ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Bu, shuningdek, Ouenning hamkasb biologlari qadr-qimmatining pasayishining boshlanishi edi.

Quyidagilar Xaksli tomonidan yozilgan Rolleston 1861 yilda BA yig'ilishidan oldin:

"Mening azizim Rolleston ... Xatolarni tasdiqlashda qat'iyat bilan takrorlashni faqat dalillarga doimiy ravishda murojaat qilish orqali bekor qilish mumkin; va men o'zimning kelishuvlarim bilan Angliya assotsiatsiyasida bo'lishimga imkon bermaganidan juda afsusdaman. , Ishonaman, bo'ladi o'tgan o'n ikki oy davomida ettinchi ommaviy namoyish uchta tasdiqning yolg'onligi, miyaning orqa qismi, lateral qorinchaning orqa kornusi va kichik hipokampus odamga xos bo'lib, maymunlarda mavjud emas. Agar siz ushbu xatni "Hurmat bilan, Thos. H. Huxley" bo'limiga o'qiyotgan bo'lsangiz, majburiyman.^[81]

O'sha yillarda odamlarning fotoalbom anatomiyasi va antropologiyasi bo'yicha ishlar olib borildi. 1862 yilda u Neandertal 1857 yilda kashf etilgan bosh suyagi qopqog'i.sapiens fotoalbom kashfiyoti va unga miyaning ishi hayratlanarli darajada katta ekanligi darhol ayon bo'ldi.^[82] Xaksli ham ichkariga kira boshladi jismoniy antropologiya va insonni tasnifladi irqlar to'qqiz toifaga bo'linib, ularni to'rtta umumiy toifalarga joylashtirish bilan birga Australoid, Negroid, Xanthocroic and Mongoloid. Bunday tasniflar asosan tashqi ko'rinishga va ma'lum xanatomik xususiyatlarga bog'liq edi.^[83][84]

Tabiiy tanlov

Xaksli Darvin bilan munosabatlarda, albatta, qullik qilmagan. Har bir biografiyada ko'rsatilgandek, ular juda boshqacha va bir-birini to'ldiruvchi belgilarga ega edilar. Darvin dala tabiatshunosi edi, ammo Xaksli anatomik edi, shuning uchun ularning tabiat tajribalarida farq bor edi. Va nihoyat, Darvinning fanga bo'lgan qarashlari Xakslining qarashlaridan farq qildi. Darvin uchun tabiiy tanlanish evolyutsiyani tushuntirishning eng yaxshi usuli edi, chunki u juda ko'p miqdordagi tabiiy tarix faktlari va kuzatuvlarini tushuntirdi: muammolarni hal qildi. Xaksli esa empirik edi, u ko'rgan narsalariga ishonar edi va ba'zi narsalar osonlikcha ko'rinmaydi. Shularni inobatga olgan holda, ular o'rtasidagi munozarani, Darvin o'z maktublarini yozayotganini, Haksli hech qachon Darvinni haq deb o'ylamaganiga qadar borganini qadrlashi mumkin.

Xakslining tabiiy selektsiya bo'yicha rezervlari "seleksiya va naslchilik bir-biri bilan bepusht bo'lgan navlarni keltirib chiqarguncha, tabiiy selektsiya isbotlanmaguncha" turkumiga kirdi.^[85][86] Xakslining selektsiya bo'yicha pozitsiyasi agnostik edi; hali u boshqa biron bir nazariyaga ishonmadi. Dalillarga bo'lgan xavotirga qaramay, Xaksli, agar evolyutsiya o'zgaruvchanlik, ko'payish va selektsiya orqali yuzaga kelsa, unda boshqa narsalar ham xuddi shunday bosimga duchor bo'lishini ko'rgan. Bunga g'oyalar kiritildi, chunki ular odamlar tomonidan ixtiro qilinadi, taqlid qilinadi va tanlanadi: 'mavjudlik uchun kurash jismoniy dunyoda bo'lgani kabi intellektual sohada ham davom etadi. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals.’^[87] This is the same idea as mem theory put forward by Richard Dawkins in 1976.^[88]

