Plastik ifloslanish - Plastic pollution

Gana, 2018, plastik ifloslanish

Dualadagi Madagaskar okrugidagi oqim plastiklarga to'lib toshgan

Plastmassalar dunyo okeaniga kiradigan yo'l

Plastik ifloslanish ning to'planishi plastik narsalar va zarralar (masalan, plastik butilkalar, sumkalar va mikrobeads ) Yerda atrof-muhit bu salbiy ta'sir qiladi yovvoyi hayot, yovvoyi tabiatning yashash muhiti va odamlar.^[1][2] Sifatida ishlaydigan plastmassalar ifloslantiruvchi moddalar hajmiga qarab mikro-, mezo- yoki so'l qoldiqlarga bo'linadi.^[3] Plastmassalar arzon va bardoshlidir, natijada odamlar tomonidan plastik ishlab chiqarish darajasi yuqori.^[4] Ammo aksariyat plastmassalarning kimyoviy tuzilishi ularni ko'plab tabiiy jarayonlarga chidamli qiladi tanazzul va natijada ular sekin tanazzulga uchraydi.^[5] Ushbu ikkita omil birgalikda plastmassaning yuqori darajada taniqli bo'lishiga olib keldi ifloslanish muhitda.

Plastik ifloslanish quruqlikka, suv yo'llariga va okeanlarga ta'sir qilishi mumkin. Taxminlarga ko'ra 1,1 dan 8,8 milliongacha tonna plastik chiqindilar har yili okeanga qirg'oqdagi jamoalardan kiradi.^[6] Tirik organizmlar, xususan dengiz hayvonlari, mexanik ta'sirlar, masalan, plastik narsalarga chalkashib ketish, plastik chiqindilarni yutish bilan bog'liq muammolar yoki ularning fiziologiyasiga xalaqit beradigan plastmassa tarkibidagi kimyoviy moddalar ta'sirida zarar etkazishi mumkin. Odamlarga ta'siri turli xil narsalarning buzilishini o'z ichiga oladi gormonal mexanizmlar.

2018 yilga kelib dunyoda har yili taxminan 380 million tonna plastik ishlab chiqarilmoqda. 1950-yillardan 2018-yilgacha butun dunyoda taxminan 6,3 milliard tonna plastmassa ishlab chiqarilgan bo'lib, ulardan 9% qayta ishlangan va yana 12% yoqib yuborilgan.^[7] Ushbu katta miqdordagi plastik chiqindilar atrof-muhitga kirib boradi va tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, dengiz qushlarining 90% tanasida plastik qoldiqlar mavjud.^[8][9] Ba'zi hududlarda plastik iste'molni kamaytirish orqali erkin atrof-muhit ifloslanishining ahamiyatini pasaytirish bo'yicha sezilarli harakatlar qilindi, axlat tozalash va targ'ib qilish plastikni qayta ishlash.^[10][11]

Ba'zi tadqiqotchilar 2050 yilga kelib og'irligi bo'yicha okeanlardagi baliqlarga qaraganda ko'proq plastik bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilishmoqda.^[12]

Sabablari

Plastik chiqindilar savdosi dengiz axlatining "asosiy aybdori" deb topildi.^[a] Chiqindilarni plastmassalarni import qiluvchi mamlakatlar ko'pincha barcha materiallarni qayta ishlashga qodir emaslar. Natijada, Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti chiqindi plastmassa savdosiga ba'zi mezonlarga javob bermasa, taqiq qo'ydi.^[b]

Plastmassa qoldiqlari turlari

Plastmassaning ifloslanishiga yordam beradigan uchta asosiy plastmassa shakli mavjud: mikroplastikalar shuningdek, mega- va makro-plastmassalar. Mega va mikro plastmassalar shimoliy yarim sharda zichlikda to'planib, shahar markazlari va suv jabhalarida to'plangan. Axlatni tashiydigan oqim tufayli ba'zi orollarning qirg'og'ida plastikni topish mumkin. Ikkala mega- va makro-plastmassa ham mavjud qadoqlash, poyabzal va boshqa uy-ro'zg'or buyumlari kemalardan yuvilgan yoki axlatxonalarga tashlangan. Baliq ovlashga oid buyumlarni uzoqroq orollar atrofida topish ehtimoli ko'proq.^[14][15] Ularni mikro, mezo va makro chiqindilar deb ham atash mumkin.

Plastik qoldiqlar birlamchi yoki ikkilamchi deb tasniflanadi. Birlamchi plastmassalar yig'ilganda asl shaklida bo'ladi. Bunga misollar bo'ladi shisha qopqoqlari, sigaret qoldiqlari va mikrobeads.^[16] Boshqa tomondan, ikkilamchi plastmassalar birlamchi plastmassalarning parchalanishi natijasida yuzaga kelgan kichikroq plastiklarni hisobga oladi.^[17]

Mikrodebris

Yer usti okeanidagi mikroplastikalar

Mikrodebris - o'lchamlari 2 mm dan 5 mm gacha bo'lgan plastik qismlar.^[15] Mezo- yoki makrodebris sifatida boshlanadigan plastik qoldiqlar, parchalanish va to'qnashuvlar natijasida mikrodebralarga aylanishi mumkin, bu esa ularni mayda qismlarga ajratadi.^[3] Mikrodebris ko'proq deb nomlanadi parda.^[3] Ertaklar qayta ishlanib, yangi plastmassa buyumlar tayyorlanadi, ammo ular kichikligi tufayli ishlab chiqarish jarayonida atrof-muhitga osongina tarqaladi. Ular ko'pincha daryolar va soylar orqali okean suvlariga tushib qolishadi.^[3] Tozalash va kosmetika mahsulotlaridan olinadigan mikrodebrlar, shuningdek, skrubberlar deb ham ataladi. Mikrodebris va skrubberlar hajmi juda kichik bo'lgani uchun, filtr bilan oziqlanadigan organizmlar ko'pincha ularni iste'mol qiladi.^[3]

Tog'lar okeanga tashish paytida yoki quruqlikdagi manbalardan to'kiladigan vositalar orqali kiradi. The Okeanni muhofaza qilish Xitoy, Indoneziya, Filippin, Tailand va Vetnam dengizga boshqa barcha mamlakatlarnikidan ko'ra ko'proq plastik tashlaganligi haqida xabar berdi.^[18] Hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, okeandagi plastmassalarning 10% ini parrandalar tashkil etadi, bu ularni plastik ifloslanishning eng keng tarqalgan turlaridan biriga aylantiradi. polietilen paketlar va oziq-ovqat idishlari.^[19][20] Ushbu mikro plastmassalar okeanlarda to'planib, doimiy bio-akkumulyator zaharli moddalarni to'plashga imkon beradi. bisfenol A, polistirol Tabiatda hidrofob bo'lgan va sog'likka salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin bo'lgan DDT va PCB.^[21][22]

Mikro qoldiqlarning miqdori, joylashishi, kuzatilishi va o'zaro bog'liqligi

Buyuk Britaniyaning Plimut Universitetidan Richard Tompson tomonidan 2004 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar natijasida mikrodebrisning katta miqdori sohillar va Evropa, Amerika, Avstraliya, Afrika va Antarktida.^[5] Tompson va uning sheriklari maishiy va sanoat manbalaridan olingan plastik pelletlar ancha mayda plastik qismlarga bo'linayotganini, ularning ba'zilari diametri inson sochlaridan kichikroq ekanligini aniqladilar.^[5] Agar yutilmasa, bu mikrodebris dengiz muhitiga singib ketish o'rniga suzadi. Tompson dengiz yuzining har kvadrat kilometrida 300 ming dona plastmassa buyumlari va dengiz tubining har kvadrat kilometrida 100 ming dona plastik zarralar bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda.^[5] Xalqaro pellet soati 17 mamlakatdan kelgan 30 ta plyajdan polietilen pellet namunalarini yig'di, so'ngra organik mikro-ifloslantiruvchi moddalar uchun tahlil qilindi. Amerika, Vetnam va Afrikaning janubiy qismidagi plyajlarda topilgan pelletlarda pestitsidlardan tashkil topgan birikmalar mavjud bo'lib, bu joylarda pestitsidlardan yuqori darajada foydalanishni anglatadi.^[23] 2020 yilda olimlar hozirgi kunda Yerda qancha mikroplastikaning borligini birinchi ilmiy taxmin qilishlari mumkin dengiz tubi, Avstraliya qirg'oqlaridan ~ 300 km chuqurlikdagi ~ 3 km oltita hududni tekshirgandan so'ng. Ular juda o'zgaruvchan mikroplastik hisoblarni sirtdagi plastmassa va dengiz tubi burchagi bilan mutanosib deb topdilar. Mikroplastik massani sm ga o'rtacha hisoblash yo'li bilan³, ular Yer dengizining tubida ~ 14 million tonna mikroplastik bor, deb taxmin qilishdi - bu avvalgi tadqiqotlar ma'lumotlari asosida ular taxmin qilgan miqdorning ikki baravariga teng - ikkala taxminni ham "konservativ" deb atashlariga qaramay, qirg'oq hududlari tarkibida mikroplastik ko'proq ekanligi ma'lum. Ushbu hisob-kitoblar, har yili Jambek va boshq. 2015 yilga kelib har yili okeanga kirib borishi uchun plastik fikrning bir-ikki baravariga tengdir.^[24][25][26]

Makrodebris

Yer usti okeanidagi makroplastikalar

Plastmassa qoldiqlari 20 mm dan kattaroq bo'lganda makro qoldiqlar deb tasniflanadi. Bularga plastik oziq-ovqat paketlari kabi narsalar kiradi.^[3] Makrodebris ko'pincha okean suvlarida uchraydi va mahalliy organizmlarga jiddiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin. Baliq ovlash tarmoqlari asosiy ifloslantiruvchi moddalar bo'lgan. Ular tashlab yuborilgandan keyin ham ular dengiz organizmlarini va boshqa plastik qoldiqlarni tutishda davom etmoqdalar. Oxir-oqibat, ushbu tashlab qo'yilgan to'rlarni og'irligi 6 tonnagacha o'sganligi sababli ularni suvdan olib tashlash juda qiyin bo'ladi.^[3]

Plastik ishlab chiqarish

Plastmassalarning parchalanishi

Oddiy dengiz qoldiqlari parchalanishining o'rtacha taxminiy vaqtlari. Plastik buyumlar ko'k rangda ko'rsatilgan.

