Majapaxit - Majapahit

Majapaxit imperiyasi ꦤꦒꦫꦶꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀  (Yava ) ᬧ᭄ᬭᬚᬫᬚᬧᬳᬶᬢ᭄  (Bali )
1293–1527
Bayroq Surya Majapahit[men]
Majapaxit ta'sir doirasi Nagarakretagama; bunday tushunchasi Yava tasvirlar kontseptual hisoblanadi.[1]
Poytaxt	Majapahit, Vilvatikta (zamonaviy Trowulan )
Umumiy tillar	Eski yava (asosiy), Sanskritcha (diniy)
Din	Hinduizm, Buddizm, Kejaven, Animizm
Hukumat	Monarxiya
Raja
• 1295–1309	Raden Vijaya
• 1350–1389	Xayam Vuruk
• 1498–1527	Udara
Mahapatih
• v. 1336-1364	Gajah Mada
Tarix
• tantanali marosim	10-noyabr[2] 1293
• Demak qabul qilmoq; yutib olmoq	1527
Valyuta	Mahalliy oltin va kumush tangalar, Kepeng (Xitoydan olib kelingan va keyinchalik mahalliy ishlab chiqarilgan mis tangalar)[3]
Oldingi Muvaffaqiyatli Singhasari Demak Sultonligi Bali qirolligi

Qismi bir qator ustida
Tarixi Indoneziya
Xronologiya
Tarix Java Man 1,000,000 BP Flores Man 94000–12000 bp Toba halokati 75000 bp Buni madaniyati Miloddan avvalgi 400 y
Hind va buddaviy shohliklar Salakanagara Qirolligi 130–362 Kutay qirolligi 350–1605 Tarumanagara qirolligi 358–669 Kalingga qirolligi 500s-600s Melayu qirolligi 600s Srivijaya imperiyasi 600 - 1200 yillar Sailendra imperiyasi 800s-900s Galuh qirolligi 669–1482 Sunda qirolligi 669–1579 Medang imperiyasi 752–1006 Bali qirolligi 914–1908 Kahuripan Qirolligi 1006–1045 Kediri Shohligi 1045–1221 Dharmasraya Shohligi 1183–1347 Panay qirolligi 1000 - 1300 yillar Singhasari imperiyasi 1222–1292 Majapaxit imperiyasi 1293–1500
Islom sultonliklari Islomning tarqalishi 1200–1600 Aru qirolligi 1225–1613 Uchinchi Sultonlik 1257–1914 Samudera Pasai Sultonligi 1267–1521 Pagaruyung qirolligi 1347–1833 Bruney Sultonligi 1368–1888 Malakka Sultonligi 1400–1511 Sulu Sultonligi 1405–1851 Cirebon Sultonligi 1445–1677 Demak Sultonligi 1475–1554 Aceh Sultonligi 1496–1903 Banten Sultonligi 1526–1813 Kalinyamat Sultonligi 1527–1599 Mataram Sultonligi 1500 - 1700 yillar Johor Sultonligi 1528-lardan 1877 yilgacha Siak Sultonligi 1725–1946 Surakarta Sunanati 1745–1946 Yogyakarta Sultonligi 1755–1945 Deli Sultonligi 1814–1946 Riau-Lingga Sultonligi 1824–1911
Xristian shohligi Larantuka qirolligi 1515–1904
Evropa mustamlakasi Portugal 1512–1850 Dutch East India kompaniyasi 1602–1800 Frantsuz va ingliz interregnum 1806–1815 Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston 1800–1942 1945–1950
Indoneziyaning paydo bo'lishi Milliy uyg'onish 1908–1942 Yapon istilosi 1942–1945 Milliy inqilob 1945–1949
Zamonaviy tarix Indoneziya Qo'shma Shtatlari 1949–1950 Liberal demokratiya 1950–1957 Boshqariladigan demokratiya 1957–1966 O'tish 1966–1967 Yangi buyurtma 1967–1998 Islohot 1998 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar
Mavzu bo'yicha Arxeologiya Valyuta Iqtisodiyot Harbiy
Indoneziya portali

