Etakchilik - Leadership

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Psixologiya
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Psixologiya portali

Ning rahbari APEC o'zining bosh nutqi bilan 2013 yilgi bosh direktor sammitining ohangini belgilab qo'ydi.

Etakchilik bu ham tadqiqot yo'nalishi, ham shaxs, guruh yoki qobiliyatini qamrab oladigan amaliy ko'nikma tashkilot boshqa shaxslarga "rahbarlik qilish", ta'sir o'tkazish yoki ularga rahbarlik qilish; jamoalar yoki to'liq tashkilotlar. Ko'pincha bahsli atama sifatida qaraladi,^[1] mutaxassislar adabiyoti turli xil qarashlarni tortishmoqda, qarama-qarshi Sharqiy va G'arbiy etakchilikka yondashuvlar, shuningdek (G'arb ichida) Shimoliy Amerika va Evropa yondashuvlari.

AQSh akademik muhiti etakchilikni "jarayon" deb ta'riflaydi ijtimoiy ta'sir unda odam yordamga murojaat qilishi mumkin va qo'llab-quvvatlash umumiy narsani amalga oshirishda boshqalar vazifa ".^[2][3] Boshqalar rahbariyatning odatdagi boshqaruv nuqtai nazariga qarshi chiqishdi, ular o'zlarining roli yoki vakolati tufayli bir shaxsga tegishli yoki egalik qiladigan narsa deb hisoblashadi va buning o'rniga institutning barcha darajalarida mavjud bo'lgan etakchilikning murakkab tabiatini himoya qiladilar va norasmiy rollar.^[4]

Etakchilikni o'rganish o'z ichiga olgan nazariyalarni ishlab chiqdilar xususiyatlar,^[5] vaziyat bilan ta'sir o'tkazish, funktsiya, xulq-atvor,^[6] kuch, ko'rish va qiymatlar,^[7] xarizma va boshqalar orasida aql-idrok.^[3]

Tarixiy qarashlar

Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan materialga qarshi chiqish va olib tashlash mumkin. (2009 yil sentyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Shahzoda, tomonidan yozilgan Niccolò Machiavelli (rasmda), agar siz ikkalangiz ham bo'la olmasangiz, hukmdor uchun sevishdan qo'rqish yaxshiroqdir, deb ta'kidladi

Siyosiy etakchilik sohasida Xitoy doktrinasi Osmon mandati hukmdorlarning adolatli boshqaruviga va bo'ysunuvchilarga ilohiy jazoga ega bo'lmagan imperatorlarni ag'darish huquqiga egaligini ta'kidladi.^[8]

Pro-zodagonlar mutafakkirlar^[9]etakchilik kimningdir "ko'k qoni" ga bog'liqligini yoki genlar.^[10]Monarxiya xuddi shu g'oyaga haddan tashqari nuqtai nazar bilan qaraydi va ilohiy sanktsiyani qo'llash orqali oddiy aristokratlarning da'volariga qarshi o'z da'volarini ilgari surishi mumkin (qarang: shohlarning ilohiy huquqi ). Boshqa tomondan, ko'proq demokratik moyil bo'lgan nazariyotchilar misollarga ishora qildilar meritokratik kabi rahbarlar Napoleon marshallar foyda ko'rishadi martaba ochiq iste'dod.^[11]

In avtokratik /paternalistik fikrlash tarangligi, an'anaviylar Rimning etakchilik rolini eslashadi pater familias. Feminist tafakkur, aksincha, kabi modellarga e'tiroz bildirishi mumkin patriarxal va ularga qarshi pozitsiyani "hissiy jihatdan uyg'un, sezgir va rozilik bildiruvchi hamdard ba'zan bog'liq bo'lgan ko'rsatma^{[kim tomonidan? ]} bilan matriarxiyalar ".^[12][13]

"Rim an'analari bilan taqqoslaganda, qarashlari Konfutsiylik "to'g'ri yashash" masalasi (erkak) olim-etakchi idealiga va uning farzandparvarlik urf-odati tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan xayrixoh hukmronligiga juda bog'liqdir. "^[14]

Etakchilik aql-zakovat, ishonchlilik, insonparvarlik, jasorat va intizom masalasidir ... Faqat aqlga tayanish isyonkorlikni keltirib chiqaradi. Faqat insonparvarlik mashqlari zaiflikka olib keladi. Ishonchni aniqlash ahmoqlikka olib keladi. Jasorat kuchiga bog'liqlik zo'ravonlikka olib keladi. Haddan tashqari intizom va buyruqdagi qattiqqo'llik shafqatsizlikka olib keladi. Agar har biri o'z vazifasiga mos keladigan beshta fazilatni birlashtirsa, u holda rahbar bo'lishi mumkin. - Jia Lin, sharhida Sun Tsu, Urush san'ati^[15]

Makiavelliniki Shahzoda, 16-asr boshlarida yozilgan bo'lib, hukmdorlar (Makiavelli terminologiyasidagi "knyazlar" yoki "zolimlar") ga erishish va saqlash uchun qo'llanma taqdim etdi. kuch.

19-asrgacha etakchilik tushunchasi hozirgi zamonga qaraganda unchalik ahamiyatli emas edi - jamiyat lordlar, podshohlar, usta-hunarmandlar va qul-xo'jayinlarga an'anaviy hurmat va itoat qilishni kutgan va olgan. (E'tibor bering Oksford ingliz lug'ati ingliz tilida "etakchilik" so'zini faqat 1821 yildayoq kuzatib boradi.^[16]) Tarixiy jihatdan, sanoatlashtirish, ga qarshi chiqish eski rejim va chatteldan voz kechish qullik degani, ba'zi yangi rivojlanayotganlar tashkilotlar (milliy davlat respublikalar, tijorat korporatsiyalar ) saylangan siyosatchilarni va ish beruvchi ish beruvchilarni tavsiflovchi yangi paradigmaga ehtiyoj paydo bo'ldi - shu tariqa "etakchilik" g'oyasini ishlab chiqish va nazariylashtirish.^[17]Rahbarlar va izdoshlar o'rtasidagi funktsional munosabatlar saqlanib qolishi mumkin,^[18]ammo maqbul (ehtimol evfemistik) atamashunoslik o'zgardi.

19-asrdan boshlab, anarxist fikr etakchilikning butun kontseptsiyasini shubha ostiga qo'ydi. Ushbu rad etishga bitta javob elitizm bilan keldi Leninizm - Lenin (1870-1924) intizomli elit guruhni talab qildi kadrlar kabi harakat qilish avangard vujudga keltirgan sotsialistik inqilob proletariat diktaturasi.

Rahbariyatning boshqa tarixiy qarashlari dunyoviy va diniy etakchilik o'rtasidagi ziddiyatlarni ko'rib chiqdi. Haqidagi ta'limotlar Sezaro-papizm bir necha asrlar davomida takrorlanib kelgan va ularning kamsituvchilari bo'lgan. Xristianlarning etakchilik haqidagi fikrlari ko'pincha ta'kidlangan boshqaruvchilik ilohiy ta'minlangan resurslar - inson va moddiy resurslar va ularni a Ilohiy reja. Taqqoslang xizmatkor rahbarligi.^[19]

In etakchilik haqida umumiy nuqtai nazar uchun siyosat tushunchasini solishtiring davlat arbobi.

Nazariyalar

Dastlabki g'arbiy tarix

Rahbarlarning xususiyatlarini yoki xususiyatlarini izlash asrlar davomida davom etdi. Dan falsafiy yozuvlar Aflotun "s Respublika^[20] ga Plutarxniki Yashaydi "Shaxsni etakchi sifatida qaysi fazilatlar ajralib turadi?" degan savolni o'rganib chiqdilar. Ushbu izlanishlar ostida etakchilik muhimligini erta anglash edi^[21] va etakchilik ma'lum shaxslarga ega bo'lgan xususiyatlarga asoslangan degan taxmin. Ushbu etakchilik individual atributlarga asoslangan degan fikr "etakchilik xususiyati nazariyasi ".