Plastmassalarning o'zi tashlab yuborilgan chiqindilarning taxminan 10 foizini tashkil qiladi. Plastmassalarning ko'p turlari ularning kashshoflari va ularning polimerlanish usuliga bog'liq. Plastmassa va qatronlar kimyoviy tarkibiga qarab ifloslantiruvchi moddalar bilan bog'liq har xil xususiyatlarga ega singdirish va adsorbsiya. Polimerlarning parchalanishi sho'rlangan muhit va dengizning sovutish ta'siri natijasida ancha uzoq vaqt talab etiladi. Ushbu omillar ma'lum muhitda plastik qoldiqlarning saqlanib qolishiga yordam beradi.^[15] Yaqinda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, okeandagi plastmassalar quyosh, yomg'ir va boshqa atrof-muhit sharoitlari ta'sirida bir vaqtlar o'ylanganidan tezroq parchalanadi va natijada zaharli kimyoviy moddalar chiqadi. bisfenol A. Biroq, okeandagi plastmassa hajmining ko'payishi tufayli parchalanish sekinlashdi.^[27] Dengiz konservatsiyasi bir nechta plastik mahsulotlarning parchalanish tezligini taxmin qildi. Taxminlarga ko'ra, ko'pik plastik stakan 50 yil, plastik ichimliklar egasi 400 yil davom etadi, a bir martalik yalang'och 450 yil davom etadi va baliq ovlash liniyasi tanazzulga uchrashi uchun 600 yil kerak bo'ladi.^[5]

Doimiy organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar

Plastmassalarning global ishlab chiqarilishi taxminan 250 mt / yilni tashkil etadi deb taxmin qilingan. Ularning mo'lligi transport uchun topilgan doimiy organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar, shuningdek, POPlar deb nomlanadi. Ushbu ifloslantiruvchi moddalar suv o'tlari tarqalishining ko'payishi bilan bog'liq qizil to'lqinlar.^[15]

Tijorat ifloslantiruvchi moddalar

2019 yilda Break Free from Plastic guruhi plastik chiqindilarni yig'ish va aniqlash uchun 51 mamlakatda 70 mingdan ortiq ko'ngillilarni tashkil etdi. Ushbu ko'ngillilar xabar qilishlaricha "59,000 polietilen paketlar, 53,000 paketlar va 29,000 plastik butilkalar" ni to'plashdi Guardian. Mahsulotlarning deyarli yarmi iste'molchilar brendlari tomonidan aniqlangan. Eng keng tarqalgan brendlar edi Coca Cola, Nestle va Pepsiko.^[28][29]

Plastikni ifloslantiruvchi yirik mamlakatlar

Etarli darajada boshqarilmaydigan plastik chiqindilar ulushi

Aholi jon boshiga noto'g'ri boshqariladigan plastik chiqindilar (kuniga bir kishi uchun kilogramm bilan)

Noto'g'ri boshqariladigan plastik chiqindilarni ifloslantiruvchi moddalar

2018 yilda taxminan 513 mln tonna har yili okeanlarda plastmassa uchadi, shundan 83,1% quyidagi 20 mamlakatdan iborat: Xitoy dunyodagi 27,7% dengizda qoldiradigan eng noto'g'ri boshqariladigan plastik chiqindilarni ifloslantiruvchi hisoblanadi Indoneziya 10,1% bilan, uchinchi Filippinlar 5,9% bilan, to'rtinchi Vetnam 5,8% bilan, beshinchi Shri-Lanka 5,0%, oltinchi Tailand 3.2% bilan, ettinchi Misr 3.0% bilan, sakkizinchi Malayziya 2,9% bilan, to'qqizinchi Nigeriya 2,7% bilan, o'ninchi Bangladesh 2,5% bilan, o'n birinchi Janubiy Afrika 2.0% bilan, o'n ikkinchi Hindiston 1,9% bilan, o'n uchinchi Jazoir 1,6% bilan, o'n to'rtinchi kurka 1,5% bilan, o'n beshinchi Pokiston 1,5% bilan, o'n oltinchi Braziliya 1,5% bilan, o'n ettinchi Myanma 1,4% bilan, o'n sakkizinchi Marokash 1,0% bilan, o'n to'qqizinchi Shimoliy Koreya 1,0% bilan, yigirmanchi Qo'shma Shtatlar 0,9% bilan. Tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra, dunyoning qolgan mamlakatlarida okeanlardagi noto'g'ri ishlatilgan plastik chiqindilarning 16,9% tashkil etadi. Ilm-fan, Jambek va boshq (2015).^[6][30][31]

Hammasi Yevropa Ittifoqi mamlakatlar birlashtirilgan bo'lsa, ro'yxatda o'n sakkizinchi o'rinni egallaydi.^[6][30]

2019 yilgi tadqiqotlar natijasida yiliga million tonnada (Mt) noto'g'ri ishlatilgan plastik chiqindilar hisoblab chiqilgan:

• 52 Mt - Osiyo
• 17 Mt - Afrika
• 7.9 Mt - Lotin Amerikasi va Karib dengizi
• 3.3 Mt - Evropa
• 0,3 Mt - AQSh va Kanada
• 0,1 Mt - Okeaniya (Avstraliya, Yangi Zelandiya va boshqalar)^[32]

Jami plastik chiqindilarni ifloslantiruvchi moddalar

Dunyo bo'ylab har yili 275 million tonna atrofida plastik chiqindilar hosil bo'ladi; 4,8 milliondan 12,7 million tonnagacha dengizga to'kilgan. Okeandagi plastik chiqindilarning taxminan 60% quyidagi 5 ta mamlakatga to'g'ri keladi.^[33] Quyidagi jadval tomonidan chop etilgan tadqiqotga ko'ra 2010 yilda plastik chiqindilarni ifloslantiruvchi eng yaxshi 20 mamlakat ro'yxati keltirilgan Ilm-fan, Jambek va boshq (2015).^[6][30]

Hammasi Yevropa Ittifoqi mamlakatlar birlashganda ro'yxatda o'n sakkizinchi o'rinni egallaydi.^[6][30]

Tomonidan nashr etilgan tadqiqotda Atrof-muhit fanlari va texnologiyalari, Shmidt va boshq (2017) 10 ta daryo hisoblangan: ikkitasi Afrika (the Nil va Niger ) va sakkizta Osiyo (the Gangalar, Indus, Sariq, Yangtsi, Xay Xe, dur, Mekong va Amur ) "global plastiklarning 88-95 foizini dengizga tashish.".^{[34][35][36][37]}

The Karib orollari eng katta plastik ifloslantiruvchi moddalardir Aholi jon boshiga dunyoda. Trinidad va Tobago kishi boshiga kuniga 1,5 kilogramm chiqindilarni ishlab chiqaradi, bu dunyodagi jon boshiga eng katta plastik ifloslantiruvchi hisoblanadi. Trinidad va Tobagoning plastik qoldiqlari kuniga bir kishiga kamida 0,19 kg ni tashkil etadi, masalan, okeanga tushadi yoki Sankt-Lucia Xitoyga nisbatan aholi jon boshiga to'rt baravar ko'p plastik chiqindilarni ishlab chiqaradi va aholi jon boshiga Xitoyga nisbatan 1,2 barobar ko'proq noto'g'ri joylashtirilgan plastik chiqindilar uchun javobgardir. Aholi jon boshiga eng ko'p o'ttizta global ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning o'ntasi Karib dengizi mintaqasidan. Bular Trinidad va Tobago, Antigua va Barbuda, Sent-Kits va Nevis, Gayana, Barbados, Sankt-Lucia, Bagama orollari, Grenada, Angilya va Aruba, tomonidan umumlashtirilgan tadqiqotlar to'plamiga ko'ra Forbes (2019).^[38]