Qismi bir qator ustida
Tarixi Malayziya
Tarixdan oldingi Malayziya Tarixdan oldingi Malayziya –6-chi asr
Dastlabki shohliklar Gangga Negara 2–11 asr Langkasuka 2-14 asr Chi Tu 2-6 asr Pan pan 3-5 asr Kedah Tua 5-9 asr Paxang Tua 5-15 asr Melayu 6-chi asr Kota Gelanggi 7-9 asr Srivijaya 650–1377 Majapaxit 1293–1500
Musulmon davlatlarining paydo bo'lishi Kedah Sultonligi 1136–hozirgi Samudera Pasai Sultonligi 1267–1521 Bruney Sultonligi 1368–hozirgi Malakka Sultonligi 1402–1511 Sulu Sultonligi 1450–1899 Paxang Sultonligi 1470–1623 Aceh Sultonligi 1496–1903 Pattani Sultonligi 1516– 1902 Perak Sultonligi 1528–hozirgi Johor Sultonligi 1528–hozirgi Saravak Sultonligi 1599–1641 Selangor Sultonligi 1745–hozirgi Besut qirolligi 1780–1899 Setul Shohligi 1808–1916 Reman Shohligi 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu qirolligi 1839–1864 Jamolullail uyi 1843–hozirgi
Mustamlaka davri Portugaliyalik Malakka 1511–1641 Gollandiya-Portugaliya urushi 1601–1661 Gollandiyalik Malakka 1641–1824 Paxang qirolligi 1770–1881 Bo'g'ozlar aholi punktlari 1786–1946 Kedahga siyam bosqini 1821–1826 Angliya-Gollandiya shartnomasi 1824 Burni shartnomasi 1826 Naning urushi 1831–1832 Saravak qirolligi 1841–1946 Labuan toj koloniyasi 1848–1946 Paxangdagi fuqarolar urushi 1857–1863 Larut urushlari 1861–1874 Klang urushi 1867–1874 Pangkor shartnomasi 1874 Perak urushi 1875–1876 Britaniya Malaya / Borneo 1874–1946 Jementah fuqarolik urushi 1879 Shimoliy Borneo 1882–1946 Federatsiya Malay Shtatlari 1895–1946 Angliya-siyam shartnomasi 1909 Federatsiyasiz Malayiya shtatlari 1909–1946 Penang jangi 1914 Kelantan isyoni 1915
Ikkinchi jahon urushi Yaponiyaning Malayani bosib olishi  / Borneo 1941–1945 Malayya kampaniyasi 1941–1942 Muar jangi 1942 Parit Sulong qirg'ini 1942 Singapur jangi 1942 Syburi 1942 Si Rat Malay 1943–1945 Sandakan o'lim marshlari 1942
Shakllanish davri Britaniya harbiy ma'muriyati Malaya /Borneo 1945–1946 N. Borneo toj koloniyasi 1946–1963 Saravak toj koloniyasi 1946–1963 Seziyaga qarshi harakat 1946–1963 Malayziya ittifoqi 1946–1948 Malaya Federatsiyasi 1948–1963 Malayan favqulodda holati 1948–1960 Balaylash bo'yicha suhbatlar 1955 Malayya mustaqilligi 1957 Singapur o'zini o'zi boshqarish 1959 Shimoliy Borneo o'zini o'zi boshqarish 1963 Saravakning o'zini o'zi boshqarish 1963 Malayziyaning tashkil topishi 1963 Malayziyada Singapur 1963–1965 ASEAN deklaratsiyasi 1967 Ikkinchi kommunistik qo'zg'olon 1968–1989 Yangi iqtisodiy siyosat 1971–1990 Hat Yai tinchlik shartnomasi 1989
Barisan Nasional davri KL federal hududi 1974 Pedra Branka bilan bahs 1979 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar Janubiy Xitoy dengizidagi tortishuv (Spratli orollari ) 1980 - hozirgi kunga qadar Labuan federal hududi 1984 Memali voqeasi 1985 "Lalang" operatsiyasi 1987 Konstitutsiyaviy inqiroz 1987–1988 Milliy rivojlanish siyosati 1990-2000 Vizyon 2020 1991-2020 Qirollik immunitetiga oid o'zgartirishlar 1993 Moliyaviy inqiroz 1997–1998 Malayziya Nipah virusi tarqalishi 1998-1999 Petronas egizak minoralari tantanali ochilish marosimi 1999 Putrajayaning federal hududi 2001 Malayziyada H1N1 pandemiyasi 2009-2010 1Malayziya kontseptsiyasi 2009-2018 1MDB janjal 2015-yil Malayziya fuqarolarining deklaratsiyasi 2016
Pakatan Harapan / Perikatan Nasional davri GE14 - Hukumat o'zgarishi 2018 Singapurdagi suv mojarosi 2018 Ommaviy norozilik namoyishlari ICERD 2018 Bornea shtatlari maqomi to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi 2019 Qabul qilish Shoh Muhammad V 2019 Ovoz berish18 konstitutsiyaviy o'zgartirish 2019 Umumiy farovonlik istiqbollari 2030 2019-2030 Covid-19 pandemiyasi 2020 Siyosiy inqiroz 2020 Harakatni boshqarish tartibi 2020 2020 yil Sabah bahslari 2020 Sabahdan tashqari saylov 2020
Voqealar Bruney qo'zg'oloni 1962–1966 Shimoliy Borneo mojarosi (Filippin jangarilarining hujumlari ) 1962 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar Indoneziya bilan qarama-qarshilik 1963–1966 Singapur poyga tartibsizliklari 1964 Bruneyning Limbang da'vosi 1967–2009 Penang Xartal g'alayoni 1967 13 may voqeasi 1969 Ligitan va Sipadan bahslari 1969–2002 Malayziya tumanlari inqirozi 1972 - hozirgi kunga qadar AIA qurilishidagi garov inqirozi 1975 Kempbell savdo majmuasi yong'in 1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad halokati 1976 Kelantan favqulodda holati 1977 Dawn Raid 1981 1985 yil Lahad Datu pistirmasi 1985 Memali hodisasi 1985 Sabah favqulodda holati 1986 Ming sud ishi 1987 1989 yil Taufiqiyah Al-Xayriya madrasasi yong'ini 1989 Tropik bo'ron Greg 1996 Reformasi harakati 1998 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar Al-Mauna voqeasi 2000 2001 yil Kampung Medan isyonlari 2001 2004 yil Malayziyada tsunami 2004 Altantuyaaning o'ldirilishi 2006 Bersih mitingi 2007–2016 HINDRAF mitingi 2007 ISAga qarshi miting 2009 2013 yilgi Xalq qo'zg'oloni mitingi 2013 Black-Out mitingi 2013 Lahad Datu bilan to'qnashuv 2013 MH370 hodisasi 2014 MH17 hodisasi 2014 2014–15 yil Malayziyada toshqinlar 2014-2015 2015 yil Sabah zilzilasi 2015 Malaylarning qadr-qimmati mitingi 2015 Movida Barga granata hujumi 2016 Kim Chen Namning o'ldirilishi 2017 Darul Quran Ittifoqiya madrasasida olov 2017 Seafield Shri Maha Mariamman ibodatxonasida g'alayon 2018 2018 yil ICERDga qarshi miting 2018
Mavzu bo'yicha Aloqa Iqtisodiy Harbiy
Malayziya portali