Darwin's part in the discussion came mostly in letters, as was his wont, along the lines: "The ampirik dalillar you call for is both impossible in practical terms, and in any event unnecessary. It's the same as asking to see every step in the transformation (or the splitting) of one species into another. My way so many issues are clarified and problems solved; no other theory does nearly so well".^[89]

Huxley's reservation, as Helena Cronin has so aptly remarked, was contagious: "it spread itself for years among all kinds of doubters of Darwinism".^[90] One reason for this doubt was that comparative anatomy could address the question of descent, but not the question of mechanism.^[91]

Pallbearer

Huxley was a pallbearer at the funeral of Charlz Darvin on 26 April 1882.^[92]

The X Club

In November 1864, Huxley succeeded in launching a dining club, the X klubi, composed of like-minded people working to advance the cause of science; not surprisingly, the club consisted of most of his closest friends. There were nine members, who decided at their first meeting that there should be no more. The members were: Huxley, Jon Tindal, J. D. Xuker, Jon Lubbok (banker, biologist and neighbour of Darwin), Gerbert Spenser (social philosopher and sub-editor of the Economist), Uilyam Spottisvud (matematik and the Queen's Printer), Tomas Xirst (Professor of Physics at University College London), Edvard Frankland (the new Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution) and Jorj Busk, zoologist and palaeontologist (formerly surgeon for HMS Qo'rquv ). All except Spencer were Qirollik jamiyati a'zolari. Tyndall was a particularly close friend; for many years they met regularly and discussed issues of the day. On more than one occasion Huxley joined Tyndall in the latter's trips into the Alps and helped with his investigations in muzlikshunoslik.^[93][94][95]

From the portrait of A. Legros.

There were also some quite significant X-Club satellites such as William Flower va George Rolleston, (Huxley protegés), and liberal clergyman Artur Stenli, the Dean of Westminster. Kabi mehmonlar Charlz Darvin va Hermann fon Helmgols were entertained from time to time.^[96]

They would dine early on first Thursdays at a hotel, planning what to do; high on the agenda was to change the way the Royal Society Council did business. It was no coincidence that the Council met later that same evening. First item for the Xs was to get the Copley medali for Darwin, which they managed after quite a struggle.

The next step was to acquire a journal to spread their ideas. This was the weekly O'quvchi, which they bought, revamped and redirected. Huxley had already become part-owner of the Tabiiy tarixni ko'rib chiqish^[97] bolstered by the support of Lubbock, Rolleston, Busk and Carpenter (X-clubbers and satellites). The journal was switched to pro-Darwinian lines and relaunched in January 1861. After a stream of good articles the NHR failed after four years; but it had helped at a critical time for the establishment of evolution. The O'quvchi also failed, despite its broader appeal which included art and literature as well as science. The periodical market was quite crowded at the time, but most probably the critical factor was Huxley's time; he was simply over-committed, and could not afford to hire full-time editors. This occurred often in his life: Huxley took on too many ventures, and was not so astute as Darwin at getting others to do work for him.

However, the experience gained with the O'quvchi was put to good use when the X Club put their weight behind the founding of Tabiat in 1869. This time no mistakes were made: above all there was a permanent editor (though not full-time), Norman Lokyer, who served until 1919, a year before his death. In 1925, to celebrate his centenary, Tabiat issued a supplement devoted to Huxley.^[98]

The peak of the X Club's influence was from 1873 to 1885 as Hooker, Spottiswoode and Huxley were Qirollik jamiyati prezidentlari ketma-ket. Spencer resigned in 1889 after a dispute with Huxley over state support for science.^[99] After 1892 it was just an excuse for the surviving members to meet. Hooker died in 1911, and Lubbock (now Lord Avebury ) was the last surviving member.

Huxley was also an active member of the Metafizik jamiyat, which ran from 1869 to 1880.^[100] It was formed around a nucleus of clergy and expanded to include all kinds of opinions. Tyndall and Huxley later joined Klub (asos solgan Doktor Jonson ) when they could be sure that Owen would not turn up.^[101]

Educational influence

When Huxley himself was young there were virtually no degrees in British universities in the biological sciences and few courses. Most biologists of his day were either self-taught, or took medical degrees. When he retired there were established chairs in biological disciplines in most universities, and a broad consensus on the curricula to be followed. Huxley was the single most influential person in this transformation.