Effektlar

Atrof muhitga ta'siri

Plastmassa qoldiqlarining tarqalishi shamol va okean oqimlari, qirg'oq chizig'i geografiyasi, shahar hududlari va savdo yo'llari kabi ba'zi omillar natijasida juda o'zgaruvchan. Bunda ma'lum hududlarda yashovchi aholi soni ham katta rol o'ynaydi. Plastmassalar Karib dengizi kabi yopiq mintaqalarda ko'proq uchraydi. U organizmlarni o'zlarining tabiiy muhitlari bo'lmagan uzoq qirg'oqlarga tarqatish vositasi bo'lib xizmat qiladi. Bu potentsial ravishda biologik jihatdan unchalik xilma-xil bo'lmagan ma'lum sohalarda organizmlarning o'zgaruvchanligi va tarqalishini oshirishi mumkin. Plastmassalardan doimiy organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar va og'ir metallar kabi kimyoviy ifloslantiruvchi vositalar sifatida ham foydalanish mumkin.^[15]

Iqlim o'zgarishining sababi sifatida plastik ifloslanish

2019 yilda "Plastik va iqlim" yangi ma'ruzasi nashr etildi. Hisobotga ko'ra, 2019 yilda plastik ishlab chiqarish va yoqish o'z hissasini qo'shadi issiqxona gazlari 850 million tonnaga teng karbonat angidrid (CO
2) atmosferaga. Hozirgi tendentsiyada ushbu manbalardan chiqadigan yillik chiqindilar 2030 yilga borib 1,34 milliard tonnagacha o'sadi. 2050 yilga kelib plastmassa 56 milliard tonna chiqindi gazlarini chiqarishi mumkin, bu yerdagi 14 foizni tashkil qiladi. uglerod byudjeti.^[39] 2100 yilga kelib u 260 milliard tonnani, ya'ni uglerod byudjetining yarmidan ko'pini chiqaradi. Bular ishlab chiqarish, tashish, yoqib yuborishdan chiqadigan emissiya, ammo chiqindilar ham mavjud metan va ta'siri fitoplankton.^[40]

Plastmassaning quruqlikka ta'siri

Erning plastik ifloslanishi o'simliklar va hayvonlarga, shu jumladan erga asoslangan odamlar uchun xavf tug'diradi.^[41] Quruqlikdagi plastik kontsentratsiyasining miqdori okeandan to'rtdan yigirma uch baravargacha. Quruqlikka tayyorlangan plastmassa miqdori suvga qaraganda ko'proq va ko'proq konsentratsiyalangan.^[42] Noto'g'ri boshqariladigan plastik chiqindilar Sharqiy Osiyo va Tinch okeanidagi 60 foizdan Shimoliy Amerikadagi bir foizgacha. Noto'g'ri boshqariladigan plastik chiqindilarning har yili okeanga etib borishi va shu tariqa dengiz dengizining qoldiqlariga aylanishining ulushi o'sha yil uchun noto'g'ri ishlatilgan chiqindilarning uchdan biridan yarmigacha.^[43][44]

Xlorlangan plastmassa atrofdagi tuproqqa zararli kimyoviy moddalarni chiqarib yuborishi mumkin, keyinchalik ular singib ketishi mumkin er osti suvlari yoki boshqa atrofdagi suv manbalari, shuningdek dunyoning ekotizimi.^[45] Bu suv ichadigan turlarga jiddiy zarar etkazishi mumkin.

Müslüm suvidagi plastik ifloslanish

2017 yilgi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, 83% musluk suvi butun dunyo bo'ylab olingan namunalarda plastik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar mavjud.^[46][47] Bu global yo'naltirilgan birinchi tadqiqot edi ichimlik suvining ifloslanishi plastik bilan,^[48] va ifloslanish darajasi 94% bo'lganida, musluk suvi Qo'shma Shtatlar eng ifloslangan, keyin esa Livan va Hindiston. Evropa kabi mamlakatlar Birlashgan Qirollik, Germaniya va Frantsiya ifloslanish darajasi eng past ko'rsatkichga ega, garchi bu 72% bo'lsa ham.^[46] Bu shuni anglatadiki, odamlar yiliga musluk suvidan 3000 dan 4000 gacha mikropartikul plastmassani yutib yuborishi mumkin.^[48] Tahlil natijasida hajmi 2,5 mikrondan ortiq bo'lgan zarralar topildi, bu esa a ga nisbatan 2500 marta kattaroqdir nanometr. Ushbu ifloslanish inson salomatligiga ta'sir qiladimi, hozircha aniq emas, ammo agar suv tarkibida nano-zarracha ifloslantiruvchi moddalar mavjud bo'lsa, tadqiqot bilan bog'liq olimlarning fikriga ko'ra, inson farovonligiga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.^[49]

Biroq, musluklar ichidagi plastik suvning ifloslanishi, odamlar, havo, suv va tuproq o'rtasida ifloslanishning qanday o'zgarishi bilan bog'liqligi o'rganilmagan bo'lib qolmoqda.^[50]

Plastmassalar toshqinlarga ta'sir qiladi

Plastik chiqindilar drenajlarni to'sib qo'yadi va ko'plab shaharlarda toshqinlar ko'paymoqda.^[51]

Plastmassaning okeanlarga ta'siri

Ushbu bo'limda bir nechta muammolar mavjud. Iltimos yordam bering uni yaxshilang yoki ushbu masalalarni muhokama qiling munozara sahifasi. (Ushbu shablon xabarlarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Ushbu bo'lim haqiqat aniqligi bahsli. Tegishli munozarani topishingiz mumkin Nutq: Plastik ifloslanish. Iltimos, bahsli bayonotlar mavjudligini ta'minlashga yordam bering ishonchli manbalar. (2018 yil yanvar) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Tinch okeanidagi oqimlar 3 ta "orol" ni yaratdi.^[52]

Planktonik plastik zarralarni hisoblash zichligi uchun model natijalari (qizil rang zichroq)^[53]

Dengizlarga kiradigan plastik chiqindilar har yili ko'payib bormoqda, chunki dengizga kiradigan plastikning katta qismi 5 millimetrdan kichikroq zarralarda bo'ladi.^[51] 2016 yildan boshlab^[yangilash] Jahon okeanida taxminan 150 million tonna plastik ifloslanish borligi taxmin qilinmoqda, 2025 yilda 250 million tonnagacha o'sishi taxmin qilinmoqda.^[54] Boshqa bir tadqiqot 2012 yilda bu taxminan 165 million tonnani tashkil etganini taxmin qildi.^[21] 2020 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra Atlantika okeani tarkibida ilgari o'ylanganidan 10 barobar ko'proq plastik bor.^[55]

The Okeanni muhofaza qilish Xitoy, Indoneziya, Filippin, Tailand va Vetnam dengizga boshqa barcha mamlakatlarnikidan ko'ra ko'proq plastik tashlaganligi haqida xabar berdi.^[18]

Moddiy oqimlarni tahlil qilish asosida olib borilgan ilmiy tadqiqotlar shuni taxmin qiladiki, 2013 yil oxiriga kelib dunyo bo'ylab okeanda 86 million tonna dengiz dengiz qoldiqlari zaxirasi mavjud bo'lib, 1950 yildan 2013 yilgacha ishlab chiqarilgan global plastmassalarning 1,4 foizi okeanga kirib kelgan va u erda to'plangan. ^[56]

Bir tadqiqotga ko'ra dengizda 5 trilliondan ortiq plastmassa bo'laklari (to'rtta kichik mikroplastikalar, yirik mikroplastikalar, mezo va makroplastikalar) aniqlanadi.^[53] 2020 yilda yangi o'lchovlar natijasida Atlantika okeanida ilgari taxmin qilinganidan 10 baravar ko'p plastik topildi.^[57][58]

Okeanga etkazib berilayotgan axlat dengiz hayoti va odamlar uchun zaharli hisoblanadi. Plastmassaning tarkibiy qismlari bo'lgan toksinlar tarkibiga toksik bo'lgan dietilheksil ftalat kiradi kanserogen, shuningdek qo'rg'oshin, kadmiy va simob.

Plankton, baliqlar va oxir-oqibat inson zoti bu oziq-ovqat zanjiri orqali juda zaharli kanserogen moddalar va kimyoviy moddalarni yutadi. Ushbu toksinlarni o'z ichiga olgan baliqlarni iste'mol qilish saraton, immunitet buzilishi va tug'ma nuqsonlarning ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkin.^{[59][tekshirib bo'lmadi ]}

Okean yaqinidagi va okeandagi axlatlarning aksariyati plastmassalardan iborat bo'lib, dengiz ifloslanishining doimiy tarqalgan manbai hisoblanadi.^[60] Ko'pgina mamlakatlarda qattiq maishiy chiqindilarni noto'g'ri boshqarish suv tizimiga kiradigan plastmassa nazorati kamligini anglatadi.^[51] Doktor Markus Eriksenning so'zlariga ko'ra 5 Gyres Institutda og'irligi 270 ming tonnagacha bo'lgan 5,25 trillion plastik ifloslanish zarralari mavjud (2016). Ushbu plastmassa okean oqimlari tomonidan olinadi va ma'lum bo'lgan katta girdoblarda to'planadi okean girlari. Gyrlarning aksariyati plastik bilan to'ldirilgan ifloslanish joylariga aylanadi.