The Majapaxit (Indonezcha talaffuz:[mʒdʒpaɪt]) edi a Yava Hindu -talassokratik imperiya yilda Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo, oroliga asoslangan Java (zamonaviy qism Indoneziya ), bu 1293 yildan taxminan 1527 yilgacha mavjud edi. Majapaxit shon-sharafning eng yuqori cho'qqisiga bu davrda erishgan Xayam Vuruk 1350 yildan 1389 yilgacha hukmronligi Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo bo'ylab tarqalib borgan. Uning yutug'i, shuningdek, bosh vaziriga tegishli, Gajah Mada. Ga ko'ra Nagarakretagama (Desavarnana) 1365 yilda yozilgan Majapaxit 98 ta irmoqdan iborat imperiya edi Sumatra ga Yangi Gvineya;^[4](p87)[5] hozirgi kundan iborat Indoneziya, Singapur, Malayziya, Bruney, Janubiy Tailand, Sharqiy Timor, janubi-g'arbiy Filippinlar (xususan Sulu arxipelagi ), garchi Majapahit ta'sir doirasi hali ham tarixchilar o'rtasida munozara mavzusi bo'lib qolmoqda.^[6][7] Majapaxit munosabatlarining mohiyati va uning xorijdagi vassallariga ta'siri, shuningdek, uning maqomi imperiya hali ham munozaralarni qo'zg'atmoqda.^[8]

Majapaxit mintaqaning so'nggi yirik hind imperiyalaridan biri bo'lib, Indoneziya va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo tarixidagi eng buyuk va qudratli imperiyalardan biri hisoblanadi, ba'zida u Indoneziyaning zamonaviy chegaralari uchun namuna sifatida qaraladi.^[9](p19)[10] Uning ta'siri Indoneziyaning zamonaviy hududidan tashqariga chiqdi va ko'plab tadqiqotlar mavzusi bo'ldi.^[11][12]

Etimologiya

A maja Trowulan yaqinida o'sadigan mevalar, achchiq ta'mli mevalar shohlik nomining kelib chiqishi