School of Mines and Zoology

In the early 1870s the Royal School of Mines moved to new quarters in South Kensington; ultimately it would become one of the constituent parts of Imperial College London. The move gave Huxley the chance to give more prominence to laboratory work in biology teaching, an idea suggested by practice in German universities.^[28] In the main, the method was based on the use of carefully chosen types, and depended on the dissection of anatomy, supplemented by microscopy, museum specimens and some elementary physiology at the hands of Foster.

The typical day would start with Huxley lecturing at 9am, followed by a program of laboratory work supervised by his demonstrators.^[102] Huxley's demonstrators were picked men—all became leaders of biology in Britain in later life, spreading Huxley's ideas as well as their own. Maykl Foster became Professor of Physiology at Cambridge; E. Rey Lankester became Jodrell Professor of Zoology at University College London (1875–91), Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford (1891–98) and Director of the Natural History Museum (1898–1907); S.H. Vines became Professor of Botany at Cambridge; W.T. Thiselton-Dyer became Hooker's successor at Kew (he was already Hooker's son-in-law!); T. Jeffery Parker became Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at Universitet kolleji, Kardiff; and William Rutherford^[103] became the Professor of Physiology at Edinburgh. William Flower, Conservator to the Hunterian Museum, and THH's assistant in many dissections, became Sir William Flower, Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and, later, Director of the Natural History Museum.^[34] It's a remarkable list of disciples, especially when contrasted with Owen who, in a longer professional life than Huxley, left no disciples at all. "No one fact tells so strongly against Owen... as that he has never reared one pupil or follower".^[104]

Photograph of Huxley (c. 1890)

Huxley's courses for students were so much narrower than the man himself that many were bewildered by the contrast: "The teaching of zoology by use of selected animal types has come in for much criticism";^[105] Looking back in 1914 to his time as a student, Sir Artur Shipli said "Darwin's later works all dealt with living organisms, yet our obsession was with the dead, with bodies preserved, and cut into the most refined slices".^[106] E.W MacBride said "Huxley... would persist in looking at animals as material structures and not as living, active beings; in a word... he was a necrologist.^[107] To put it simply, Huxley preferred to teach what he had actually seen with his own eyes.

This largely morfologik dasturi qiyosiy anatomiya remained at the core of most biological education for a hundred years until the advent of cell and molecular biology and interest in evolutionary ecology forced a fundamental rethink. It is an interesting fact that the methods of the field naturalists who led the way in developing the theory of evolution (Darvin, Uolles, Fritz Myuller, Henry Bates ) were scarcely represented at all in Huxley's program. Ecological investigation of life in its environment was virtually non-existent, and theory, evolutionary or otherwise, was at a discount. Maykl Ruse finds no mention of evolution or Darwinism in any of the exams set by Huxley, and confirms the lecture content based on two complete sets of lecture notes.^[108]

Since Darwin, Wallace and Bates did not hold teaching posts at any stage of their adult careers (and Műller never returned from Brazil) the imbalance in Huxley's program went uncorrected. It is surely strange that Huxley's courses did not contain an account of the evidence collected by those naturalists of life in the tropics; evidence which they had found so convincing, and which caused their views on evolution by natural selection to be so similar. Adrian Desmond suggests that "[biology] had to be simple, synthetic and assimilable [because] it was to train teachers and had no other heuristic function".^[109] That must be part of the reason; indeed it does help to explain the stultifying nature of much school biology. But zoology as taught at all levels became far too much the product of one man.

Huxley was comfortable with comparative anatomy, at which he was the greatest master of the day. He was not an all-round naturalist like Darwin, who had shown clearly enough how to weave together detailed factual information and subtle arguments across the vast web of life. Huxley chose, in his teaching (and to some extent in his research) to take a more straightforward course, concentrating on his personal strengths.