Okean asosidagi plastik ifloslanish manbalari

2019 yil oktyabr oyida, tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, aksariyat okean plastik ifloslanishi Xitoy yuk kemalaridan kelib chiqadi,^[61] Ocean Cleanup vakili shunday dedi: "Hamma okeanni qutqarish haqida polietilen paketlar, somonlar va bitta ishlatiladigan qadoqlardan foydalanishni to'xtatish orqali gaplashmoqda. Bu juda muhim, ammo okeanga chiqqanda, bu biz topadigan narsa emas."^[62]

5,6 million tonnani tashkil etadigan okean suvini ifloslantiradigan plastik qoldiqlarning deyarli 20% okean manbalaridan olinadi. MARPOL Xalqaro shartnoma "plastiklarni dengizga tashlashga to'liq taqiq qo'yadi".^[63][64] Savdo kemalari yuklarni chiqarib tashlaydi, kanalizatsiya, ishlatilgan tibbiy asbob-uskunalar va okeanga plastik o'z ichiga olgan boshqa chiqindilar. Qo'shma Shtatlarda 1987 yildagi dengiz plastik ifloslanishini o'rganish va nazorat qilish to'g'risidagi qonunga binoan dengizga, shu jumladan dengiz kemalaridan plastmassalarni tashlash taqiqlanadi.^[65][66] Dengiz va tadqiqot kemalari keraksiz deb hisoblangan chiqindilarni va harbiy texnikani chiqarib tashlaydi. Yoqimli hunarmandchilik tasodifan yoki beparvolik bilan baliq ovlash vositalari va boshqa chiqindilarni chiqaradi. Plastmassani ifloslanishining okeanga asoslangan eng katta manbai bu tashlangan baliq ovlash vositalari (shu jumladan, tuzoq va to'rlar), ba'zi joylarda plastik qoldiqlarning 90% gacha bo'lganligi taxmin qilinmoqda.^[3]

Kontinental plastik axlat okeanga asosan bo'ronli suv oqimi orqali kirib boradi, suv oqimlariga quyiladi yoki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qirg'oq suvlariga quyiladi.^[67] Okeandagi plastmassa okean oqimlarini kuzatib borishi va oxir-oqibat Buyuk Axlat Yamoqlari deb nomlanadigan narsaga aylanishi isbotlangan.^[68] Plastmassa okean oqimida yuradigan marshrutlarni bilish, kema tashuvchilarning tasodifiy tushishidan kelib chiqadi. Masalan, 1990 yil may oyida The Hansa tashuvchisi, Koreyadan AQShga suzib ketayotgan, bo'ron tufayli parchalanib ketgan, natijada minglab poyabzal tashlangan; oxir-oqibat ular AQShning g'arbiy qirg'og'ida va Gavayida paydo bo'lishni boshladilar.^[69]

Plastmassa chiqindilarining paydo bo'lishi okeandan chiqarilayotgan plastik ifloslanish miqdoridan oshib ketadi.

Mikroplastik va makroplastikaning okeanga ta'siri to'g'ridan-to'g'ri plastmassani tashlash orqali infiltratsiyaga duchor bo'lmaydi. dengiz ekotizimlari, lekin butun dunyo bo'ylab okeanlarga o'tadigan yoki yaratadigan ifloslangan daryolar orqali. Daryolar manba vazifasini bajarishi yoki kontekstga qarab cho'kishi mumkin. Daryolar aksariyat plastmassalarni oladi va to'playdi, lekin yaxshi foizni okeanga kirib ketishining oldini oladi. Daryolar dengiz muhitida plastik ifloslanishning asosiy manbai hisoblanadi ^[70] so'nggi tadqiqotlarda deyarli 80% hissa qo'shdi.^[71] Okeanda bo'lganligi qayd qilingan plastmassa miqdori istalgan vaqtda okeanga kiradigan plastmassadan ancha kam. Buyuk Britaniyada o'tkazilgan tadqiqotga ko'ra, faqat iste'molchilar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan (quyidagi jadvalda joylashgan) "o'nta" makroplastik dominant tipologiyalar mavjud.^[72] Ushbu tadqiqot davomida 192213 axlat buyumlari sanaldi, o'rtacha 71% plastik, 59% iste'molchilarga tegishli makroplastik buyumlar.^[72] Bunga chuchuk suvning ifloslanishi katta hissa qo'shmoqda dengiz plastmassasi ifloslanish borasida ozgina tadqiqotlar o'tkazilmagan va toza suvdan dengizgacha bo'lgan ifloslanish miqdori bo'yicha ma'lumotlar yig'ilgan. Hujjatlarning aksariyati ma'lumotlarning minimal yig'ilishi mavjud degan xulosaga kelishdi plastik qoldiqlar chuchuk suvli muhitda va quruqlikdagi tabiiy muhitda, garchi bu ularning asosiy hissasi bo'lsa ham. Ishlab chiqarish, foydalanish, utilizatsiya qilish va boshqa sohalarda siyosatni o'zgartirish zarurati va chiqindilarni boshqarish chuchuk suv muhitiga kirish uchun plastmassa miqdori va potentsialini kamaytirish uchun zarur.^[73]

Okean plastiklarining ifloslanishining quruqlik manbalari

Yerga asoslangan plastmassaning hissasi uchun hisob-kitoblar har xil. Bir tadqiqotga ko'ra, okean suvidagi plastik qoldiqlarning 80 foizdan bir oz ortig'i quruqlik manbalaridan kelib chiqadi va har yili 800 ming tonna (880 ming qisqa tonna) uchun javob beradi.^[3] 2015 yilda Jambeck va boshq. hisob-kitoblariga ko'ra, 2010 yilda 192 ta qirg'oq mamlakatlarida 275 million tonna (303 million qisqa tonna) plastik chiqindilar ishlab chiqarilgan, okeanga 4,8 dan 12,7 million tonnagacha (5,3 dan 14 million qisqa tonnagacha) kirgan - bu ulush atigi 5 foizgacha.^[6]

Tomonidan nashr etilgan tadqiqotda Ilm-fan, Jambek va boshq (2015) butun dunyo bo'ylab okean plastmassasi ifloslanishining 10 ta eng yirik emitentlari, eng kichigigacha, Xitoy, Indoneziya, Filippin, Vetnam, Shri-Lanka, Tailand, Misr, Malayziya, Nigeriya va Bangladesh.^[6]

Xavotirga sabab bo'lgan manba axlatxonalar. Axlatxonalardagi plastik shaklidagi chiqindilarning aksariyati bir martalik kabi narsalar qadoqlash. Plastmassalarni shu tarzda yo'q qilish to'planishga olib keladi.^[15] Plastmassa chiqindilarni chiqindixonalarga tashlash gazni emissiya qilish xavfiga ega bo'lishiga qaramay, yoqish orqali yo'q qilish mumkin, ammo birinchisi kosmik cheklovlarga ega. Yana bir tashvish shundaki, poligon va atrof-muhit o'rtasida himoya qatlami vazifasini bajaruvchi laynerlar sinishi mumkin, shu bilan toksinlar oqib chiqib, atrofdagi tuproq va suvni ifloslantiradi.^[74] Okeanlar yaqinida joylashgan chiqindixonalar ko'pincha okean qoldiqlariga hissa qo'shadi, chunki tarkib osongina siljiydi va dengizga daryolar va soylar singari shamol yoki kichik suv yo'llari orqali ko'chiriladi. Dengiz qoldiqlari samarali tozalanmagan, oxir-oqibat daryolar orqali okeanga tashiladigan kanalizatsiya suvlari natijasida ham paydo bo'lishi mumkin. Noto'g'ri tashlangan plastik buyumlarni ham bo'ron suvlari orqali okeanlarga etkazish mumkin.^[3]

Tinch okeanidagi plastik ifloslanish

Shimoliy Tinch okeani subtropik konvergentsiya zonasi

In Tinch okean girasi, xususan 20 ° N-40 ° N kenglikda, suzuvchi dengiz qoldiqlari bo'lgan katta tanalarni topish mumkin.^[75] Shamol naqshlari va okean oqimlarining modellari shuni ko'rsatadiki, Tinch okeanining shimoliy qismidagi plastik chiqindilar Subtropik konvergentsiya zonasi (STCZ), 23 ° N-37 ° N kenglik, janubi-g'arbiy-shimoli-sharqiy chiziq bilan to'qnashgan, shimoliy qismida joylashgan. Gavayi arxipelagi.^[75]

Tinch okeanida ikkita ommaviy yig'ilish mavjud: g'arbiy chiqindilar va sharqiy chiqindilar bo'lagi, birinchisi Yaponiya qirg'og'ida va ikkinchisi o'rtasida. Gavayi va Kaliforniya. Ikkala axlat yamoqlari ikkalasining ham qismidir ajoyib Tinch okeanidagi axlat yamog'i va shimoliy qirg'og'idagi plastik qoldiqlarning bir qismi orqali bog'langan Gavayi orollari. Taxminan ushbu axlat joylarida 90 million tonna (100 million qisqa tonna) axlat bor.^[75] Chiqindilar ixcham emas va ularning aksariyati tinchlik yuziga yaqin bo'lsa-da, ularni suvda 30 metrdan (100 fut) ko'proq chuqurlikda topish mumkin.^[75]