Ism Majapaxit mahalliy narsadan kelib chiqadi Yava, "achchiq" degan ma'noni anglatadi maja". Nemis sharqshunosi Berthold Laufer buni taklif qildi maja Yava nomidan kelib chiqqan Aegle marmelos, Indoneziya daraxti.^[13] Dastlab bu nom va uning atrofidagi hududga tegishli Trowulan, tomonidan Tarik daraxtzorida qishloq qurilishi bilan bog'langan Majapaxit beshigi Raden Vijaya. Tarik yog'och maydonini tozalayotgan ishchilar bael daraxtlariga duch kelishgan va uning achchiq mevasini iste'mol qilishgan, keyin qishloqqa nom berishgan.^[2] Ushbu mintaqada topilgan eng ko'zga ko'ringan yoki mo'l-ko'l daraxt yoki mevali turlar bo'lgan hududni, qishloqni yoki aholi punktini nomlash Java-da odatiy holdir. Qadimgi Yavada shohlikka poytaxt nomi bilan murojaat qilish odatiy holdir. Majapahit (ba'zan ham yozilgan Mojopait) boshqa ismlar bilan ham tanilgan: Vilvatikta, garchi ba'zida mahalliy odamlar o'z shohliklarini shunday deb atashadi Bxumi Java yoki Mandala Java o'rniga.

Tarixnoma

Majapahitning ozgina ashyoviy dalillari qolmoqda,^[14] va tarixning ba'zi tafsilotlari mavhum.^[9](p18) Shunga qaramay, mahalliy Yava xalqi kabi Majapahitni butunlay unutmadim Mojopait ichida noaniq eslatib o'tilgan Babad Tanah Javi, 18-asrda tuzilgan Yava xronikasi. Majapaxit ashyoviy dalillarni keltirdi: Majapaxit davriga oid asosiy xarobalar Trowulan qirollikning qirollik poytaxti bo'lgan maydon. Trowulan arxeologik yodgorligi birinchi marta XIX asrda hujjatlashtirilgan Ser Tomas Stemford Raffles, Leytenant-gubernator Britaniya Java ning East India kompaniyasi 1811 yildan 1816 yilgacha. U "ibodatxonalar xarobalari .... mamlakat bo'ylab tarqalib ketgan ko'p millargacha" borligi haqida xabar bergan va Trowulanni "Yavaning bu mag'rurligi" deb atagan.^[15]

Nagarakretagama palma barglari qo'lyozmasi. Muallif: Mpu Prapanca 1365 yilda u King davrida hukmronlik qilgan Majapaxit sudi haqida asosiy tarixiy ma'lumot beradi Xayam Vuruk.

20-asrning boshlarida Gollandiyalik mustamlakachi tarixchilar o'zlarining mustamlakalari o'tmishini o'rganish uchun eski Yava va Bali adabiyotlarini o'rganishni boshladilar. Ular uchun ikkita asosiy manbalar mavjud edi Pararaton "Shohlar kitobi" qo'lyozmasi yozilgan Kavi tili v. 1600 va Nagarakretagama (Desawarnaña) 1365 yilda Kavida tuzilgan.^[16] Pararaton e'tiborini qaratadi Ken Arok, asoschisi Singhasari, ammo Majapahitning shakllanishi haqida bir qancha qisqaroq qissa qismlarini o'z ichiga oladi. The Nagarakretagama qadimgi yava doston hukmronligi davrida Majapahit oltin davrida yozilgan Xayam Vuruk, shundan so'ng ba'zi voqealar bayon qilingan holda yoritiladi.^[9](p18) Gollandiyaliklar qo'lyozmani 1894 yilda ular paytida sotib olishgan Cakranegara qirollik uyiga qarshi harbiy ekspeditsiya ning Lombok. Kavi va xitoy tillarida ba'zi yozuvlar mavjud.

Yava manbalarida ba'zi she'riy mifologik elementlar va shu kabi olimlar mavjud Cornelis Christiaan Berg, Hindistonda tug'ilgan Gollandiyalik tabiatshunos, butun tarixiy yozuvlarni o'tmishdagi yozuvlar emas, balki kelajakni aniqlash uchun g'ayritabiiy vosita deb hisoblagan.^[ii][6] Ko'pgina olimlar bu fikrni qabul qilmaydilar, chunki tarixiy yozuvlar xuddi shunday niyat bilan bo'lishi mumkin bo'lmagan xitoy materiallariga to'g'ri keladi. Davlat tuzilmasi hukmdorlari ro'yxati va tafsilotlari ixtiro qilinganligidan dalolat bermaydi.^[9](p18)