XIX asrda bir qator asarlar - monarxlar, lordlar va yepiskoplarning an'anaviy hokimiyati pasayib keta boshlaganda - xususiyatlar nazariyasini uzoq vaqt o'rganib chiqdilar: ayniqsa, Tomas Karleyl va of Frensis Galton, uning asarlari o'nlab yillar davomida izlanish olib bordi. Yilda Qahramonlar va Qahramonlarga sig'inish (1841), Karlyl hokimiyatga ko'tarilgan erkaklarning iste'dodi, mahorati va jismoniy xususiyatlarini aniqladi. Galtonniki Irsiy daho (1869) qudratli erkaklar oilalarida etakchilik fazilatlarini tekshirgan. Taniqli qarindoshlar soni birinchi darajadan ikkinchi darajadagi qarindoshlarga o'tganda kamayganligini ko'rsatgandan so'ng, Galton etakchilik meros qilib olingan degan xulosaga keldi. Boshqacha qilib aytganda, etakchilar tug'ilib, rivojlanmagan. Ushbu ikkala taniqli asar etakchilik etakchining o'ziga xos xususiyatlaridan kelib chiqadi degan tushunchani dastlabki dastlabki qo'llab-quvvatladi.

Sesil Rods (1853-1902) jamoat ruhidagi etakchilikni yoshlarni "xarakterning axloqiy kuchi va rahbarlik instinktlari" bilan aniqlash va ularni kontekstda (masalan, kollektiv muhit Oksford universiteti ) bunday xususiyatlarni yanada rivojlantirgan. Bunday etakchilarning xalqaro tarmoqlari xalqaro tushunishni rivojlantirishga yordam berishi va "urushni imkonsiz qilishiga" yordam berishi mumkin. Ushbu etakchilik haqidagi tasavvurlar Rodos stipendiyalari, ular 1903 yilda yaratilganidan beri etakchilik tushunchalarini shakllantirishga yordam berdi.^[22]

Muqobil nazariyalarning paydo bo'lishi

1940-yillarning oxiri va 50-yillarning boshlarida ushbu tadqiqotlarning bir qator sifatli sharhlari (masalan, Bird, 1940;^[23] Stogdill, 1948;^[24] Mann, 1959 yil^[25]) tadqiqotchilarni etakchilikning harakatlantiruvchi kuchlari to'g'risida keskin boshqacha qarashga undadi. Mavjud adabiyotlarni ko'rib chiqishda Stogdill va Mann ba'zi bir xususiyatlar bir qator tadqiqotlar davomida keng tarqalgan bo'lsa-da, umumiy dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, bir vaziyatda etakchi bo'lgan odamlar boshqa vaziyatlarda etakchi bo'lishlari shart emas. Keyinchalik, etakchilik endi doimiy individual xususiyat sifatida tavsiflanmadi, chunki vaziyatli yondashuvlar (quyida keltirilgan alternativa etakchilik nazariyalariga qarang) shaxslar muayyan vaziyatlarda samarali bo'lishi mumkin, ammo boshqalarda emas. Keyin etakchi etakchilarning xususiyatlaridan voz kechib, etakchi xulq-atvorini tekshirishga samarali ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Ushbu yondashuv keyingi bir necha o'n yilliklar davomida etakchilik nazariyasi va tadqiqotlarining aksariyat qismida hukmronlik qildi.

Xususiyatlar nazariyasining qayta tiklanishi

Oxir-oqibat tiklanadigan ushbu nufuzli sharhlardan so'ng yangi usullar va o'lchovlar ishlab chiqildi xususiyatlar nazariyasi etakchilikni o'rganishga hayotiy yondashuv sifatida. Masalan, tadqiqotchilarning dumaloq robin tadqiqotlarini loyihalashtirish metodologiyasidan foydalanish yaxshilanishi tadqiqotchilarga shaxslar turli vaziyatlar va vazifalar bo'yicha etakchi sifatida chiqishlari va paydo bo'lishi mumkinligini ko'rishga imkon berdi.^[26] Bundan tashqari, 1980-yillarda statistik yutuqlar tadqiqotchilarga imkon berdi meta-tahlillar, unda ular ko'plab tadqiqotlar natijalarini miqdoriy ravishda tahlil qilishlari va umumlashtirishi mumkin edi. Ushbu paydo bo'lish xislat nazariyotchilariga o'tmishdagi sifatli sharhlarga tayanmasdan, avvalgi etakchilik tadqiqotlari haqida to'liq tasavvur yaratishga imkon berdi. Yangi uslublar bilan jihozlangan etakchi tadqiqotchilar quyidagilarni aniqladilar:

• Shaxslar turli vaziyatlar va vazifalar bo'yicha etakchi sifatida paydo bo'lishi mumkin va paydo bo'ladi.^[26]
• Etakchilikning paydo bo'lishi va quyidagi individual xususiyatlar o'rtasida muhim munosabatlar mavjud:

• Aql^[27]
• Moslashish^[27]
• Ekstraversiya^[27]
• Vijdonlilik^[28][29][30]
• Tajriba uchun ochiqlik^[29][31]
• Umumiy o'z-o'zini samaradorligi^[32][33]

Garchi etakchilikning xislat nazariyasi, albatta, mashhurlikka erishgan bo'lsa-da, uning qayta tiklanishi murakkab kontseptual asoslarning mos ravishda oshishi bilan birga kelmagan.^[34]

Xususan, Zakkaro (2007)^[34] Xususiyat nazariyalari hali ham ta'kidlangan:

• Kognitiv qobiliyatlar, motivlar, qadriyatlar, ijtimoiy ko'nikmalar, tajriba va muammolarni hal qilish qobiliyatlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirish uchun "Katta beshlik" shaxsiy xususiyatlari kabi kichik individual xususiyatlarga e'tibor bering.
• Bir nechta atributlarning naqshlari yoki integratsiyasini ko'rib chiqa olmadi.
• Odatda vaqt o'tishi bilan moslashuvchan bo'lmagan va vaziyat ta'sirida shakllanadigan va ular bilan bog'langan etakchilik atributlarini ajratmang.
• Etakchi etakchi sifatlari samarali etakchilik uchun zarur bo'lgan xatti-harakatlarning xilma-xilligini qanday hisobga olishini o'ylamang.

Xususiyatlarning namunaviy yondashuvi

Yuqorida keltirilgan xususiyatlar nazariyasining tanqidlarini inobatga olgan holda, bir nechta tadqiqotchilar etakchining individual farqlari nuqtai nazaridan boshqacha yo'l tutishni boshladilar - etakchi atributlari uslubi yondashuvi.^{[33][35][36][37][38]} An'anaviy yondashuvdan farqli o'laroq, etakchi atributlar uslubi yondashuvi nazariyotchilarning individual xususiyatlarning natijalarga ta'sirini shaxsni individual o'zgaruvchilarning yig'indisi emas, balki yaxlit jami sifatida ko'rib chiqish orqali yaxshiroq anglashi haqidagi dalillariga asoslanadi.^[37][39] Boshqacha qilib aytganda, etakchi atributlar uslubi yondashuvi, birlashtirilgan yulduz turkumlari yoki individual farqlarning kombinatsiyalari etakchining paydo bo'lishi va etakchining samaradorligi jihatidan bir xil atributlar yoki bir nechta atributlarning qo'shimchalar kombinatsiyasi bilan izohlanganidan tashqari sezilarli farqni tushuntirishi mumkin deb ta'kidlaydi.