2017 yil aprel oyida nashr etilgan tadqiqotlar^[76] masofadan turib va ​​odam yashamaydigan joylarda "dunyoning istalgan nuqtasida plastik axlatning eng yuqori zichligi" haqida xabar berdi Xenderson oroli natijasida Tinch okeanining janubiy qismida Janubiy Tinch okean girasi. Plyajlarda taxminan 37,7 million dona qoldiq mavjud bo'lib, ularning og'irligi 17,6 tonnani tashkil etadi. Ishda kesma Shimoliy sohilda har kuni 17 metrdan 268 tagacha 10 metrlik qismda yangi buyumlar yuvilib turardi. Tadqiqot shuni ta'kidladiki, binafsha rang hermit qisqichbaqalarCoenobita spinosus ) o'z uylarini plyajlarda yuvilgan plastik idishlarda yasash.^[77][78][79]

2020 yilda yangi turlari amfipod Mariana xandaqida 7000 metr chuqurlikda topilgan. Bu bor edi PET plastmassa uning tanasida. Tadqiqotchilar buni nomlashdi Eurythenes plastikasi muammoga e'tiborni jalb qilish.^[80]

Hayvonlarga ta'siri

Plastmassa ifloslanishi hayvonlarni zaharlashi mumkin, bu esa odamlarning oziq-ovqat ta'minotiga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.^[81][82] Plastik ifloslanish katta darajada zararli deb ta'riflangan dengiz sutemizuvchilar, kitobda tasvirlangan Dengiz biologiyasiga kirish ular uchun "eng katta tahdid" ni keltirib chiqarmoqda.^[83] Kabi ba'zi dengiz turlari dengiz toshbaqalari, oshqozonida katta miqdordagi plastmassa borligi aniqlandi.^[81] Bu sodir bo'lganda, hayvon odatda och qoladi, chunki plastmassa hayvonning ovqat hazm qilish tizimini to'sib qo'yadi.^[81] Ba'zida dengiz sutemizuvchilar ularga zarar etkazishi yoki o'ldirishi mumkin bo'lgan to'r kabi plastmassa mahsulotlariga chalinadi.^[81]

Chalkashlik

Dengiz toshbaqasi arvohlar to'riga o'ralgan

Plastmassa qoldiqlari bilan to'qnashish ko'plab dengiz organizmlari, masalan, baliqlar, muhrlar, toshbaqalar va qushlar. Ushbu hayvonlar axlatga tushib, oxir-oqibat tugaydi bo'g'uvchi yoki g'arq bo'lish. Ular o'zlarini echishga qodir emasliklari sababli, ular ham o'lishadi ochlik yoki ularning yirtqichlardan qochib qutula olmasliklaridan.^[3] Tirnashib qolish ko'pincha jiddiy jarohatlar va yaralarga olib keladi. Sifatida tanilgan 2006 yilgi hisobotda Dunyo okeanidagi plastik qoldiqlar,^[84] kamida 267 xil hayvon turlari plastik qoldiqlarning chalkashligi va yutilishidan aziyat chekkan deb taxmin qilingan.^[5] Okeanlarning plastik ifloslanishi tufayli har yili 400 mingdan ortiq dengiz sutemizuvchilari nobud bo'lishadi.^[81] Dengiz organizmlari, masalan, tashlangan baliq ovlash uskunalariga tushib qolishadi sharpa to'rlari. Baliq ovlash uchun ishlatiladigan arqonlar va to'rlar ko'pincha neylon kabi sintetik materiallardan tayyorlanadi, bu esa baliq ovlash uskunalarini yanada mustahkam va suzuvchan qiladi. Ushbu organizmlar dumaloq plastmassa qadoqlash materiallariga ham tushib qolishi mumkin va agar hayvon o'sishda davom etsa, plastmassa ularning go'shtini kesib tashlashi mumkin. Tarmoq kabi uskunalar ham dengiz tubi bo'ylab harakatlanib, marjon riflariga zarar etkazishi mumkin.^[85]

Yutish

Dengiz hayvonlari

Ko'rgazmasi Mote dengiz laboratoriyasi okeanga o'xshash plastik paketlarni namoyish etadi meduza.

Dengiz toshbaqalari plastik ifloslanishiga ta'sir qiladi. Ba'zi turlar iste'molchilar hisoblanadi jele baliq, lekin ko'pincha xato polietilen paketlar ularning tabiiy o'ljasi uchun. Ushbu plastik qoldiqlar dengiz toshbaqasini to'sib qo'yish orqali o'ldirishi mumkin qizilo'ngach.^[85] Avstraliyalik olimlarning 2018 yilgi tadqiqotiga ko'ra, bolalar dengiz toshbaqalari ayniqsa zaifdir.^[86]

Xuddi shunday kitlar. Oshqozonida katta miqdordagi plastmassa topilgan plyajdagi kitlar.^[85] Oshqozonda plastik qoldiqlar paydo bo'la boshladi sperma kiti 1970 yildan beri va bir nechta kitlarning o'limiga sabab bo'lganligi ta'kidlangan.^[87][88] 2018 yil iyun oyida o'lik holatidan 80 dan ortiq polietilen paketlar topildi uchuvchi kit Tailand qirg'og'ida yuvilib ketgan.^[89] 2019 yil mart oyida o'lik Kyuverning tumshuqli kiti oshqozonida 88 funt plastik bilan Filippinda yuvilgan.^[90] 2019 yil aprel oyida, o'lik sperma kiti topilganidan keyin Sardiniya oshqozonida 48 funt plastik bilan, Butunjahon yovvoyi tabiat fondi plastik ifloslanish dengiz hayoti uchun eng xavfli tahdidlardan biri ekanligi haqida ogohlantirdi va ikki yil davomida plastiklarning beshta kitini o'ldirganligini ta'kidladi.^[91]

Plastmassaning ba'zi mayda qismlarini baliqlarning bir qismi iste'mol qiladi pelagik zona deb nomlangan okeanda Mesopelagiya zonasi, okean sathidan 200 dan 1000 metrgacha bo'lgan va butunlay qorong'i. Ushbu baliqlar haqida ko'p narsa ma'lum emas, faqat ularning ko'pligi. Ular okean zulmatida yashirinib, yirtqichlardan qochishadi va keyin kechalari okean sathiga suzib ovqatlanadilar.^[92] Ushbu baliqlarning oshqozonidan topilgan plastmassa paytida to'plangan Malaspinani aylanib chiqish, global o'zgarishlarning okeanlarga ta'sirini o'rganadigan tadqiqot loyihasi.^[93]

Scripps okeanografiya instituti tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, 27 xil turdan ortiq 141 mezopelagik baliqning oshqozonidagi o'rtacha plastmassa miqdori 9,2% ni tashkil etdi. Shimoliy Tinch okeanida ushbu baliqlarning plastik qoldiqlarini iste'mol qilish darajasi ularning taxminiga ko'ra yiliga 12000 dan 24000 tonnagacha bo'lgan.^[94] Eng mashhur mezopelagik baliqlar bo'ladi fonar baliqlari. U markazda joylashgan okean girlari, aylanadigan okean oqimlarining katta tizimi. Chiroqli baliqlar iste'molchilar sotib olgan baliqlar, jumladan orkinos va qilich baliqlari uchun asosiy oziq-ovqat manbai bo'lib xizmat qilganligi sababli, ular iste'mol qilgan plastmassalar oziq-ovqat zanjirining bir qismiga aylanadi. Fonar baliqlari okeandagi asosiy yem baliqlaridan biri bo'lib, u ko'p miqdordagi plastmassa parchalarini iste'mol qiladi, bu esa o'z navbatida ularni boshqa baliqlarni iste'mol qilishi uchun etarli darajada to'yimli qilmaydi.^[95]

Boshqa bir tadqiqotda Gavayidagi bolalar bog'chalarida plastik baliqlar soni ettidan bittagacha ko'pligi aniqlandi. Yuzlab lichinka baliqlarini parchalab bo'lgach, tadqiqotchilar ko'plab baliq turlari plastik zarralarni yutib yuborganligini aniqladilar. Plastmassalar, shuningdek, tunalar va Gavayi dengiz qushlari kabi eng katta yirtqichlar tomonidan iste'mol qilinadigan uchadigan baliqlarda ham topilgan.^[96]

Chuqur dengiz oshqozonlarida plastmassa bo'lgan hayvonlar topilgan.^[97]

Qushlar

Shimoliy gannet kuni Helgoland, o'z uyalarida qolib, faqat eski to'rlardan va boshqa plastmassa chiqindilaridan qurishadi.