Schools and the Bible

Huxley was also a major influence in the direction taken by British schools: in November 1870 he was voted onto the London maktab kengashi.^[110] In primary schooling, he advocated a wide range of disciplines, similar to what is taught today: reading, writing, arithmetic, art, science, music, etc. In secondary education he recommended two years of basic liberal studies followed by two years of some upper-division work, focusing on a more specific area of study. A practical example of the latter is his famous 1868 lecture On a Piece of Chalk which was first published as an essay in Makmillanning jurnali o'sha yili Londonda.^[111] The piece reconstructs the geological history of Britain from a simple piece of chalk and demonstrates science as "organized common sense".

Huxley supported the reading of the Bible in schools. This may seem out of step with his agnostic convictions, but he believed that the Bible's significant moral teachings and superb use of language were relevant to English life. "I do not advocate burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches".^[112]However, what Huxley proposed was to create an tahrirlangan versiya of the Bible, shorn of "shortcomings and errors... statements to which men of science absolutely and entirely demur... These tender children [should] not be taught that which you do not yourselves believe".^[113][114] The Board voted against his idea, but it also voted against the idea that public money should be used to support students attending church schools. Vigorous debate took place on such points, and the debates were minuted in detail. Huxley said "I will never be a party to enabling the State to sweep the children of this country into denominational schools".^[115][116] The Act of Parliament which founded board schools permitted the reading of the Bible, but did not permit any denominational doctrine to be taught.

It may be right to see Huxley's life and work as contributing to the secularisation of British society which gradually occurred over the following century. Ernst Mayr said "It can hardly be doubted that [biology] has helped to undermine traditional beliefs and value systems"^[117]—and Huxley more than anyone else was responsible for this trend in Britain. Ba'zi zamonaviy Xristian apologlari consider Huxley the father of antiteizm, though he himself maintained that he was an agnostic, not an atheist. He was, however, a lifelong and determined opponent of almost all uyushgan din throughout his life, especially the "Roman Church... carefully calculated for the destruction of all that is highest in the moral nature, in the intellectual freedom, and in the political freedom of mankind".^[116][118] In the same line of thought, in an article in Ommabop fan, Huxley used the expression "the so-called Christianity of Catholicism," explaining: "I say 'so-called' not by way of offense, but as a protest against the monstruous assumption that Catholic Christianity is explicitly or implicitly contained in any trust-worthy record of the teaching of Nosiralik Iso."^[119]

In 1893, during preparation for the second Romanes ma'ruzasi, Huxley expressed his disappointment at the shortcomings of 'liberal' theology, describing its doctrines as 'popular illusions', and the teachings they replaced 'faulty as they are, appear to me to be vastly nearer the truth'.^[120]

Vladimir Lenin remarked (in Materialism and empirio-criticism) "In Huxley's case... agnosticism serves as a fig-leaf for materialism" (see also the Debate with Wilberforce yuqorida).

Kattalar uchun ta'lim

Thomas Henry Huxley, c. 1885, from a carte de visite

Usul va natijalar, 1893

Huxley's interest in education went still further than school and university classrooms; he made a great effort to reach interested adults of all kinds: after all, he himself was largely self-educated. There were his lecture courses for working men, many of which were published afterwards, and there was the use he made of journalism, partly to earn money but mostly to reach out to the literate public. For most of his adult life he wrote for periodicals—the Vestminster sharhi, Shanba sharhi, O'quvchi, Pall Mall gazetasi, Makmillanning jurnali, Zamonaviy obzor. Germany was still ahead in formal science education, but interested people in Victorian Britain could use their initiative and find out what was going on by reading periodicals and using the lending libraries.^[121][122]

In 1868 Huxley became Principal of the South London Working Men's College yilda Blackfriars Road. The moving spirit was a portmanteau worker, Wm. Rossiter, who did most of the work; the funds were put up mainly by F.D. Moris "s Christian Socialists.^[123][124] At sixpence for a course and a penny for a lecture by Huxley, this was some bargain; and so was the free library organised by the college, an idea which was widely copied. Huxley thought, and said, that the men who attended were as good as any country squire.^[125]

The technique of printing his more popular lectures in periodicals which were sold to the general public was extremely effective. A good example was "The Physical Basis of Life", a lecture given in Edinburgh on 8 November 1868. Its theme—that vital action is nothing more than "the result of the molecular forces of the protoplazma which displays it"—shocked the audience, though that was nothing compared to the uproar when it was published in the Ikki haftalik sharh for February 1869. John Morley, the editor, said "No article that had appeared in any periodical for a generation had caused such a sensation".^[126] The issue was reprinted seven times and protoplazma became a household word; Punch added 'Professor Protoplasm' to his other soubriquets.