Xitoyning Majapaxit haqidagi tarixiy manbalari asosan yilnomalardan olingan Yuan va quyidagi Min sulolasi. Majapaxitdagi xitoylik hisob-kitoblar asosan Ming admiraliga tegishli Chjen Xe davomida hisobotlar uning Majapaxitga tashrifi 1405 yildan 1432 yilgacha Zheng Xening tarjimoni Ma Xuan Majapaxit va Yava shohi qaerda yashaganligi haqida batafsil ma'lumot yozdi.^[18] Hisobot tuzildi va to'plandi Yingya Shenglan madaniyati, urf-odatlari, shuningdek, turli xil ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy jihatlari to'g'risida qimmatli tushuncha beradi Chao-Va Majapaxit davrida (Java).^[19]

The Trowulan arxeologik hudud Majapahit tarixini o'rganish markaziga aylandi. Havodan va sun'iy yo'ldoshdan olingan tasvirlar Majapaxit poytaxtini kesib o'tgan keng kanallar tarmog'ini aniqladi.^[20] Yaqinda 2011 yil aprel oyidan boshlab olib borilgan arxeologik topilmalar Majapaxit poytaxti ba'zi asarlar topilgandan so'ng avval ishonilganidan ancha kattaroq ekanligini ko'rsatmoqda.^[21]

Tarix

Shakllanish

Keyin mag'lubiyat The Melayu qirolligi^[22] 1290 yilda Sumatrada, Singhasari mintaqadagi eng qudratli shohlikka aylandi. Xubilay Xon, Xoqon ning Mo'g'ul imperiyasi va Mo'g'ul Yuan sulolasi imperatori o'lpon talab qilib, emissarlarni yuborib, Singasariga qarshi chiqdi. Singhasaridan Kertanegara, o'lpon to'lashdan bosh tortdi, mo'g'ul elchisini haqorat qildi va o'rniga Xonga qarshi chiqdi. Bunga javoban Xubilay Xon Java-ga 1000 ta kemadan iborat katta ekspeditsiyani yubordi 1293 yilda.

Mo'g'ul bosqini

XIV asr rasmlari Yuan axlat. Shu kabi kemalarni Yuan dengiz armadasida yuborgan.

O'sha vaqtga kelib, Jayakatwang, Adipati (Dyuk) ning Kediri, vassal Singxasari shtati Kertanagarani egallab olib, o'ldirgan edi. Jayakatwang tomonidan Maduraning regenti Arya Viraraja yordamida afv etilgandan keyin; Raden Vijaya, Kertanegaraning kuyoviga er berildi Tarik Timberland. Keyin u keng yog'och maydonini ochdi va u erda yangi aholi punktini qurdi. Qishloq nomini oldi Majapaxit, bu achchiq ta'mga ega bo'lgan meva nomidan olingan (maja meva nomi va pahit achchiq degani). Xubilay Xon yuborgan Mo'g'uliston Yuan qo'shini kelganida, Vijaya Jayakatvangga qarshi kurashish uchun qo'shin bilan ittifoq qildi. Jayakatwang vayron qilinganidan so'ng, Raden Vijaya kutilmaganda hujum uyushtirib, ittifoqchilarini Java-dan chiqib ketishga majbur qildi.^[23] Yuan armiyasi dushmanlik hududida bo'lganligi sababli o'zlarining kemalari Yava dengiz floti tomonidan hujumga uchraganligi sababli chalkashlik bilan chekinishga to'g'ri keldi. Bu, shuningdek, ularni qo'lga kiritish uchun so'nggi imkoniyat edi musson uyga shamol; aks holda, ular yana olti oy kutishlari kerak edi.^[24]

Birinchi qirol Kertarajasa Jayavardhana

Qirol Kertarajasa sifatida tasvirlangan Xarixara, birlashishi Shiva va Vishnu. Dastlab Candi Simping-da joylashgan, Blitar, bugun u ko'rsatiladi Milliy muzey.

1293 yilda Raden Vijaya poytaxti Majapaxit bilan mustahkam tayanchga asos solgan.^{[25]:200–201} Majapaxit shohligining tug'ilgan kuni sifatida ishlatiladigan aniq sana uning taxtga o'tirgan kuni, 15-kuni Kartika 1215 yilda oy yava tilidan foydalangan holda Shaka davri, bu 1293 yil 10-noyabrga to'g'ri keladi.^[2] Uning taxtga o'tirishi paytida unga Kertarajasa Jayavardhana rasmiy nomi berilgan. Shoh Kertarajasa Kertanearaning to'rt qizini ham xotiniga oldi, uning birinchi rafiqasi va bosh malikasi Tribxuvanesvari va uning singillari; Prajnaparamita, Narendraduhita va Gayatri Rajapatni eng yoshi. Shuningdek, u Sumatran Malaycha Dharmasraya ismli malika Dara Petak uning xotini sifatida.