Plastik ifloslanish nafaqat okeanlarda yashovchi hayvonlarga ta'sir qiladi. Dengiz qushlari ham katta ta'sir ko'rsatadi. 2004 yilda bu taxmin qilingan marralar ichida Shimoliy dengiz oshqozonlarida o'rtacha o'ttiz dona plastmassa bor edi.^[98] Dengiz qushlari ko'pincha okean yuzasida suzib yurgan axlatlarni o'lja deb bilishadi. Ularning oziq-ovqat manbalari ko'pincha plastik qoldiqlarni yutib yuborgan va shu bilan plastmassani yirtqichlardan yirtqichlarga ko'chirishgan. Yutilgan axlat qushlarning ovqat hazm qilish tizimiga to'sqinlik qilishi va jismoniy zarar etkazishi, uning ovqat hazm qilish qobiliyatini pasayishi va to'yib ovqatlanmaslik, ochlik va o'limga olib kelishi mumkin. Deb nomlangan zaharli kimyoviy moddalar poliklorli bifenil (PCB) dengizdagi plastmassa yuzasida ham kontsentratsiyalanadi va dengiz qushlari ularni iste'mol qilgandan keyin ajralib chiqadi. Ushbu kimyoviy moddalar tana to'qimalarida to'planib, qushlarning reproduktiv qobiliyati, immun tizimi va gormonlar muvozanatiga jiddiy halokatli ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin. Suzuvchi plastik qoldiqlar oshqozon yarasi, yuqumli kasalliklar va o'limga olib kelishi mumkin. Dengiz plastiklarining ifloslanishi hatto dengizda bo'lmagan qushlarga ham etib borishi mumkin. Ota-onalar tasodifan o'z bolalarini plastik bilan boqishlari mumkin, uni ovqat deb tushunishadi.^[99] Dengiz qushlari jo'jalari plastik yutish uchun eng zaif hisoblanadi, chunki ular o'zlarining ovqatlarini kattalar dengiz qushlari singari qusib bo'lmaydi.^[100]

Dastlabki kuzatuvdan so'ng Yangi Zelandiyadagi plyajlarning ko'pchiligida plastik granulalarning yuqori konsentratsiyasi borligi, keyingi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, prion plastik qoldiqlarni yutib yuboring. Och prionlar bu granulalarni oziq-ovqat deb bilgan va bu zarralar qushlarning ichida buzilmagan holda topilgan gijjalar va proventrikullar. Peking belgilariga o'xshash belgilar shimoliy fulmarlari yilda suyak suyaklari kabi plastik qoldiqlarda topilgan ko'pik, plyajlarda Gollandiya qirg'og'i, qushlarning bu turi ham oziq-ovqat uchun plastik qoldiqlarni xato qilishini ko'rsatmoqda.^[85]

Taxminan 1,5 million Laysan albatroslari yashaydigan Midway Atoll, barchasida ovqat hazm qilish tizimida plastmassalar mavjud. Midway Atoll o‘rtasida Osiyo va Shimoliy Amerika va shimoliy Gavayi arxipelagi. Ushbu uzoq joyda plastik to'siq bu qushlar uchun halokatli ekanligini isbotladi. Ushbu dengiz qushlari tabiiy oziq-ovqat manbalariga o'xshashligi sababli qizil, pushti, jigarrang va ko'k plastik qismlarni tanlaydilar. Plastik yutish natijasida ovqat hazm qilish trakti tiqilib qolishi mumkin, natijada ochlik. Nafasni ham to'sib qo'yish mumkin, bu esa bo'g'ilishga olib keladi.^[5] The debris can also accumulate in the animal's gut, and give them a false sense of fullness which would also result in starvation. On the shore, thousands of birds corpses can be seen with plastic remaining where the stomach once was. The durability of the plastics is visible among the remains. In some instances, the plastic piles are still present while the bird's corpse has decayed.^[5]

Similar to humans, animals exposed to plastifikatorlar can experience developmental defects. Specifically, sheep have been found to have lower birth weights when prenatally exposed to bisphenol A. Exposure to BPA can shorten the distance between the eyes of a tadpole. It can also stall development in frogs and can result in a decrease in body length. In different species of fish, exposure can stall egg hatching and result in a decrease in body weight, tail length, and body length.^[9]

Odamlarga ta'siri

Compounds that are used in manufacturing pollute the environment by releasing chemicals into the air and water. Some compounds that are used in plastics, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BRA), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), are under close statute and might be very hurtful. Even though these compounds are unsafe, they have been used in the manufacturing of food packaging, medical devices, flooring materials, bottles, perfumes, cosmetics and much more. The large dosage of these compounds are hazardous to humans, destroying the endocrine system. BRA imitates the female's hormone called estrogen. PBD destroys and causes damage to thyroid hormones, which are vital hormone glands that play a major role in the metabolism, growth and development of the human body. Although the level of exposure to these chemicals varies depending on age and geography, most humans experience simultaneous exposure to many of these chemicals. Average levels of daily exposure are below the levels deemed to be unsafe, but more research needs to be done on the effects of low dose exposure on humans.^[101] A lot is unknown on how severely humans are physically affected by these chemicals. Some of the chemicals used in plastic production can cause dermatit upon contact with human skin.^[102] In many plastics, these toxic chemicals are only used in trace amounts, but significant testing is often required to ensure that the toxic elements are contained within the plastic by inert material or polymer.^[102] Children and women during their reproduction age are at most at risk and more prone to damaging their immune as well as their reproductive system from these hormone-disrupting chemicals.

It can also affect humans because it may create an eyesore that interferes with enjoyment of the tabiiy muhit.^[103]

Klinik ahamiyati

Due to the pervasiveness of plastic products, most of the human population is constantly exposed to the chemical components of plastics. 95% of adults in the United States have had detectable levels of BPA in their urine. Kabi kimyoviy moddalarga ta'sir qilish BPA have been correlated with disruptions in fertility, reproduction, sexual maturation, and other sog'liqqa ta'siri.^[74] Maxsus ftalatlar have also resulted in similar biological effektlar.

Thyroid hormone axis

Bisphenol A affects gen ekspressioni bilan bog'liq qalqonsimon bez gormoni axis, which affects biological functions such as metabolism and development. BPA can decrease tiroid gormoni retseptorlari (TR) activity by increasing TR transcriptional corepressor activity. This then decreases the level of thyroid hormone binding proteins that bind to triiodothyronine. By affecting the thyroid hormone axis, BPA exposure can lead to hipotiroidizm.^[9]

Jinsiy gormonlar

BPA can disrupt normal, physiological levels of jinsiy gormonlar. Buni bog'lash orqali amalga oshiradi globulinlar that normally bind to sex hormones such as androgenlar va estrogenlar, leading to the disruption of the balance between the two. BPA can also affect the metabolism or the catabolism of sex hormones. It often acts as an antiandrogen or as an estrogen, which can cause disruptions in gonadal development and sperm production.^[9]

Kamaytirish harakatlari

Household items made of various types of plastic.

Waste generation, measured in kilograms per person per day

Efforts to reduce the use of plastics and to promote plastikni qayta ishlash sodir bo'lgan. Some supermarkets charge their customers for polietilen paketlar, and in some places more efficient reusable or biologik parchalanadigan materials are being used in place of plastics. Some communities and businesses have put a ban on some commonly used plastic items, such as shisha suv and plastic bags.^[104] Some non-governmental organizations have launched voluntary plastic reduction schemes like certificates that can be adapted by restaurants to be recognized as eco-friendly among customers.^[105]

In January 2019 a "Global Alliance to End Plastic Waste" was created by companies in the plastics industry. The alliance aims to clean the environment from existing waste and increase recycling, but it does not mention reduction in plastic production as one of its targets.^[106]

Biodegradable and degradable plastics

Dan foydalanish biologik parchalanadigan plastmassalar ko'plari bor advantages and disadvantages. Biodegradables are biopolimerlar that degrade in industrial komposterlar. Biodegradables do not degrade as efficiently in domestic composters, and during this slower process, metan gazi may be emitted.^[101]

There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil-based, similar to other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable through the use of different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors.^[101] yet, biodegradation-promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation.^[107]

Although biodegradable and degradable plastics have helped reduce plastic pollution, there are some drawbacks. One issue concerning both types of plastics is that they do not break down very efficiently in natural environments. There, degradable plastics that are oil-based may break down into smaller fractions, at which point they do not degrade further.^[101]

A Parliamentary committee in the Birlashgan Qirollik also found that compostable and biodegradable plastics could add to dengizning ifloslanishi because there is a lack of infrastructure to deal with these new types of plastic, as well as a lack of understanding about them on the part of iste'molchilar.^[108] For example, these plastics need to be sent to industrial composting facilities to degrade properly, but no adequate system exists to make sure waste reaches these facilities.^[108] The committee thus recommended to reduce the amount of plastic used rather than introducing new types of it to the market.^[108]

Yong'in

Up to 60% of used plastic medical equipment is yoqib yuborilgan rather than deposited in a poligon as a precautionary measure to lessen the transmission of disease. This has allowed for a large decrease in the amount of plastic waste that stems from medical equipment. If plastic waste is not incinerated and disposed of properly, a harmful amount of toxins can be released and dispersed as a gas through air or as ash through air and waterways.^[74] Many studies have been done concerning the gaseous emissions that result from the incineration process.

Siyosat

Agencies such as the US Atrof muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi va AQSh Oziq-ovqat va dori-darmonlarni boshqarish often do not assess the safety of new chemicals until after a negative side effect is shown. Once they suspect a chemical may be toxic, it is studied to determine the human reference dose, which is determined to be the lowest observable adverse effect level. During these studies, a high dose is tested to see if it causes any adverse health effects, and if it does not, lower doses are considered to be safe as well. This does not take into account the fact that with some chemicals found in plastics, such as BPA, lower doses can have a discernible effect.^[109] Even with this often complex evaluation process, policies have been put into place in order to help alleviate plastic pollution and its effects. Government regulations have been implemented that ban some chemicals from being used in specific plastic products.