Xulq-atvor va uslub nazariyalari

Xususiyat yondashuvining dastlabki tanqidlariga javoban, nazariyotchilar etakchilikni xulq-atvor majmuasi sifatida o'rganishni boshladilar, muvaffaqiyatli rahbarlarning xatti-harakatlarini baholaydilar, xatti-harakatlar taksonomiyasini aniqlaydilar va keng etakchilik uslublarini aniqlaydilar.^[40] Devid Makklelland Masalan, etakchilik yaxshi rivojlangan ijobiy ego bilan kuchli shaxsni qabul qiladi degan fikrni ilgari surdi. Etakchilik qilish uchun o'ziga ishonch va yuksak qadr-qimmat foydali, ehtimol hatto zarurdir.^[41]

Boshqaruv tarmog'i modelining grafik tasviri

Kurt Levin, Ronald Lipitt va Ralf Uayt 1939 yilda etakchilik uslublari va ishlashi ta'siri bo'yicha yakuniy ishni ishlab chiqdilar. Tadqiqotchilar o'n bir yoshli o'g'il bolalar guruhlarining ish sharoitlarini har xil sharoitlarda baholashdi. Har birida etakchi turiga nisbatan ta'sirini amalga oshirdi guruh tomonidan qaror qabul qilish, Maqtov va tanqid (mulohaza ) va guruh vazifalarini boshqarish (Loyiha boshqaruvi ) uchta uslub bo'yicha: avtoritar, demokratik va laissez-faire.^[42]

1945 yilda Ogayo shtati universiteti samarali rahbarlar tomonidan tasvirlangan kuzatiladigan xatti-harakatlarni o'rganadigan tadqiqot o'tkazdi. Keyin ular ushbu o'ziga xos xatti-harakatlar etakchilik samaradorligini aks ettiradimi-yo'qligini aniqlaydilar. Ular o'zlarining topilmalarini ikkita aniqlanadigan farqlarga qisqartirishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi^[43] Birinchi o'lchov "Boshlang'ich tuzilma" deb aniqlandi, unda rahbarning izdoshlari bilan qanday qilib aniq va aniq muloqot qilishi, maqsadlarni belgilashi va vazifalar qanday bajarilishini belgilab beradi. Bu "vazifaga yo'naltirilgan" xatti-harakatlar deb hisoblanadi. Ikkinchi o'lchov - "Mulohaza", bu rahbarning izdoshlari bilan shaxslararo munosabatlarni o'rnatish, o'zaro ishonch shaklini o'rnatish qobiliyatini ko'rsatadi. Bular "ijtimoiy yo'naltirilgan" xatti-harakatlar deb hisoblanadi.^[44]

1950-yillarda o'tkazilgan Michigan shtatidagi tadqiqotlar xulq-atvor va etakchilik samaradorligi bilan ijobiy bog'liq bo'lgan qo'shimcha tekshiruvlar va xulosalar qildi. Ogayo shtati tadqiqotlari bilan o'xshash xulosalarga ega bo'lishiga qaramay, ular rahbarlarda aniqlangan qo'shimcha xulq-atvorga hissa qo'shdilar: ishtirok etuvchi xulq-atvor ("xizmatkor etakchilik" deb ham yuritiladi) yoki izdoshlarga guruh qarorlarini qabul qilishda ishtirok etishlariga imkon berish va bo'ysunuvchilarni kiritishni rag'batlantirish. Bu etakchilik turlarini boshqarishni oldini olishga olib keladi va rahbarlar va ularning bo'ysunuvchilari o'rtasidagi shaxsiy o'zaro munosabatlarga imkon beradi.^[45]

Boshqaruv tizimining modeli ham xulq-atvor nazariyasiga asoslangan. Model tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Robert Bleyk va Jeyn Mouton 1964 yilda va etakchilarning odamlarga bo'lgan g'amxo'rligi va ularning maqsadlariga erishish uchun tashvishlariga asoslangan besh xil etakchilik uslublarini taklif qiladi.^[46]

Ijobiy mustahkamlash

B. F. Skinner ning otasi xatti-harakatlarni o'zgartirish va kontseptsiyasini ishlab chiqdi ijobiy mustahkamlash. Ijobiy mustahkamlash, xulq-atvorga javoban ijobiy rag'batlantirilganda paydo bo'ladi va kelajakda ushbu xatti-harakatning ehtimolini oshiradi.^[47] Quyida korxona sharoitida ijobiy mustahkamlashni qanday qo'llash mumkinligiga misol keltirilgan. Faraz qiling Maqtov ma'lum bir xodim uchun ijobiy mustahkamlovchi hisoblanadi. Ushbu xodim har kuni o'z vaqtida ishlashga kelmaydi. Ushbu xodimning menejeri xodimni har kuni o'z vaqtida ko'rsatganligi uchun maqtashga qaror qiladi. Natijada, xodim tez-tez o'z vaqtida ishga keladi, chunki xodim maqtovni yaxshi ko'radi. Ushbu misolda, maqtov (rag'batlantirish) ushbu xodim uchun ijobiy mustahkamlovchi hisoblanadi, chunki ishchi o'z vaqtida ishiga kelgani uchun maqtalganidan keyin tez-tez ishiga (xatti-harakatiga) keladi. Skinner tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan ijobiy mustahkamlash xulq-atvorni ijobiy tarzda takrorlashga imkon beradi, boshqa tomondan salbiy kuchaytirgich ijobiy kabi ishonchli emas takrorlanadi. ^[48]

Ijobiy mustahkamlashdan foydalanish - bu rahbarlar tomonidan bo'ysunuvchilarning istalgan xatti-harakatlarini rag'batlantirish va ularga erishish uchun foydalanadigan muvaffaqiyatli va o'sib boradigan usuldir. Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell va Emery Air Freight kabi tashkilotlar mahsuldorlikni oshirish uchun armaturadan foydalanganlar.^[49] So'nggi 20 yilni qamrab olgan empirik tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatmoqda mustahkamlash nazariyasi ko'rsatkichlarning 17 foizga o'sishiga ega. Bundan tashqari, maqtovdan foydalanish kabi ko'plab mustahkamlash texnikasi arzon bo'lib, past narxlar uchun yuqori ko'rsatkichlarni ta'minlaydi.

Vaziyatli va kutilmagan holatlar nazariyalari

Vaziyat nazariyasi, shuningdek, etakchilikning xususiyat nazariyasiga reaktsiya sifatida paydo bo'ldi. Ijtimoiy olimlar tarix buyuk odamlarning aralashuvi natijasida emas edi Karleyl taklif qildi. Gerbert Spenser (1884) (va Karl Marks ) vaqtlar odamni ishlab chiqaradi va aksincha emasligini aytdi.^[50] Ushbu nazariya turli xil vaziyatlar turli xil xususiyatlarni talab qiladi deb taxmin qiladi; ushbu nazariya guruhiga ko'ra, etakchining yagona maqbul psixografik profili mavjud emas. Nazariyaga ko'ra, "shaxsning etakchi vazifasini bajarishi haqiqatan nima qilishi, ko'p jihatdan u ishlaydigan vaziyatning xususiyatlariga bog'liq."^[51]

Ba'zi nazariyotchilar xususiyat va vaziyat yondashuvlarini sintez qilishni boshladilar. Levin va boshqalarning tadqiqotlari asosida akademiklar etakchilikning tavsiflovchi modellarini normallashtirishga kirishdilar, uchta etakchilik uslubini aniqladilar va har bir uslub qaysi holatlarda yaxshiroq ishlashini aniqladilar. Masalan, avtoritar etakchilik uslubi inqiroz davrida tasdiqlangan, ammo kundalik boshqaruvda izdoshlarning "yuragi va ongini" yutib chiqara olmaydi; konsensus o'rnatishni talab qiladigan vaziyatlarda demokratik etakchilik uslubi ko'proq mos keladi; nihoyat, laissez-faire etakchilik uslubi taqdim etayotgan erkinlik darajasi uchun qadrlanadi, ammo rahbarlar "mas'uliyatni o'z zimmalariga olishmaydi", ular uzoq yoki tikanli tashkiliy muammolarning muvaffaqiyatsizligi sifatida qabul qilinishi mumkin.^[52] Shunday qilib, nazariyotchilar etakchilik uslubini vaziyatga bog'liq deb ta'rifladilar, bu ba'zan tasniflanadi kutilmagan holatlar nazariyasi. So'nggi yillarda uchta favqulodda vaziyatda etakchilik nazariyalari ko'proq tanilgan: Fidler favqulodda vaziyat modeli, Vroom-Yetton qaror modeli va yo'l-maqsad nazariyasi.