The topic had been stimulated by Huxley seeing the sitoplazmatik oqim in plant cells, which is indeed a sensational sight. For these audiences Huxley's claim that this activity should not be explained by words such as vitality, but by the working of its constituent chemicals, was surprising and shocking. Today we would perhaps emphasise the extraordinary structural arrangement of those chemicals as the key to understanding what cells do, but little of that was known in the nineteenth century.

When the Archbishop of York thought this 'new philosophy' was based on Auguste Comte "s pozitivizm, Huxley corrected him: "Comte's philosophy [is just] Catholicism minus Christianity" (Huxley 1893 vol 1 of Collected Essays Methods & Results 156). A later version was "[positivism is] sheer Popery with M. Comte in the chair of St Peter, and with the names of the saints changed". (lecture on The scientific aspects of positivism Huxley 1870 Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews p. 149). Huxley's dismissal of positivism damaged it so severely that Comte's ideas withered in Britain.

Huxley and the humanities

During his life, and especially in the last ten years after retirement, Huxley wrote on many issues relating to the humanities.^{[127][128][129][130]}

Perhaps the best known of these topics is Evolyutsiya va axloq, which deals with the question of whether biology has anything particular to say about moral philosophy. Both Huxley and his grandson Julian Xaksli berdi Romanes ma'ruzalari on this theme.^{[131][132][133]} For a start, Huxley dismisses religion as a source of axloqiy hokimiyat. Next, he believes the mental characteristics of man are as much a product of evolution as the physical aspects. Thus, our emotions, our intellect, our tendency to prefer living in groups and spend resources on raising our young are part and parcel of our evolution, and therefore meros qilib olingan.

Shunga qaramay, tafsilotlar of our values and ethics are not inherited: they are partly determined by our culture, and partly chosen by ourselves. Morality and duty are often at war with natural instincts; ethics cannot be derived from the mavjudlik uchun kurash: "Of moral purpose I see not a trace in nature. That is an article of exclusively human manufacture."^[134] It is therefore our responsibility to make ethical choices (see Axloq qoidalari va Evolyutsion axloq ). This seems to put Huxley as a mos keluvchi ichida Erkin iroda va boshqalar Determinizm munozara. In this argument Huxley is diametrically opposed to his old friend Gerbert Spenser.

Huxley's dissection of Russo 's views on man and society is another example of his later work. The essay undermines Rousseau's ideas on man as a preliminary to undermining his ideas on the ownership of property. Characteristic is: "The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time, free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction."^[135]

Huxley's method of argumentation (his strategy and tactics of persuasion in speech and print) is itself much studied.^[136] His career included controversial debates with scientists, clerics and politicians; persuasive discussions with Royal Commissions and other public bodies; lectures and articles for the general public, and a mass of detailed letter-writing to friends and other correspondents. A large number of textbooks have excerpted his prose for anthologies.^[137]

Royal and other commissions

Huxley worked on ten Royal and other commissions (titles somewhat shortened here).^[138] The Qirollik komissiyasi is the senior investigative forum in the British constitution. A rough analysis shows that five commissions involved science and scientific education; three involved medicine and three involved fisheries. Several involve difficult ethical and legal issues. All deal with possible changes to law and/or administrative practice.

Qirollik komissiyalari

• 1862: Trawling for herrings on the coast of Scotland.
• 1863–65: Sea fisheries of the United Kingdom.
• 1870–71: The Contagious Diseases Acts.
• 1870–75: Scientific instruction and the advancement of science.
• 1876: The practice of subjugating live animals to scientific experiments (vivisection ).
• 1876–78: The universities of Scotland.
• 1881–82: The Medical Acts. [ya'ni the legal framework for medicine]
• 1884: Trawl, net and beam trawl fishing.