Yilda Kanada, Qo'shma Shtatlar, va Yevropa Ittifoqi, BPA has been banned from being incorporated in the production of baby bottles and children's cups, due to health concerns and the higher vulnerability of younger children to the effects of BPA.^[74] Taxes have been established in order to discourage specific ways of managing plastic waste. The poligon solig'i, for example, creates an incentive to choose to recycle plastics rather than contain them in landfills, by making the latter more expensive.^[101] There has also been a standardization of the types of plastics that can be considered compostable.^[101] The European Norm EN 13432, which was set by the Evropa standartlashtirish bo'yicha qo'mitasi (CEN), lists the standards that plastics must meet, in terms of compostability and biodegradability, in order to officially be labeled as compostable.^[101][110]

Voluntary reduction efforts failing

Major plastic producers continue to lobby governments to refrain from imposing restrictions on plastic production and to advocate for voluntary corporate targets to reduce new plastic output. However, the world's top 10 plastic producers, including Coca-Cola kompaniyasi, Nestle SA va PepsiCo have been failing to meet even their own minimum targets for virgin plastic use.^[111]

Institutional arrangements in Canada

The Canadian federal government formed a current institution that protects marine areas; this includes the mitigation of plastic pollution. In 1997, Canada adopted legislation for oceans management and passed the Oceans Act.^[112] Federal governance, Regional Governance, and Aboriginal Peoples are the actors involved in the process of decision-making and implementation of the decision. The Regional Governance bodies are federal, provincial, and territorial government agencies that hold responsibilities of the marine environment. Aboriginal Peoples in Canada have treaty and non-treaty rights related to ocean activities. According to the Canadian government, they respect these rights and work with Aboriginal groups in oceans management activities.^[112]

With the Oceans Act made legal, Canada made a commitment to conserve and protect the oceans. The Ocean Acts' underlying principle is sustainable development, precautionary and integrated management approach to ensure that there is a comprehensive understanding in protecting marine areas. In the integrated management approach, the Oceans Act designates federal responsibility to the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans Canada for any new and emerging ocean-related activities.^[112] The Act encourages collaboration and coordination within the government that unifies interested parties. Moreover, the Oceans Act engages any Canadians who are interested in being informed of the decision-making regarding ocean environment.

In 2005, federal organizations developed the Federal Marine Protected Areas Strategy.^[112] This strategy is a collaborative approach implemented by Kanadadagi baliqchilik va okeanlar, Parklar Kanada va Atrof-muhit Kanada to plan and manage federal marine protected areas. The federal marine protected areas work with Aboriginal groups, industries, academia, environmental groups, and NGOs to strengthen marine protected areas. The federal marine protected areas network consists of three core programs: Marine Protected Areas, Marine Wildlife Areas va Milliy dengizni muhofaza qilish joylari.^[112] The MPA is a program to be noted because it is significant in protecting ecosystems from the effects of industrial activities. The MPA guiding principles are Integrated Management, ekotizimga asoslangan boshqaruv yaqinlashish, Adaptiv boshqaruv Approach, Precautionary Principle, and Flexible Management Approach.^[112] All five guiding principles are used collectively and simultaneously to collaborate and respect legislative mandates of individual departments, to use scientific knowledge and an'anaviy ekologik bilim (TEK) to manage human activities, to monitor and report on programs to meet conservation objectives of MPAs, to use best available information in the absence of scientific certainty, and to maintain a balance between conservation needs and sustainable development objectives.^[112]

Collection or recycling

The two common forms of waste collection include curbside collection and the use of drop-off recycling centers. About 87 percent of the population in the United States (273 million people) have access to curbside and drop-off recycling centers. In curbside collection, which is available to about 63 percent of the United States population (193 million people), people place designated plastics in a special bin to be picked up by a public or private hauling company.^[113] Most curbside programs collect more than one type of plastic resin, usually both PETE va HDPE.^[114] At drop-off recycling centers, which are available to 68 percent of the United States population (213 million people), people take their recyclables to a centrally located facility.^[113] Once collected, the plastics are delivered to a materiallarni qayta tiklash vositasi (MRF) or handler for sorting into single-resin streams to increase product value. The sorted plastics are then to'plangan to reduce shipping costs to reclaimers.^[114]

There are varying rates of recycling per type of plastic, and in 2017, the overall plastic recycling rate was approximately 8.4% in the United States. Approximately 2.7 million tonnes (3.0 million short tons) of plastics were recycled in the U.S. in 2017, while 24.3 million tonnes (26.8 million short tons) plastic were dumped in landfills the same year. Some plastics are recycled more than others; in 2017 about 31.2 percent of HDPE bottles and 29.1 percent of PET bottles and jars were recycled.^[115]

In 21 May 2019, a new service model called "Loop" to collect packaging from consumers and reuse it, began to function in the New York region, US. Consumers drop packages in special shipping totes and then a pick up collect them. Partners include Procter & Gamble, Nestlé, PepsiCo, Unilever, Mars Petcare, The Clorox Company, The Body Shop, Coca-Cola, Mondelēz, Danone and other firms.^[116] It has begun with several thousand households, but there are 60,000 on the waiting list. The target of the service is not only stop single use plastic, but to stop single use generally by recycling consumer product containers of various materials.^[117]

Ocean cleanup

Tashkilot "Okeanni tozalash " is trying to collect plastic waste from the oceans by nets. There are concerns from harm to some forms of sea organisms, especially Neyston.^[118]

Non-usage and reduction in usage

Yevropa Ittifoqi

2015 yilda Yevropa Ittifoqi adopted a directive, that require a reduction in the consumption of single use plastic bags per person, to 90 by the year 2019 and to 40 by the year 2025.^[119] 2019 yil aprel oyida Yevropa Ittifoqi adopted a law banning almost all types of single use plastic, except bottles, from the beginning of the year 2021.^[120]

Xitoy

2020 yilda Xitoy published its plan to cut 30% of plastic waste in 5 years. As part of this plan, single use plastic bags and straws will be banned^[121][122]

Hindiston

Hukumati Hindiston decided to ban single use plastics and take a number of measures to recycle and reuse plastic, from 2 October 2019^[123]

The Ichimlik suvi va sanitariya vazirligi, Government of India, has requested various governmental departments to avoid the use of plastik butilkalar to provide drinking water during governmental meetings, etc., and to instead make arrangements for providing drinking water that do not generate plastic waste.^[124][125] Holati Sikkim has restricted the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products.^[126] Holati Bihar has banned the usage of plastic suv idishlari in governmental meetings.^[127]

The 2015 yil Hindiston milliy o'yinlari, organised in Tiruvananthapuram, was associated with green protocols.^[128] This was initiated by Suchitwa Mission that aimed for "chiqindisiz " venues. To make the event "disposable-free", there was ban on the usage of disposable water bottles.^[129] Tadbirda qayta ishlatiladigan dasturxon va zanglamaydigan po'latdan yasalgan stakanlardan foydalanilganligi guvohi bo'ldi.^[130] Sportchilarga to'ldiriladigan po'lat kolbalar berildi.^[131] It is estimated that these green practices stopped the generation of 120 tonnes of disposable waste.^[132]

Shahar Bangalor in 2016 banned the plastic for all purpose other than for few special cases like milk delivery etc.^[133]

Holati Maharashtra, India effected the Maharashtra Plastic and Thermocol Products ban 23 June 2018, subjecting plastic users to fines and potential imprisonment for repeat offenders.^[134][135]

Albaniya

2018 yil iyul oyida, Albaniya became the first country in Europe to ban lightweight plastic bags.^{[136][137][138]} Albania's environment minister Blendi Klosi said that businesses importing, producing or trading plastic bags less than 35 microns in thickness risk facing fines between 1 million to 1.5 million lek (€7,900 to €11,800).^[137]

Bali

Yilda Bali, a pair of two sisters, Melati and Isabel Wijsen, have gone through efforts to ban plastic bags in 2019.^[139][140] Their organization Bye Bye Plastic Bags has spread to 28 locations around the world.

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari

2009 yilda, Sent-Luisdagi Vashington universiteti became the first university in the United States to ban the sale of plastic, single-use water bottles.^[141]

2009 yilda, Kolumbiya okrugi required all businesses that sell food or alcohol to charge an additional 5 cents for each carryout plastic or paper bag.^[142]

2011 va 2013 yillarda, Kauai, Maui va Gavayi prohibit non-biodegradable plastic bags at checkout as well as paper bags containing less than 40 percent recycled material. 2015 yilda, Honolulu was the last major county approving the ban.^[142]

In 2015, California prohibited large stores from providing plastic bags, and if so a charge of $0.10 per bag and has to meet certain criteria.^[142]

In 2016, Illinois adopted the legislation and established “Recycle Thin Film Friday” in effort toe reclaim used thin-film plastic bags and encourage reusable bags.^[142]

2019 yilda Nyu-York (shtat) banned single use polietilen paketlar and introduced a 5-cent fee for using single use paper bags. The ban will enter into force in 2020. This will not only reduce plastic bag usage in New York state (23,000,000,000 every year until now), but also eliminate 12 million barrels of oil used to make plastic bags used by the state each year.^[143][144]

Holati Meyn ban Styrofoam (polystyrene) containers in May 2019.^[145]

2019 yilda Gigant burgut retailer became the first big US retailer that committed to completely phase out plastic by 2025. The first step - stop using single use plastic bags - will begun to be implemented already on January 15, 2020.^[146]

2019 yilda, Delaver, Meyn, Oregon va Vermont enacted on legislation. Vermont also restricted single-use straws and polistirol konteynerlar.^[142]