The Fidler favqulodda vaziyatlar modeli etakchining samaradorligini nimaga asoslaydi Fred Fidler deb nomlangan vaziyatning kutilmagan holati. Bu etakchilik uslubi va vaziyatning qulayligi (keyinchalik chaqirilgan) o'zaro ta'siridan kelib chiqadi vaziyatni boshqarish). Nazariya etakchining ikki turini belgilab berdi: guruh bilan yaxshi munosabatlarni rivojlantirish orqali vazifani bajarishga moyil bo'lganlar (munosabatlarga yo'naltirilgan) va vazifani o'zi bajaradigan asosiy vazifa bo'lganlar (vazifaga yo'naltirilgan).^[53] Fidlerning so'zlariga ko'ra, ideal rahbar yo'q. Vazifaga yo'naltirilgan va munosabatlarga yo'naltirilgan rahbarlar ham, agar ularning etakchilik yo'nalishi vaziyatga mos keladigan bo'lsa, samarali bo'lishi mumkin. Yaxshi rahbar-a'zo munosabatlari, yuqori darajada tuzilgan vazifa va yuqori darajadagi rahbar mavqei mavjud bo'lganda, vaziyat "qulay vaziyat" deb hisoblanadi. Fidler vazifalarga yo'naltirilgan rahbarlar o'ta qulay yoki noqulay vaziyatlarda samaraliroq bo'lishiga, munosabatlarga yo'naltirilgan rahbarlar esa o'rta darajadagi qulay sharoitlarda eng yaxshi natijalarga erishishini aniqladilar.

Viktor Vroom, Phillip Yetton (1973) bilan hamkorlikda^[54] va keyinchalik Artur Jago bilan (1988),^[55] ishlab chiqilgan taksonomiya normativda ishlatilgan etakchilik holatlarini tavsiflash uchun qaror modeli bu erda etakchilik uslublari vaziyat o'zgaruvchilari bilan bog'liq bo'lib, qaysi yondashuv qaysi vaziyatga ko'proq mos kelishini aniqladi.^[56] Ushbu yondashuv yangi edi, chunki u bitta menejer boshqasiga ishonishi mumkin degan g'oyani qo'llab-quvvatladi guruh tomonidan qaror qabul qilish har bir vaziyatning xususiyatlariga qarab yondashuvlar. Keyinchalik ushbu model vaziyatga oid favqulodda vaziyatlar nazariyasi deb nomlandi.^[57]

The yo'l-maqsad nazariyasi etakchilik Robert Xaus tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan (1971) va kutish nazariyasi ning Viktor Vroom.^[58] Xausning fikriga ko'ra, nazariyaning mohiyati "rahbarlarning samaradorligi, bo'ysunuvchilarning muhiti va qobiliyatlarini kamchiliklarni o'rnini to'ldiradigan xatti-harakatlar bilan shug'ullanishi va subordinatsiya qondirish va individual va ish birligining ishlashi uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan meta taklifdir. ".^[59] Nazariya etakchining to'rtta xatti-harakatini aniqlaydi, yutuqlarga yo'naltirilgan, direktiv, qatnashuvchiva qo'llab-quvvatlovchi, bu atrof-muhit omillari va izdoshlarning xususiyatlariga bog'liq. Dan farqli o'laroq Fidler favqulodda vaziyatlar modeli, yo'l-maqsad modeli to'rtta etakchi xatti-harakatlarning yumshoqligini va vaziyat talab qiladigan narsaga qarab rahbarlar to'rttadan birini qabul qilishi mumkinligini ta'kidlaydi. Yo'l-maqsad modeli ikkalasini ham a deb tasniflash mumkin kutilmagan holatlar nazariyasi, bu sharoitga bog'liq bo'lgani kabi va tranzaktsion etakchilik nazariyasi, nazariya rahbar va izdoshlar o'rtasidagi o'zaro munosabatni ta'kidlaydi.

Funktsional nazariya

General Petreus Afg'onistonda xizmat qilayotgan AQSh askarlari bilan suhbatlashmoqda

Funktsional etakchilik nazariyasi (Hackman & Walton, 1986; Makgrat, 1962; Adair, 1988 yil; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) tashkiliy yoki birlik samaradorligiga hissa qo'shishi kerak bo'lgan etakchining o'ziga xos xatti-harakatlarini hal qilish uchun ayniqsa foydali nazariya. Ushbu nazariya, rahbarning asosiy vazifasi guruh ehtiyojlari uchun zarur bo'lgan barcha narsalar g'amxo'rlik qilinishini ko'rishdir; Shunday qilib, etakchi guruhning samaradorligi va birdamligiga hissa qo'shganda o'z ishini yaxshi bajargan deb aytish mumkin (Fleishman va boshq., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). Funktsional etakchilik nazariyasi ko'pincha jamoaviy etakchiga nisbatan qo'llanilgan bo'lsa (Zakkaro, Rittman va Marks, 2001), u kengroq tashkiliy etakchilikda ham samarali qo'llanilgan (Zakkaro, 2001). Funktsional etakchilik to'g'risidagi adabiyotlarni sarhisob qilishda (qarang: Kozlowski va boshq. (1996), Zakkaro va boshq. (2001), Xekman va Uolton (1986), Xakman va Vageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, va Xiao (2006) tashkilot samaradorligini oshirishda etakchining bajaradigan beshta keng funktsiyasini kuzatdilar. Ushbu funktsiyalar atrof-muhit monitoringi, bo'ysunuvchi faoliyatni tashkil etish, bo'ysunuvchilarga o'qitish va murabbiylik qilish, boshqalarni rag'batlantirish va guruh ishiga faol aralashishni o'z ichiga oladi.

Ushbu funktsiyalarni osonlashtirishi uchun etakchilikning turli xatti-harakatlari kutilmoqda. Fleishman (1953) rahbarlarning xatti-harakatlarini aniqlash bo'yicha dastlabki ishda bo'ysunuvchilar o'z rahbarlarining xatti-harakatlarini ikkita keng toifalar bo'yicha qabul qilganliklarini kuzatdilar ko'rib chiqish va tashabbuskor tuzilma. Ko'rib chiqish samarali munosabatlarni rivojlantirish bilan bog'liq xatti-harakatlarni o'z ichiga oladi. Bunday xatti-harakatlarning misollari bo'ysunuvchiga g'amxo'rlik ko'rsatishni yoki boshqalarga nisbatan qo'llab-quvvatlash tarzida harakat qilishni o'z ichiga oladi. Boshlang'ich tuzilma rahbarning vazifalarni bajarishga qaratilgan harakatlarini o'z ichiga oladi. Bunga rolni aniqlashtirish, ishlash standartlarini belgilash va bo'ysunuvchilarni ushbu standartlarga javobgarligini jalb qilish kiradi.

Integratsiyalashgan psixologik nazariya

Rahbariyatning birlashtirilgan psixologik nazariyasi - bu eski nazariyalarning kuchli tomonlarini (ya'ni xususiyatlar, xulq-atvor / uslublar, vaziyat va funktsional) birlashtirishga urinish bo'lib, ularning cheklovlarini hal qilishda, yangi elementni kiritishda - etakchilarning etakchilik borligini, munosabatini rivojlantirish zarurati. psixologik mahorat bilan shug'ullanish orqali boshqalarga nisbatan va xatti-harakatlarning moslashuvchanligi. Shuningdek, bu falsafani qo'llamoqchi bo'lgan rahbarlar uchun asos yaratadi xizmatkor rahbarligi va haqiqiy etakchilik.^[60]

Integratsiyalashgan psixologik nazariya Jeyms Skuller nashr etilganidan keyin e'tiborni jalb qila boshladi Etakchilikning uch darajasi modeli (2011).^[61]Skoullerning ta'kidlashicha, eski nazariyalar insonning samarali etakchilik qobiliyatini rivojlantirishda cheklangan yordam beradi.^[62]Masalan, u quyidagilarga ishora qildi:

• Liderlar tug'ilmaydi degan g'oyani kuchaytiradigan xususiyatlar nazariyalari bizga rahbarlarni tanlashda yordam berishi mumkin, ammo ular rivojlanayotgan etakchilar uchun unchalik foydasiz.
• Ideal uslub (masalan, Bleyk va Moutonning jamoaviy uslubi) barcha sharoitlarga mos kelmaydi.
• Vaziyatli / kutilmagan holatlarning va funktsional nazariyalarning aksariyati, rahbarlar o'z xatti-harakatlarini turli holatlarni qondirish uchun o'zgartirishi yoki xatti-harakat doirasini o'z xohishiga ko'ra kengaytirishi mumkin deb taxmin qilishadi, amalda ko'pchilik ongsiz e'tiqod, qo'rquv yoki singib ketgan odatlar tufayli buni qilishga qiynalishadi. Shunday qilib, u ta'kidlaganidek, rahbarlar o'zlarining ichki psixologiyalari ustida ishlashlari kerak.
• Qadimgi nazariyalarning hech biri rivojlanish vazifasini muvaffaqiyatli hal qilmadi "etakchilik borligi "; etakchilarda diqqatni jalb qiladigan, odamlarni ilhomlantiradigan, ularning ishonchini qozonadigan va izdoshlarini ular bilan ishlashni xohlaydigan aniq bir" narsa ".

Skouller "Etakchilikning uch darajasi" modelini taklif qildi, keyinchalik bu "Businessballs" ta'lim veb-saytida "Integrated Psychological" nazariyasi deb tasniflandi.^[63] Aslini olib qaraganda, uning modeli etakchilarni o'z guruhiga yoki tashkilotiga etakchilikni olib kelish uchungina emas, balki o'zlarini texnik va psixologik jihatdan etakchilar sifatida rivojlantirish uchun nima qilish kerakligini umumlashtirishga qaratilgan.

Uning modelidagi uchta daraja davlat, xususiy va shaxsiy etakchilikdir:

• Birinchi ikkitasi - davlat va xususiy etakchilik - bu "tashqi" yoki xulq-atvor darajalari. Bu Skouller "etakchilikning to'rt o'lchovi" deb atagan narsalarga qaratilgan. Ushbu o'lchovlar: (1) umumiy, motivatsion guruh maqsadi; (2) harakat, taraqqiyot va natijalar; (3) jamoaviy birlik yoki jamoaviy ruh; (4) individual tanlov va motivatsiya. Jamiyat rahbariyati bir vaqtning o'zida ikki yoki undan ortiq odamga ta'sir ko'rsatishda ishtirok etadigan 34 xatti-harakatga e'tibor qaratadi. Xususiy etakchilik shaxslarga birma-bir ta'sir qilish uchun zarur bo'lgan 14 xatti-harakatni qamrab oladi.
• Uchinchisi - shaxsiy etakchilik - bu "ichki" darajadir va insonning etakchilik qobiliyati, bilim va mahoratga nisbatan o'sishiga bog'liqdir. Shaxsiy etakchilik ustida ishlash uchta jihatni o'z ichiga oladi: (1) Texnik bilim va mahorat (2) Xizmatchilar etakchisining asosi bo'lgan boshqa odamlarga nisbatan to'g'ri munosabatni rivojlantirish (3) Psixologik o'zini o'zi boshqarish - haqiqiy etakchilik uchun asos.

Skouller o'zini o'zi egallash - bu etakchilik mavqeini oshirish, izdoshlar bilan ishonchli munosabatlarni o'rnatish va cheklangan e'tiqod va odatlarni yo'q qilish, shu bilan vaziyat o'zgarganda xatti-harakatlarning egiluvchanligini ta'minlash, asosiy qadriyatlar bilan bog'lanishda (ya'ni haqiqiyligini saqlab qolish) kalitidir. ). Liderlarning rivojlanishini qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun u inson psixikasining yangi modelini joriy qildi va o'zini o'zi egallash printsiplari va texnikasini bayon qildi, bu amaliyotni o'z ichiga oladi. ehtiyotkorlik meditatsiyasi.^[64]

Transaktsion va transformatsion nazariyalar

Bernard Bass va hamkasblar rahbariyatning ikki xil turi g'oyasini ishlab chiqdilar, bu ishchilarni g'amxo'rlik, intellektual rag'batlantirish va jamoaviy qarashni ta'minlashga asoslangan mehnatni mukofotlash va o'zgartirishga almashtirishni o'z ichiga oladi.^[65][66]

Tranzaksiya rahbari (Kuyishlar, 1978)^[67] ma'lum vazifalarni bajarish va jamoaning ishlashi uchun mukofotlash yoki jazolash uchun kuch beriladi. Bu menejerga guruhni boshqarish imkoniyatini beradi va guruh boshqa biron bir narsa evaziga oldindan belgilangan maqsadga erishish uchun uning ko'rsatmalariga rioya qilishga rozi bo'ladi. Hokimiyat hosildorlik istalgan darajaga yetmagan paytda bo'ysunuvchilarni baholash, tuzatish va o'qitish uchun rahbarga, kutilgan natijaga erishilganda samaradorlikni mukofotlash uchun kuch beriladi.

Lider va a'zo almashinish nazariyasi

Ushbu LMX nazariyasi etakchilik jarayonining o'ziga xos tomonlarini ko'rib chiqadi - bu rahbar-a'zo almashinuvi (LMX) nazariyasi,^[68] vertikal dyad bog'lanish (VDL) modeli deb nomlangan oldingi nazariyadan kelib chiqqan.^[69] Ushbu ikkala model ham etakchilar va individual izdoshlarning o'zaro ta'siriga qaratilgan. Tranzaktsion yondashuvga o'xshab, bu o'zaro munosabatlar adolatli almashinuv sifatida qaraladi, bunda rahbar vazifalarni bajarish bo'yicha ko'rsatma, maslahat, qo'llab-quvvatlash va / yoki muhim mukofotlar kabi ba'zi bir imtiyozlarni beradi va izdoshlar o'zaro javob berib, rahbarga hurmat, hamkorlik, vazifaga sodiqlik berishadi va yaxshi ishlash. Biroq, LMX rahbarlar va individual izdoshlar ular o'rtasida paydo bo'ladigan almashinuv turiga qarab turlicha bo'lishini tan oladi.^[70] LMX rahbar va aniq izdoshlar o'rtasidagi almashinuv turi yaratilishiga olib kelishi mumkinligini nazarda tutadi guruhlarda va tashqi guruhlar. Guruh a'zolari bor deyishadi yuqori sifatli almashinuvlar rahbar bilan, guruhdan tashqari a'zolari esa past sifatli almashinuvlar rahbar bilan.^[71]

Guruh a'zolari

Guruh ichida a'zolar etakchi tomonidan boshqa izdoshlariga qaraganda ancha tajribali, malakali va mas'uliyatni o'z zimmasiga olishga tayyor odamlar sifatida qabul qilinadi. Rahbar, ayniqsa, qiyin vazifalarda yordam berish uchun ushbu shaxslarga ishonishni boshlaydi. Agar izdosh yaxshi javob bersa, rahbar uni qo'shimcha murabbiylik, qulay ish topshiriqlari va rivojlanish tajribalari bilan taqdirlaydi. Agar izdosh yuqori sadoqat va harakatni ko'rsatib, qo'shimcha mukofotga sazovor bo'lsa, ikkala tomon ham o'zaro ishonchni, ta'sirni va bir-birlarini qo'llab-quvvatlashni rivojlantiradilar. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, guruh a'zolari odatda etakchidan yuqori samaradorlik baholarini olishadi, qoniqish va guruhdan tashqaridagi a'zolarga qaraganda tezroq ko'tarilishadi.^[70] Guruh a'zolari, xuddi shu ijtimoiy kelib chiqish va manfaatlarni baham ko'rish orqali o'z rahbarlari bilan mustahkam aloqalarni o'rnatishi mumkin.