Yangi qirollik qiyinchiliklarga duch keldi. Kertarajasaning eng ishonchli erkaklari, shu jumladan Ranggalavi, Sora va Nambi unga qarshi isyon ko'tarishdi, ammo muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishdi. Bu shubhali edi Mahapati Halayudha suddagi barcha raqiblarini ag'darish uchun fitna uyushtirdi, ularni qirolga qarshi qo'zg'olonga boshladi, shu bilan birga u podshohning roziligini oldi va hukumatda eng yuqori lavozimga erishdi. Biroq, oxirgi isyonchi Kuti vafot etganidan so'ng, Halayudhaning xiyonati fosh bo'ldi, keyinchalik u hibsga olindi, hiyla-nayranglari uchun qamoqqa tashlandi va keyin o'limga mahkum etildi.^[23] Vijayaning o'zi 1309 yilda vafot etdi.

Jayanegara

A ning oltin tasviri o'rnatilgan chavandoz, ehtimol hindu xudosi Surya, ichida a stilize qilingan quyosh halo. Quyida ikkitasi bilan o'ralgan konch mavjud nagalar. 14-asr Majapahit san'ati, Jakarta milliy muzeyi.

Kertarajasa Vijayaning o'rnini uning merosxo'ri egalladi Jayanegara, uning o'g'li bilan Malayu Dharmasraya turmush o'rtog'i, Indresvari. Jayanearaning hukmronligi og'ir va xaotik davr bo'lib, otasining sobiq hamrohlarining bir necha isyonlari bilan bezovta bo'lgan. 1314 yilda Gajax Biruning isyoni va 1319 yilda Kuti qo'zg'oloni. Kuti qo'zg'oloni eng xavfli bo'lgan, chunki Kuti poytaxtni o'z qo'liga olishga muvaffaq bo'lgan. Yordamida Gajah Mada va uning Bxayangkara saroy qo'riqchisi,^[25]:233 Jayanegara zo'rg'a poytaxtdan qochib chiqib, Badander qishlog'iga yashiringan. Shoh yashirinib yurganida, Gajah Mada vaziyatni baholash uchun poytaxtga qaytib keldi. Kutining isyonini Majapaxit sudining odamlari yoki zodagonlari qo'llab-quvvatlamaganligini bilib, Gajah Mada Kuti qo'zg'olonini bostirish uchun qarshilik kuchlarini ko'tardi.

Kuti kuchlari mag'lub bo'lgandan so'ng, Jayanegara xavfsiz tarzda o'z taxtiga qaytarildi. Sadoqati va mukammal xizmati uchun Gajah Mada qirollik sudi siyosatidagi faoliyatini boshlash uchun yuqori lavozimga ko'tarildi.^[26]

An'anaga ko'ra, Vijayaning o'g'li va vorisi Jayanegara o'zining axloqsizligi bilan mashhur edi. Uning yoqimsiz harakatlaridan biri, singillari Gitarja va Rajadevini xotinlikka olmoqchi bo'lgan. Yava urf-odatlari yarim aka-uka va opa-singillarning turmushga chiqishini rad etganligi sababli, qirol oqsoqollar kengashi qirolning xohishiga qarshi qat'iy gapirishdi. Jayanearaning istagini nimaga undaganligi noma'lum edi - bu uning taxtga bo'lgan da'vosini raqiblarni uning singillari singlisi bo'lishiga to'sqinlik qilish orqali ta'minlashi mumkin edi, garchi Majapaxit sudining keyingi davrida amakivachchalar orasida turmush qurish odati mavjud edi. juda keng tarqalgan. In Pararaton, u sifatida tanilgan Kala Gemet, yoki "zaif jinoyatchi". Jayanearaning hukmronligi davrida, italiyalik friar Pordenonning hidlari Java shahridagi Majapahit sudiga tashrif buyurdi.