Other commissions

• 1866: On the Irlandiya uchun Qirollik fan kolleji.
• 1868: On science and art instruction in Ireland.

Oila

Pencil drawing of Huxley by his daughter, Marian

Huxley with his grandson Julian 1893 yilda

Marian (Mady) Huxley, by her husband John Collier

In 1855, he married Henrietta Anne Heathorn (1825–1915), an English émigrée whom he had met in Sidney. They kept correspondence until he was able to send for her. Ularning beshta qizi va uch o'g'li bor edi:

• Noel Huxley (1856–60), died aged 4.
• Jessie Oriana Huxley (1858^[139] −1927), married architect Fred Waller in 1877.
• Marian Huxley (1859–87), married artist John Collier 1879 yilda.
• Leonard Xaksli, (1860–1933) author, father of Julian, Aldous va Endryu Xaksli.
• Rachel Huxley (1862–1934) married civil engineer Alfred Eckersley in 1884; he died 1895. They were parents of the physicist Tomas Ekkerli and the first BBC Chief Engineer Piter Ekersli.
• Henrietta (Nettie) Huxley (1863–1940), married Harold Roller, travelled Europe as a singer.
• Henry Huxley (1865–1946), became a fashionable general practitioner in London.
• Ethel Huxley (1866–1941), married artist John Collier (widower of sister) in 1889.

Huxley's relationships with his relatives and children were genial by the standards of the day—so long as they lived their lives in an honourable manner, which some did not. After his mother, his eldest sister Lizzie was the most important person in his life until his own marriage. He remained on good terms with his children, more than can be said of many Victorian fathers. This excerpt from a letter to Jessie, his eldest daughter is full of affection:

• "Dearest Jess, You are a badly used young person—you are; and nothing short of that conviction would get a letter out of your still worse used Pater, the bête noir of whose existence is letter-writing. Catch me discussing the Afghan question with you, you little pepper-pot! No, not if I know it..." [goes on nevertheless to give strong opinions of the Afghans, at that time causing plenty of trouble to the Britaniyalik Raj - qarang Ikkinchi Angliya-Afg'on urushi ] "There, you plague—ever your affec. Daddy, THH." (letter 7 December 1878, Huxley L 1900)^[140]

Huxley's descendants include children of Leonard Huxley:

• Ser Julian Xaksli FRS was the first Director of YuNESKO and a notable evolutionary biologist and humanist.
• Aldous Xaksli was a famous author (Jasur yangi dunyo 1932, G'azoda ko'zsizlar 1936, Sezgi eshiklari 1954).
• Ser Endryu Xaksli OM PRS won the Fiziologiya yoki tibbiyot bo'yicha Nobel mukofoti in 1963. He was the second Huxley to become President of the Royal Society.

Other significant descendants of Huxley, such as Sir Krispin Tikell, are treated in the Huxley family.

Mental problems in the family

Biographers have sometimes noted the occurrence of mental illness in the Huxley family. His father became "sunk in worse than childish imbecility of mind",^[141] va keyinchalik vafot etdi Barming Asylum; brother George suffered from "extreme mental anxiety"^[142] and died in 1863 leaving serious debts. Brother James, a well known psychiatrist and Superintendent of Kent County Asylum, was at 55 "as near mad as any sane man can be";^[143] and there is more. His favourite daughter, the artistically talented Mady (Marian), who became the first wife of artist John Collier, was troubled by mental illness for years. She died of pneumonia in her mid-twenties.^[144][145]

About Huxley himself we have a more complete record. As a young apprentice to a medical practitioner, aged thirteen or fourteen, Huxley was taken to watch a post-mortem dissection. Afterwards he sank into a 'deep lethargy' and though Huxley ascribed this to dissection poisoning, Bibby^[146] and others may be right to suspect that emotional shock precipitated the depressiya. Huxley recuperated on a farm, looking thin and ill.

The next episode we know of in Huxley's life when he suffered a debilitating depression was on the third voyage of HMS Bog'doq iloni 1848 yilda.^[147] Huxley had further periods of depression at the end of 1871,^[148] and again in 1873.^[149] Finally, in 1884 he sank into another depression, and this time it precipitated his decision to retire in 1885, at the age of 60.^[150] This is enough to indicate the way depression (or perhaps a moderate bi-polar disorder ) interfered with his life, yet unlike some of the other family members, he was able to function extremely well at other times.