Tashqi guruh a'zolari

Guruhdan tashqari a'zolar ko'pincha guruhdagi hamkasblariga qaraganda kamroq vaqt va uzoqroq almashinuvlarga ega bo'lishadi. Tashqi guruh a'zolari bilan, etakchilar etarli darajadan ko'proq narsani kutmoqdalar ish samaradorligi, yaxshi qatnashish, oqilona hurmat va evaziga ish ta'rifiga rioya qilish adolatli ish haqi va standart imtiyozlar. Rahbar guruhdan tashqaridagi a'zolar bilan kamroq vaqt o'tkazadi, ularning rivojlanish tajribasi kam bo'ladi va rahbar o'z talablariga muvofiqligini ta'minlash uchun rasmiy vakolatlarini ta'kidlashga intiladi. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, guruhdan tashqaridagi a'zolar o'zlarining ishi va tashkilotidan kamroq qoniqishadi, etakchidan pastroq ish faoliyatini baholaydilar, o'z rahbarlarini unchalik adolatsiz deb hisoblaydilar va shikoyatlar bilan murojaat qilishadi yoki tashkilotdan chiqib ketishadi.^[70]

Tuyg'ular

Etakchilikni, ayniqsa, hissiyotlarga boy jarayon sifatida qabul qilish mumkin, hissiyotlar ijtimoiy ta'sir o'tkazish jarayoni bilan bog'liq.^[72] Tashkilotda rahbarning kayfiyati uning guruhiga qandaydir ta'sir ko'rsatadi. Ushbu effektlarni uchta darajada tavsiflash mumkin:^[73]

1. Ayrim guruh a'zolarining kayfiyati. Ijobiy kayfiyatdagi rahbarlari bo'lgan guruh a'zolari salbiy kayfiyatdagi rahbarlari bo'lgan guruh a'zolaridan ko'ra ko'proq ijobiy kayfiyatni boshdan kechirishadi. Rahbarlar o'zlarining kayfiyatlarini mexanizm orqali boshqa guruh a'zolariga etkazadilar hissiy yuqumli kasallik.^[73] Kayfiyat yuqishi psixologik mexanizmlardan biri bo'lishi mumkin xarizmatik rahbarlar izdoshlariga ta'sir qiladi.^[74]
2. Guruhning ta'sirchanligi. Guruh ta'sirchanligi guruh ichidagi izchil yoki bir hil ta'sirchan reaktsiyalarni ifodalaydi. Guruh ta'sirchanligi - bu guruhning ayrim a'zolari kayfiyatining yig'indisi bo'lib, guruh tahlil darajasidagi kayfiyatni anglatadi. Ijobiy kayfiyatdagi rahbarlari bo'lgan guruhlar salbiy kayfiyatdagi rahbarlari bo'lgan guruhlarga qaraganda ijobiy ta'sirchanlik ohangiga ega.^[73]
3. Muvofiqlashtirish, kuch sarflash va boshqalar kabi guruh jarayonlari vazifa strategiya. Kayfiyatning ommaviy ifodalari guruh a'zolari qanday o'ylashi va qanday harakat qilishlariga ta'sir qiladi. Odamlar kayfiyatni boshdan kechirganda va ifoda etganda, ular boshqalarga signal yuboradilar. Rahbarlar o'zlarining maqsadlari, niyatlari va munosabatlarini kayfiyatni ifodalash orqali signal berishadi. Masalan, etakchilarning ijobiy kayfiyatlarini ifodalashi, rahbarlar maqsadlar sari siljishni yaxshi deb bilishini bildiradi. Guruh a'zolari ushbu signallarga guruh jarayonlarida aks etadigan tarzda kognitiv va xulq-atvorda javob berishadi.^[73]

Mijozlarga xizmat ko'rsatish bo'yicha olib borilgan tadqiqotlar davomida ijobiy kayfiyatni ifoda etishi aniqlandi rahbar guruhning ish faoliyatini yaxshilash, garchi boshqa sohalarda boshqa topilmalar mavjud bo'lsa ham.^[75]

Rahbarning kayfiyatidan tashqari, uning xulq-atvori xodimning ijobiy va salbiy tomonlari uchun manbadir hissiyotlar ishda. Rahbar hissiy munosabatlarga olib keladigan vaziyat va hodisalarni yaratadi. O'zlarining ishchilari bilan o'zaro munosabatlar paytida ko'rsatiladigan etakchining ma'lum xatti-harakatlari ushbu ta'sirchan hodisalarning manbalari hisoblanadi. Rahbarlar ish joyidagi ta'sirchan voqealarni shakllantiradi. Misollar - teskari aloqa berish, vazifalarni taqsimlash, resurslarni taqsimlash. Xodimlarning xulq-atvori va mahsuldorligiga ularning hissiy holatlari to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ta'sir qilganligi sababli, tashkilot rahbarlariga xodimlarning hissiy javoblarini ko'rib chiqish zarur.^[76] Hissiy aql, o'z-o'zidan va boshqalardagi kayfiyat va his-tuyg'ularni tushunish va boshqarish qobiliyati tashkilotlarda samarali etakchilikka yordam beradi.^[75]

Yangi paydo bo'lgan nazariya

Yangi paydo bo'lgan etakchilik nazariyasi (Oksford strategik etakchilik dasturidan^[77]) etakchilikni aloqa orqali shakllangan taassurot deb biladi ma `lumot rahbar yoki boshqa manfaatdor tomonlar tomonidan,^[78]rahbarning haqiqiy harakatlari orqali emas.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Boshqacha qilib aytganda, ma'lumotni ko'paytirish yoki hikoyalar ko'pchilik tomonidan etakchilikni anglashning asosini tashkil etadi. Bu yaxshi ma'lum^{[kim tomonidan? ]} bu dengiz qahramoni Lord Nelson u tez-tez o'zi ishtirok etgan janglarning o'z versiyalarini yozgan, shuning uchun u Angliyaga uyga kelganda haqiqiy qahramonni kutib olishi mumkin edi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Zamonaviy jamiyatda matbuot, bloglar va boshqa manbalar rahbarlarning o'z qarashlari haqida xabar berishadi, ular haqiqatga asoslangan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo siyosiy buyruq, to'lov yoki muallif, ommaviy axborot vositalari yoki rahbarning o'ziga xos manfaatlariga asoslanishi mumkin. . Shu sababli, barcha rahbarlarning idroklari yaratilgan va aslida ularning haqiqiy etakchilik fazilatlarini umuman aks ettirmaydi, deb ta'kidlash mumkin. Hence the historical function of belief in (for example) royal blood as a proxy for belief in or analysis of effective governing skills.

Konstruktivistik tahlil

Biroz constructivists question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".^[79][80]

Leadership emergence

Many personality characteristics were found to be reliably associated with leadership emergence.^[81] The list includes, but is not limited to (following list organized in alphabetical order): assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring and social motivation.^[81]Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders. People like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all share traits that an average person does not. This includes people who choose to participate in leadership roles, as opposed to those who do not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.^[82]There is no current research indicating that there is a “leadership gene”, instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Both anecdotal, and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.^[83] Using a large international sample researchers found that there are three factors that motivate leaders; affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).^[84]

Qat'iylik

The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.^[85]

Haqiqiylik

Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.^[86] Qarang Authentic Leadership.

Big Five personality factors

Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.^[29] Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence^[29]

Tug'ilish tartibi

Those born first in their families and only children are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative^[81]

Character strengths

Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.^[87]

Hukmronlik

Individuals with dominant personalities – they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way – are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.^[88]

Hissiy aql

Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.^[81] Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.^[89]

Aql

Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.^[81] Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.^[90] However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed intelligence prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests and values^[91]

Self-efficacy for leadership

Confidence in one's ability to lead is associated with increases in willingness to accept a leadership role and success in that role.^[92]

O'z-o'zini nazorat qilish

High self-monitors are more likely to emerge as the leader of a group than are low self-monitors, since they are more concerned with status-enhancement and are more likely to adapt their actions to fit the demands of the situation^[93]

Social motivation

Individuals who are both success-oriented and affiliation-oriented, as assessed by projective measures, are more active in group problem-solving settings and are more likely to be elected to positions of leadership in such groups^[94]

Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits

A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.^[95]

Absentee leader

Existing research has shown that absentee leaders - those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and are marginally engaging with their role - are actually worse than destructive leader, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.^[96]

Etakchilik uslublari

A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership (Robert Xariman, Siyosiy uslub,^[97] Filipp-Jozef Salazar, L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies politiques De La Domination^[98]).

Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or Laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.^[99]A field in which leadership style has gained strong attention is that of military science, recently expressing a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domen bilimlari. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.^[100]

Autocratic or authoritarian

Ostida avtokratik leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with diktatorlar.

Autocratic leaders do not ask or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group.^[99]

Participative or democratic

The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This has also been called shared leadership.

Laissez-faire or Free-rein

In Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the sub-ordinates. The sub-ordinates are given complete right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles.^[101]

Task-oriented and relationship-oriented

Task-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader is focused on the tasks that need to be performed in order to meet a certain production goal. Task-oriented leaders are generally more concerned with producing a step-by-step solution for given problem or goal, strictly making sure these deadlines are met, results and reaching target outcomes.

Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style in which the leader is more focused on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.^[102] Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done.

Task-oriented leaders are typically less concerned with the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal. For this reason, they typically are able to make sure that deadlines are met, yet their group members' well-being may suffer. These leaders have absolute focus on the goal and the tasks cut out for each member. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer

Paternalizm

Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the members.^[103] There is often a limitation on the choices that the members can choose from due to the heavy direction given by the leader.

The term paternalism is from the Latin pater meaning "father". The leader is most often a male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies.^[103]

Leadership differences affected by gender

Another factor that covaries with leadership style is whether the person is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an agentic leadership uslubi. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and respond tactfully to others' comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and finally, emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, it is important to note that these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations.^[104] Meta-analyses show that people associate masculinity and agency more strongly with leadership than femininity and communion.^[105] Bunday stereotiplar may have an effect on leadership evaluations of men and women.^[106][107]

Barriers for non-western female leaders

Many reasons can contribute to the barriers that specifically affect women's entrance into leadership. These barriers also change according to different cultures. Despite the increasing number of female leaders in the world, only a small fraction come from non-westernized cultures. It is important to note that although the barriers listed below may be more severe in non-western culture, it does not imply that westernized cultures do not have these barriers as well. This aims to compare the differences between the two.

Research and LiteratureAlthough there have been many studies done on leadership for women in the past decade, very little research has been done for women in paternalistic cultures. The literature and research done for women to emerge into a society that prefers males is lacking. This ultimately hinders women from knowing how to reach their individual leadership goals, and fails to educate the male counterparts in this disparity.^[108]

Homiladorlik va tug'ish ta'tillariStudies have shown the importance of longer paid maternity leave and the positive effects it has on a female employee's mental health and return to work. In Sweden, it was shown that the increased flexibility in timing for mothers to return to work, decreased the odds of poor mental health reports. In these non-western cultures that mostly follow paternalism, the lack of knowledge on the benefits of maternity leave impact the support given to the women during this important time in their life.^[109]

Society and LawsCertain countries that follow paternalism, such as India, still allow for women to be treated unjustly. Child marriage and minor punishments for perpetrators in crime against women, shape the society's view on how females should be treated. This can prevent women from feeling comfortable to speak out in both a personal and professional setting.^[110]

Glass Ceilings and Glass CliffsWomen who work in a very paternalistic culture or industry (e.g. oil or engineering industry), often deal with a limitations in their career that prevent them from moving up any further. This association is often due to the mentality that only males carry leadership characteristics. The glass cliff term refers to undesired projects that are often given to women because they have an increase in risk of failure. These undesired projects are given to female employees where they are more likely to fail and leave the organization.^[111]

Ishlash

In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.

Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership ishlash, including outcomes such as leader samaradorlik, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.

"Another way to conceptualize leader performance is to focus on the outcomes of the leader’s followers, group, team, unit, or organization. In evaluating this type of leader performance, two general strategies are typically used. The first relies on subjective perceptions of the leader’s performance from subordinates, superiors, or occasionally peers or other parties. The other type of effectiveness measures are more objective indicators of follower or unit performance, such as measures of productivity, goal attainment, sales figures, or unit financial performance (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 47)."^[112]

A toksik rahbar is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader–follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it.

Xususiyatlari

Yuliy Tsezar, one of the world's greatest military leaders

Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Current studies have indicated that leadership is much more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of observation and study have indicated that one such trait or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness.^[113] However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. The following summarizes the main leadership traits found in research by Jon P. Howell, business professor at New Mexico State University and author of the book Snapshots of Great Leadership.

Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance and sometimes dominance. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive with others. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits are able to formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Howell provides examples of Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln as encompassing the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments.^[113]

Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance. Individuals who are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions; they also have the ability to project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in individuals who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. It is often said that these leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts. Sociability describes individuals who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted well by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, as well as hold the ability to adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. According to Howell, Mother Teresa is an exceptional example who embodies integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world.^[113]

Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed as front-runners of their organization or situation.

Ontological-phenomenological model

One of the more recent definitions of leadership comes from Verner Erxard, Maykl C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger who describe leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that wasn't going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties...". This definition ensures that leadership is talking about the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills on the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that wasn't going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.^[114]

Kontekstlar

Tashkilotlar

An organization that is established as an asbob or means for achieving defined maqsadlar ga murojaat qilingan^{[kim tomonidan? ]} kabi rasmiy tashkilot. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work tuzilishi. Thus, the formal organization is expected^{[kim tomonidan? ]} to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. This bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.^[115]

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the norasmiy tashkilot that underlies the formal structure.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} The informal organization expresses the personal maqsadlar va maqsadlar shaxsning A'zolik. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.^{[116][117][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]}

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.^[116]

A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. In this scenario, leadership is not dependent on title or formal authority.^[118] Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society".^{[sahifa kerak ]} Leaders are recognized^{[kim tomonidan? ]} by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.^[119] An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to him/her. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in a hierarchy, with commensurate authority.^[116] Leadership can be defined^{[kim tomonidan? ]} as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.^{[120][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]}

Menejment

Over the years the terms "boshqaruv " and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and generally^{[miqdorini aniqlash ]} reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978) between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by charisma, personal relationships, creativity).^[67]

Guruh

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called shared leadership, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation and mutual influence among team members.^[121] Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boshliq as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.^[122]

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner murabbiylar to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.^[123]

According to the National School Boards Association (USA):^[124]

These Group Leaderships or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics:

Characteristics of a Team

• There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.
• There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and learn from and work with others.
• The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.

Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:

• Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.
• Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals.
• Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task.
• Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
• Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.
• Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.
• Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups.
• Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together.
• Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly.
• Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members.

Self-leadership

Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual, rather than an external act. It is an expression of who we are as people.^{[125][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]} Self-leadership is having a developed sense of who you are, what you can achieve, what are your goals coupled with the ability to affect your emotions, behaviors and communication. At the center of leadership is the person who is motivated to make the difference. Self-leadership is a way toward more effectively leading other people.^{[126][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]}

Biology and evolution of leadership

Mark van Vugt va Anjana Ahuja yilda Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership (2011) present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too.^[127] They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In a study, Mark van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level.^[128]Richard Wrangham va Deyl Peterson, yilda Jinsiy erkaklar: maymunlar va inson zo'ravonligining kelib chiqishi (1996), present evidence that only humans and shimpanze, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, hududiylik, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.^[129] This position is contentious.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Many animals apart from apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (which are likewise matriarchal), sheep (which "follow" in some sense castrated bellnamlagichlar ) va boshqalar.

Taqqoslash uchun, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do emas unite behind the chief male of the land. Bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or with its reputation as a "hippi chimp".^[130])

Miflar

Leadership, although largely talked about, has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that the existence of several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership often interferes with individuals' conception of what leadership is all about (Gardner, 1965; Bennis, 1975).^[131][132]

Leadership is innate

According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive dispositional characteristics present at birth (e.g., ekstraversiya; aql-idrok; topqirlik ). However, according to Forsyth (2009) there is evidence to show that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.^[133] Thus, effective leadership can result from tabiat (i.e., innate talents) as well as tarbiyalash (i.e., acquired skills).