1328 yilda Jayanegara jarrohlik operatsiyasi paytida uning shifokori Tanca tomonidan o'ldirildi. To'liq g'azabda va g'azabda Gajah Mada darhol Tankani o'ldirdi. Buning ortida turgan sabab regitsid hech qachon aniq bo'lmagan. Ga ko'ra Pararaton, bu Tancaning shoh o'z xotiniga jinsiy zo'ravonlik qilgani uchun qasos edi. Biroq, Bali qo'lyozmasiga ko'ra Babad Dalem, suiqasd Gajah Madaning o'zi tomonidan qirollikni yovuz zolimdan xalos qilish uchun yaratilgan strategiya edi.^[27] An'anaga ko'ra, axloqsiz, shafqatsiz va shafqatsiz podshoh ko'pincha ayollarni, hatto o'z bo'ysunuvchilarining xotinlarini ham aldab, haqoratlagan.^[28] Boshqa mumkin bo'lgan sabablarga ko'ra ikki malika - Gayatri Rajapatni qizlari Gitarja va Rajadevini qirolning shafqatsizligidan himoya qilish kiradi.^[27] O'ldirilgan podshoh farzandsiz bo'lganligi sababli, u hech qanday voris qoldirmadi.

Oltin asr

Qirolicha Tribxuvana Vijayatunggadewi

Ning haykali Parvati murda sifatida tasvirlangan Tribhuwanottunggadewi, Majapaxit malikasi, onasi Xayam Vuruk.

Jayanearaning o'gay onasi Gayatri Rajapatni - sudning eng obro'li matriarxi - boshqaruvni egallashi kerak edi. Biroq, Rajapatni dunyoviy ishlardan nafaqaga chiqqan edi Buddist rohiba. Rajapatni qizini tayinladi, Dyah Gitarja, yoki Rajapatni homiyligida Majapahit malikasi sifatida Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani deb nomlangan. Tribxuvana tayinlandi Gajah Mada 1336 yilda Bosh vazir lavozimida. Inauguratsiya paytida Gajah Mada o'zini e'lon qildi Palapa qasamyodi, Majapahit sohasini kengaytirish va uni qurish rejasini ochib berdi imperiya.^[10]

Tribxuvana hukmronligi davrida Majapaxit shohligi ancha kattalashib, hududda mashhur bo'ldi. Uning qobiliyatli va ambitsiyali bosh vazirining tashabbusi bilan Gajah Mada, Majapahit qo'shin orolini zabt etish uchun armadasini yubordi Bali.^[25]:234 Babad Arya Tabanan qo'lyozmasiga ko'ra, 1342 yilda Gajah Mada boshchiligidagi Majapaxit kuchlari, uning generali Arya Damar yordam bergan, Palembang regenti Baliga tushgan. Etti oylik janglardan so'ng Majapaxit kuchlari Balin shohini mag'lubiyatga uchratib, 1343 yilda Balining poytaxti Beduluni egallab olishdi. Balini zabt etgandan so'ng Majapaxit Balining boshqaruv vakolatlarini Arya Damarning ukalari Arya Kenceng, Arya Kutavandira, Arya Sentong, o'rtasida taqsimladi. va Arya Belog. Arya Kenceng birodarlarini Majapahit suzerainty ostida Balini boshqarishga olib bordi va u Tabanan va Badung qirollik uylarining Bali qirollarining ajdodiga aylandi. Ushbu kampaniya orqali Majapaxit hukmronlik qiladigan vassal sulolasini barpo etdi Bali qirolligi keyingi asrlarda. Tribxuvana Majapaxitni 1350 yilda onasi vafotigacha boshqargan. U o'g'li Xayam Vuruk foydasiga taxtdan voz kechgan.

Xayam Vuruk hukmronligi va Gajax Madaning zabt etilishi

Majapaxit imperiyasining kengayishi XIII asrda Trowulan Majapaxitda boshlangan va XVI asrning boshlarida chekinib, qulab tushgunga qadar Indoneziya arxipelagining katta qismiga qadar bo'lgan.

Xayam Vuruk, Rajasanagara nomi bilan ham tanilgan, 1350–89 yillarda Majapaxitni boshqargan. Ushbu davrda Majapaxit bosh vazir yordamida eng yuqori cho'qqiga erishdi Gajah Mada. Gajax Madaning buyrug'i bilan (1313-64) Majapaxit ko'proq hududlarni egallab oldi va mintaqaviy hokimiyatga aylandi.^[25]:234 Ga ko'ra Nagarakretagama, XIII va XIV kanto bir necha davlatlarni eslatib o'tdi Sumatra, Malay yarim oroli, Borneo, Sulavesi, Nusa Tenggara orollar, Maluku, Yangi Gvineya, Mindanao, Sulu arxipelagi, Luzon va ba'zi qismlari Visayalar Majapahit hokimiyat doirasidagi kabi orollar. The Hikayat Raja Pasay, 14-asr Aceh xronika Majapaxit dengiz hujumini tasvirlaydi Samudra Pasay 1350 yilda.^[29] Hujum kuchi 400 kishidan iborat edi jong va hisoblab bo'lmaydigan son malangbang va kelulus.^[30] Ushbu kengayish Majapaxitning eng katta darajasini ko'rsatdi va uni Indoneziya tarixidagi eng nufuzli imperiyalardan biriga aylantirdi. Osiyo tsivilizatsiyasida tijorat savdo imperiyasi sifatida qaraladi.