The problems continued sporadically into the third generation. Two of Leonard's sons suffered serious depression: Trevennen committed suicide in 1914 and Julian suffered a breakdown in 1913,^[151] and five more later in life.

Satira

Darwin's ideas and Huxley's controversies gave rise to many cartoons and satires. It was the debate about man's place in nature that roused such widespread comment: cartoons are so numerous as to be almost impossible to count; Darwin's head on a monkey's body is one of the visual clichés of the age. "Ajoyib Gipokampus savoli " attracted particular attention:

• "Monkeyana" (Punch jild 40, 18 May 1861). Signed 'Gorilla', this turned out to be by Sir Philip Egerton MP, amateur naturalist, fossil fish collector and—Richard Owen's patron!^[152] The last two stanzas include a reference to Huxley's comment that "Life is too short to occupy oneself with the slaying of the slain more than once.":^[153]

  Next HUXLEY replies
  That OWEN he lies
  And garbles his Latin quotation;
  That his facts are not new,
  His mistakes not a few,
  Detrimental to his reputation.
  
  To twice slay the slain
  By dint of the Brain
  (Thus HUXLEY concludes his review)
  Is but labour in vain,
  unproductive of gain,
  And so I shall bid you "Adieu"!

• "The Gorilla's Dilemma" (Punch 1862, vol. 43, p. 164). First two lines:

  Say am I a man or a brother,
  Or only an anthropoid ape?

• Report of a sad case recently tried before the Lord Mayor, Owen versus Huxley.^[154] Lord Mayor asks whether either side is known to the police:

  Policeman X—Huxley, your Worship, I take to be a young hand, but very vicious; but Owen I have seen before. He got into trouble with an old bone man, called Mantell, who never could be off complaining as Owen prigged his bones. People did say that the old man never got over it, and Owen worritted him to death; but I don't think it was so bad as that. Hears as Owen takes the chair at a crib in Bloomsbury. I don't think it will be a harmonic meeting altogether. And Huxley hangs out in Jermyn Street.

  (Tom Huxley's 'low set' included Hooker 'in the green and vegetable line' and 'Charlie Darwin, the pigeon-fancier'; Owen's 'crib in Bloomsbury' was the British Museum, of which Natural History was but one department. Jermin ko'chasi is known for its shops of men's clothing, possibly implying that Huxley was a yoqimli.)

Huxley (right) and Richard Owen inspect a "water baby" in Edvard Linli Samburn 's 1881 illustration

• The Water Babies, a fairy tale for a land baby tomonidan Charlz Kingsli (ketma-ketlikda Makmillanning jurnali 1862–63, published in book form, with additions, in 1863). Kingsley had been among first to give a favourable review to Darwin's Turlarning kelib chiqishi to'g'risida, having "long since... learnt to disbelieve the dogma of the permanence of species",^[155] and the story includes a satira ustida Darvin nazariyasiga munosabat, with the main scientific participants appearing, including Richard Ouen and Huxley. In 1892 Thomas Henry Huxley's five-year-old grandson Julian saw the illustration by Edvard Linli Samburn (right) and wrote his grandfather a letter asking:

  Dear Grandpater—Have you seen a Waterbaby? Did you put it in a bottle? Did it wonder if it could get out? Could I see it some day?—Your loving Julian.

  Huxley wrote back:

  My dear Julian—I could never make sure about that Water Baby... My friend who wrote the story of the Water Baby was a very kind man and very clever. Perhaps he thought I could see as much in the water as he did—There are some people who see a great deal and some who see very little in the same things.
  
  When you grow up I dare say you will be one of the great-deal seers, and see things more wonderful than the Water Babies where other folks can see nothing.