Leadership is possessing power over others

Although leadership is certainly a form of kuch, it is not demarcated by power ustida people – rather, it is a power bilan people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers (Forsyth, 2009).^[133] Despite popular belief, the use of manipulyatsiya, majburlash, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. In actuality, individuals who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders (e.g., class president; court judge).

Leaders are positively influential

The amal qilish muddati of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, according to Baumeister et al. (1988), bystander effect (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.^[134] Moreover, it has been documented that group performance,^[135] ijodkorlik,^[136] va samaradorlik^[137] all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs. However, the difference leaders make is emas always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including his/her own followers (e.g., Pol Pot; Iosif Stalin ). Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.^[138]

Leaders entirely control group outcomes

Yilda G'arb madaniyati it is generally assumed that group leaders make barchasi the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment. Although common, this romanticized view of leadership (i.e., the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes) ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics.^[139] Masalan, group cohesion, communication patterns among members, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as behavioral norms and established standards influence group functionality in varying capacities. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements.

All groups have a designated leader

Despite preconceived notions, not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women,^[140][141] are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,^[142] or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a diffusion of responsibility, where leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members (Schmid Mast, 2002; Berdahl & Anderson, 2007; Guastello, 2007).

Group members resist leaders

Although research has indicated that group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and overall group strength,^[133] most people actually prefer to be led than to be without a leader (Berkowitz, 1953).^[143] This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader (Stewart & Manz, 1995).^[144]

Action-oriented environments

One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. In other words, there is leadership of small groups often created to respond to a situation or critical incident.

In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup (action environments). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of front line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. This has been termed action oriented leadership. Some examples of demonstrations of action oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment.^[145]

Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized IT teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home base decision makers. Early adoption of Scrum and Kanban branch development methodologies helped to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on trunk based development. This method of just-in-time action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules satisfying the clients need to rapidly patch production environment bugs as needed.^[146]

Tanqidiy fikr

Karleyl 's 1840 "Buyuk inson nazariyasi ", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition (from Gerbert Spenser, Leo Tolstoy, and others) in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Karl Popper noted in 1945 that leaders can mislead and make mistakes - he warns against deferring to "great men".^[147]

Noam Xomskiy^[148][149]va boshqalar^[150]have subjected the concept of leadership to tanqidiy fikrlash and have provided an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question subjection to a will or intellect other than one's own if the leader is not a mavzu bo'yicha mutaxassis (KO'K).

Kabi tushunchalar autogestion, employeeship va umumiy fuqarolik fazilati, etc., challenge the fundamentally antidemokratik nature of the leadership principle by stressing individual responsibility and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out "leadership" as the basis of a special class of individuals.

Similarly, various historical calamities (such as Ikkinchi jahon urushi ) can be attributed^[151]to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership as exhibited in diktatura.

G'oyasi leaderism paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.^[152][153]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

Izohlar

Kitoblar

• Bleyk, R .; Mouton, J. (1964). Boshqaruv tarmog'i: etakchilik mukammalligi kaliti. Xyuston: Gulf Publishing Co.
• Karleyl, Tomas (1841). Qahramonlar, qahramonlarga sig'inish va qahramonlar tarixi to'g'risida. Boston: Xyuton Mifflin. ISBN  978-1-4069-4419-8.
• Fidler, Fred E. (1967). Etakchilik samaradorligi nazariyasi. McGraw-Hill: Harper and Row Publishers Inc.
• Xeyfets, Ronald (1994). Oson javoblarsiz etakchilik. Kembrij, Massachusets: Garvard universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-674-51858-2.
• Xemfill, Jon K. (1949). Etakchilikdagi vaziyat omillari. Kolumbus: Ogayo shtati universiteti Ta'lim tadqiqotlari byurosi.
• Ladkin, Donna (2011). Etakchilikni qayta ko'rib chiqish: etakchilikning eski savollariga yangicha qarash. Cheltenxem: Edvard Elgar Publishing Ltd. ISBN  978-0-85793-131-3.
• Miner, J. B. (2005). Tashkiliy xulq-atvor: 1-xulq-atvor: Motivatsiya va etakchilikning muhim nazariyalari. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe.
• Montana, Patrik J.; Bryus H. (2008). Menejment. Hauppauge, Nyu-York: Barron's Education Series, Inc. ISBN  978-0-944740-04-0.
• Myurrey Xibert, Bryus Klatt, Etakchilik ensiklopediyasi: ommabop etakchilik nazariyalari va uslublari uchun amaliy qo'llanma [1 ed.], 9780071363082, 0071363084, McGraw-Hill, 2000
• Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sidney Ellen (2010). Bugungi kunda psixologiya va ish: sanoat va tashkiliy psixologiyaga kirish (10-nashr). Yuqori Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 171. ISBN  978-0205683581.
• Spenser, Gerbert (1841). Sotsiologiyani o'rganish. Nyu-York: D. A. Appleton. ISBN  978-0-314-71117-5.
• Tittemor, Jeyms A. (2003). Barcha darajadagi etakchilik. Kanada: Boskva nashriyoti. ISBN  978-0-9732914-0-7.
• Vroom, Viktor H.; Yetton, Fillip V. (1973). Etakchilik va qaror qabul qilish. Pitsburg: Pitsburg universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-8229-3266-6.
  • Jey V. Lorsch (1974 yil bahor) Kitoblarni ko'rib chiqish: Etakchilik va qaror qabul qilish Vroom va Yetton tomonidan, MIT Sloan Management Review 15(3): 100
• Vroom, Viktor H.; Jago, Artur G. (1988). Yangi etakchilik: tashkilotlarda ishtirok etishni boshqarish. Englewood Cliffs, Nyu-Jersi: Prentis-Xoll. ISBN  978-0-13-615030-5.
• Van Vormer, Ketrin S.; Besthorn, Fred H.; Kif, Tomas (2007). Insoniy xulq-atvori va ijtimoiy muhit: Ibratli daraja: guruhlar, jamoalar va tashkilotlar. AQSh: Oksford universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-19-518754-0.

Jurnal maqolalari

• Xadli Kantril (1958) "Samarali demokratik etakchilik: psixologik talqin", Individual psixologiya jurnali 14: 128-38 va 139-49 betlar Psixologiya, gumanizm va ilmiy izlanishlar (1988) Albert H. Kantril tomonidan tahrirlangan, Tranzaksiya kitoblari.
• Uy, Robert J. (1971). "Rahbar samaradorligining yo'l-maqsad nazariyasi". Har chorakda ma'muriy fan. 16 (3): 321–339. doi:10.2307/2391905. JSTOR  2391905.
• Uy, Robert J. (1996). "Etakchilikning yo'l-maqsad nazariyasi: darslar, meros va isloh qilingan nazariya". Har chorakda etakchilik. 7 (3): 323–352. doi:10.1016 / S1048-9843 (96) 90024-7.
• Levin, Kurt; Lippitt, Ronald; Oq, Ralf (1939). "Eksperimental ravishda yaratilgan ijtimoiy iqlim sharoitida tajovuzkor xatti-harakatlar naqshlari". Ijtimoiy psixologiya jurnali: 271–301.
• Kirkpatrik, Shelli A.; Lokk, Edvin A. (1991). "Etakchilik: Xislatlar muhimmi?" (PDF). Boshqaruv akademiyasi. 5 (2). Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2010-06-27 da.
• Spillane, Jeyms P.; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John B. (2004). "Etakchilik amaliyoti nazariyasiga". O'quv dasturlarini o'rganish jurnali. 36 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1080/0022027032000106726. S2CID  3094291.
• Vroom, Viktor; Sternberg, Robert J. (2002). "Nazariy xatlar: shaxs rahbariyatdagi vaziyatga qarshi". Etakchilik. 13 (3): 301–323. doi:10.1016 / S1048-9843 (02) 00101-7.