2019 yilda, Konnektikut imposed a $0.10 charge on single-use plastic bags at point of sale, and is going to ban them on July 1, 2021.^[142]

Nigeriya

In 2019, The House of Representatives of Nigeriya banned the production, import and usage of plastic bags in the country.^[147]

Isroil

Yilda Isroil, 2 cities: Eilat va Herzliya, decided to ban the usage of single use plastic bags and cutlery on the beaches.^[148] 2020 yilda Tel-Aviv joined them, banning also the sale of single use plastic on the beaches.^[149]

Birlashgan Qirollik

2019 yil yanvar oyida Iceland supermarket chain, which specializes in frozen foods, pledged to "eliminate or drastically reduce all plastik qadoq for its store-brand products by 2023."^[150]

As of 2020, 104 communities achieved the title of "Plastic free community" in Birlashgan Qirollik, 500 want to achieve it.^[151]

After 2 schoolgirls Ella and Caitlin launched a petition about it, Burger King va McDonald's in the United Kingdom and Ireland pledged to stop sending plastic toys with their meals. McDonald's pledged to do it from the year 2021. McDonald's also pledged to use a paper wrap for it meals and books that will be sent with the meals. The transmission will begin already in March 2020.^[152]

Keniya

2017 yil avgust oyida, Keniya has one of the world's harshest plastic bag bans. Fines of $38,000 or up to four years in jail to anyone that was caught producing, selling, or using a plastic bag.^[153]

Vanuatu

On July 30, 2017, Vanuatu ’s Independence Day, made an announcement of stepping towards the beginning of not using plastic bags and bottles. Making it one of the first Pacific nations to do so and will start banning the importation of single-use plastic bottles and bags.^[153]

Tayvan

2018 yil fevral oyida, Tayvan restricted the use if single-use plastic cups, straws, utensils and bags; the ban will also include an extra charge for plastic bags and updates their recycling regulations and aiming by 2030 it would be completely enforced.^[153]

Obstruction by major plastic producers

The ten corporations that produce the most plastic on the planet, Coca-Cola kompaniyasi, Kolgeyt-Palmolive, Danone, Mars, birlashtirilgan, Mondelēz International, Nestle, PepsiCo, Perfetti Van Melle, Procter & Gamble va Unilever, formed a well-financed network that has sabotaged for decades government and community efforts to address the plastic pollution crisis, according to a detailed investigative report by the Changing Markets Foundation. The investigation documents how these companies delay and derail legislation so that they can continue to inundate consumers with disposable plastic packaging. These large plastic producers have exploited public fears of the Covid19 virusi to work toward delaying and reversing existing regulation of plastic disposal. Big ten plastic producers have advanced voluntary commitments for plastic waste disposal as a stratagem to deter governments from imposing additional regulations.^[154]

Deception of the public about recycling

As early as the early 1970s, petrochemical industry leaders understood that the vast majority of plastic they produced would never be recycled. For example, an April 1973 report written by industry scientists for industry executive states that sorting the hundreds of different kinds plastic is "infeasible" and cost-prohibitive. By the late 1980s, industry leaders also knew that the public must be kept feeling good about purchasing plastic products if their industry was to continue to prosper, and needed to quell proposed legislation to regulate the plastic being sold. So the industry launched a $50 million/year korporativ targ'ibot campaign targeting the American public with the message that plastic can be, and is being, recycled, and lobbied American municipalities to launch expensive plastic waste collection programs, and lobbied U.S. states to require the labeling of plastic products and containers with recycling symbols. They were confident, however, that the recycling initiatives would not end up recovering and reusing plastic in amounts anywhere near sufficient to hurt their profits in selling new "virgin" plastic products because they understood that the recycling efforts that they were promoting were likely to fail. Industry leaders more recently have planned 100% recycling of the plastic they produce by 2040, calling for more efficient collection, sorting and processing.^{[155] [156]}

Xabardorlikni yaratish uchun harakat

Yer kuni

2019 yilda Yer kuni Network partnered with Amerika go'zalligini saqlang va Milliy tozalash kuni for the inaugural nationwide Earth Day CleanUp. Cleanups were held in all 50 states, five US territories, 5,300 sites and had more than 500,000 volunteers.^[157][158]

Earth Day 2020 is the 50th Anniversary of Yer kuni. Celebrations will include activities such as the Great Global CleanUp, Citizen Science, Advocacy, Education, and art. This Earth Day aims to educate and mobilize more than one billion people to grow and support the next generation of environmental activists, with a major focus on plastic waste^[159][160]

Butunjahon atrof-muhit kuni

Every year, 5 June is observed as Butunjahon atrof-muhit kuni to raise awareness and increase government action on the pressing issue. In 2018, India was host to the 43rd World Environment Day and the theme was "Beat Plastic Pollution", with a focus on single-use or disposable plastic. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India invited people to take care of their social responsibility and urged them to take up green good deeds in everyday life. Several states presented plans to ban plastic or drastically reduce thei use.^[161]

Boshqa harakatlar

2013 yil 11 aprelda ongni shakllantirish maqsadida rassom Mariya Kristina Finuchchi asos solgan Axlatni yamoq holati da YuNESKO^[162] shtab-kvartirasi Parij, France, in front of Director General Irina Bokova. This was the first of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of the Italian Ministry of the Environment.^[163]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

• Derraik, Xose GB (2002). "Dengiz atrofining plastik qoldiqlari bilan ifloslanishi: sharh". Dengiz ifloslanishi to'g'risidagi byulleten. 44 (9): 842–52. doi:10.1016 / S0025-326X (02) 00220-5. PMID  12405208.
• Xopyuell, Jeferson; Dvorak, Robert; Kosior, Edvard (2009). "Plastmassalarni qayta ishlash: qiyinchiliklar va imkoniyatlar". Qirollik jamiyatining falsafiy operatsiyalari B: Biologiya fanlari. 364 (1526): 2115–26. doi:10.1098 / rstb.2008.0311. PMC  2873020. PMID  19528059.
• Ritsar, Geof (2012). Plastik ifloslanish. Kapton tosh. ISBN  978-1432960391
• Kliv Kukson, Lesli Xuk (2019), Olis zanjirda topilgan millionlab plastik chiqindilar, Financial Times, olingan 31 dekabr 2019

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Colette, Wabnitz & Wallace J. Nichols. Tahririyat: Plastik ifloslanish: Okeandagi favqulodda vaziyat. 3 mart 2010. 28 yanvar 2013 yil.
• Biologik parchalanadigan plastmassa va dengiz axlati. Noto'g'ri tushunchalar, xavotirlar va dengiz muhitiga ta'siri, 2015, Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi (UNEP), Nayrobi.
• Bir daqiqada million shisha: dunyodagi plastik ob-havo "iqlim o'zgarishi kabi xavfli". Guardian. 2017 yil 28-iyun.
• O'ylaymanki, bizning qisqichbaqalarimizda nimalar namoyon bo'ladi? Bitta so'z: Plastmassa. Milliy radio. 19 sentyabr 2017 yil
• Mikroplastik ifloslanish yangi tadqiqotlar natijasida "mutlaqo hamma joyda" aniqlandi. Guardian. 6 mart 2019 yil
• Bronza va temirdan so'ng, plastik asrga xush kelibsiz, deydi olimlar. Guardian. 4 sentyabr 2019 yil.
• Plastik sayyora: Qanday qilib Katta Yog 'va Katta Soda o'nlab yillar davomida global ekologik ofatni sir tutgan. Rolling Stone. 3 mart 2020 yil.
• Plastmassalar AQSh dengiz hayoti uchun "ochilmaydigan falokat". BBC, 2020 yil 19-noyabr.

Tashqi havolalar

• #noplastik chiqindilar loyihasi Minderoo jamg'armasi
• Ark, sayyora. Plastik qoplarni kamaytirish. 2011 yil 1 dekabr. 2013 yil 29 yanvar.
• Jessica, A. Knoblauch. Atrof-muhit salomatligi yangiliklari. 2 iyul 2009. 29 yanvar 2013 yil
• Treysi, Megan. "Biologik parchalanadigan plastmassa chiqindilarni tashish maydoniga metan chiqindilarini qo'shmoqda". 2011 yil 10 iyun. 2013 yil 29 yanvar.
• Tina, L. Plastik ifloslanish va isrofgarchilik. 2011 yil 20 fevral. 2013 yil 29 yanvar.
• Boyan Slat. "Okeanlar o'zlarini qanday tozalashlari mumkin". TED Talk. Olingan 4 yanvar 2016.
• "Plastik ifloslanish haqida 22 ta fakt (va biz bunga qodir 10 ta ish)". ecowatch.com. 2014 yil 7 aprel. Olingan 4 yanvar 2016.
• "Okean Feniksi loyihasi". SAS Ocean Feniks. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2016 yil 7 martda. Olingan 5 mart 2016.
• "Plastik shunchalik hayoliy emas". 21bottle.com. 2016 yil 7-dekabr. Olingan 28 dekabr 2016.
• "Karib dengizi orollarining qirg'oq bo'yida suzib yuruvchi plastik axlatlar topildi". Mustaqil. 24 oktyabr 2017 yil. Olingan 31 oktyabr 2017.
• "Plastik ifloslanishining sabablari va ta'siri". Tabiiy energiya markazi. 7 mart 2017 yil.