Madaniy ma'lumotnomalar

Bu maqola o'z ichiga olgan ko'rinadi ahamiyatsiz, mayda yoki o'zaro bog'liq bo'lmagan havolalar ommaviy madaniyat. Iltimos, mavzuni ommaviy madaniyatga ta'sirini tushuntirish uchun ushbu tarkibni qayta tashkil eting, iqtiboslarni taqdim etish ga ishonchli, ikkilamchi manbalar, shunchaki ko'rinishlarni ro'yxatlash o'rniga. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan materialga qarshi chiqish va olib tashlash mumkin. (Oktyabr 2019)

• Huxley appears alongside Charles Darwin and Samuel Wilberforce in the play Darwin in Malibu, tomonidan yozilgan Krispin Uittell va tomonidan tasvirlangan Tobi Jons 2009 yilgi filmda Yaratilish.
• Huxley is referred to as the tutor of the main character, Edward Prendick, in H. G. Uells "ilmiy-fantastik roman The Island of Dr Moreau, published in 1896.
• Ot patlari (1932 Birodarlar Marks film)—Groucho Marks is Prof. Quincy Adams Wagstaff, Dean of Huxley College, while its rival team is Darwin College.
• Huxley is referenced in the Leviyatan series, with a flying fabricated beast named after the man.
• Hexley, the unofficial mascot of the Darwin operating system, is named (with an intended misspelling) after Huxley.^[156]
• His statement, "Logical consequences are the Scarecrows of fools and the Beacons of wise men", is quoted by the escape artist character Charles Evan Jeffers, a man with an ironically educated and dignified air about him, played by Roscoe Lee Browne, in the eleventh episode of Season One of Barni Miller.
• Yilda Quyosh botishi orqasida suzib borish, the main character references a series of essays written by Huxley as being formative in her manner of thought.

Shuningdek qarang

• Evropada va Amerikada ilmiy izlanishlar

Adabiyotlar

Manbalar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Biografiyalar

• Ashfort, Albert. Tomas Genri Xaksli. Twayne, Nyu-York, 1969 yil.
• Ayres, Klarens. Xaksli. Norton, Nyu-York 1932 yil.
• Klod, Edvard. Tomas Genri Xaksli. Blekvud, Edinburg 1902 yil.
• Xaksli, Leonard. Tomas Genri Xaksli: personajlar eskizi. Vatt, London 1920 yil.
• Irvin, Uilyam. Maymunlar, farishtalar va Viktorianlar. Nyu-York 1955 yil.
• Irvin, Uilyam. Tomas Genri Xaksli. Longmans, London 1960 yil.
• Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Tomas Genri Xaksli: uning hayoti va faoliyati eskizi London 1901. mavjud Gutenberg loyihasi.
• Vorxes, Irving Uilson. Tomas Genri Xakslining ta'limoti. Broadway, Nyu-York 1907 yil.

Tashqi havolalar

• Yozgan yoki yozgan asarlar Tomas Genri Xaksli da Vikipediya
• Tomas X. Xaksli Embrion loyihasi entsiklopediyasida
• Klark universitetidagi Xaksli fayli —Uning nashrlarini ro'yxatlaydi, yozganlarining ko'p qismini o'z ichiga oladi.
• Stiven, Lesli (1898). "Tomas Genri Xaksli". Biografni o'rganish. 3. London: Duckworth & Co., 188–219-betlar.
• Xaksli, Tomas Anri (1825–1895) Avstraliya Milliy kutubxonasi, Trove, Odamlar va tashkilot Tomas Xaksli uchun rekord
• Tomas Genri Xaksli asarlari da Gutenberg loyihasi
• Ilm-fan yaratishda Qirollik jamiyati arxividagi Xakslining hujjatlari
• Tomas Genri Xaksli tomonidan yoki uning asarlari da Internet arxivi
• Tomas Genri Xaksli asarlari da LibriVox (jamoat domenidagi audiokitoblar)
• Xaksli sharhi: Darvin turlarning kelib chiqishi to'g'risida The Times, 1859 yil 26-dekabr, p. 8-9.
• Xaksli sharhi: Vaqt va hayot: janob Darvinning "Turlarning kelib chiqishi". Makmillanning jurnali 1: 1859 p. 142–148.
• Xaksli sharhi: Darvin Turlarning kelib chiqishi to'g'risida, Vestminster sharhi, 17 (n.s.) aprel 1860 p. 541-570.