The terakota portreti sifatida xalq ishongan raqam Gajah Mada, to'plami Trowulan muzeyi.

Majapahit imperiyasining kengayishi dengiz va harbiy ekspeditsiyalarni boshlash bilan bir qatorda diplomatiya va ittifoqni ham o'z ichiga olgan. Xayam Vuruk, ehtimol siyosiy sabablarga ko'ra malika olishga qaror qildi Citra Rashmi (Dyah Pitaloka) qo'shni Sunda qirolligi uning kabi sherik.^[31] Sundaliklar ushbu taklifni ittifoq shartnomasi sifatida qabul qilishdi. 1357 yilda Sunda qiroli va uning qirol oilasi qizini Xayam Vurukga hamrohlik qilish va turmushga berish uchun Majapaxitga kelishdi.^[25]:239 Biroq, Gajah Mada ushbu hodisani Sundaning Majapahitga haddan tashqari ustunlikka bo'ysunishini talab qilish imkoniyati sifatida ko'rdi. Sunda qirol oilasi va Majapaxit qo'shinlari o'rtasida Bubat maydonidagi to'qnashuv muqarrar edi. Jasoratli qarshilikka qaramay, qirol oilasi g'arq bo'ldi va yo'q qilindi. Deyarli butun Sundan qirollik partiyasi o'ldirildi.^[32] An'anaga ko'ra, yuragi ezilgan malika bu ishni qilgan o'z joniga qasd qilish o'z mamlakati sharafini himoya qilish.^[33] The Bubat jangi, yoki Pasunda Bubat fojiasi asosiy mavzuga aylandi Kidung Sunda, shuningdek, Karita Paraxyangan va Pararaton, ammo bu haqda hech qachon eslatilmagan Nagarakretagama.

Gajah Mada yozuvi 1273 yil Saka (milodiy 1351 y.) ga bag'ishlangan bo'lib, Gajah Mada tomonidan marhum qirolga bag'ishlangan muqaddas caitya binosi to'g'risida Kertanegara Singhasari.

The Nagarakretagama1365 yilda yozilgan bo'lib, san'at va adabiyotga nafis didi va diniy marosimlarning murakkab tizimiga ega bo'lgan zamonaviy sud tasvirlangan. Shoir Majapaxitni ulkan markaz deb ta'riflaydi mandala dan uzaytirildi Yangi Gvineya va Maluku ga Sumatra va Malay yarim oroli. Indoneziyaning ko'p joylaridagi mahalliy urf-odatlar XIV asr Majapaxitning kuchi haqida ozmi-ko'pmi saqlanib qolgan afsonaviy shakl. Majapaxitning bevosita ma'muriyati bundan tashqariga chiqmadi sharqiy Java va Bali, ammo Majapaxitning tashqi orollarda haddan tashqari hokimiyatni egallash to'g'risidagi da'vosiga qarshi bo'lgan muammolar kuchli javoblarni keltirib chiqardi.^[34](p106)

Omadni qayta tiklash Malayu Sumatrada, 1370-yillarda Malay hukmdori Palembang sudiga elchi yubordi birinchi imperator yangi tashkil etilgan Min sulolasi. U Xitoyni xuddi shunga o'xshash irmoq tizimini qayta tiklashga taklif qildi Srivijaya bundan bir necha asr oldin qilgan. Ushbu diplomatik hiyla-nayrangni bilib, darhol qirol Xayam Vuruk Nankingga elchi yubordi, imperatorni Malayu ularning vassali ekanligiga va mustaqil mamlakat emasligiga ishontirdi.^[7] Keyinchalik, 1377 yilda - Gajah Madaning o'limidan bir necha yil o'tgach, Majapahit Palembangdagi isyonga qarshi jazolash dengiz kuchlari hujumini yubordi,^[9](p19) Srivijayan voris qirolligining tugashiga hissa qo'shmoqda. Gajah Madaning boshqa taniqli generali edi Adityawarman, uning fathi bilan tanilgan Minangkabau.^{[35][o'z-o'zini nashr etgan manba ]}

Bronza to'pi ketbang, Metropolitan San'at muzeyi, Nyu-York, 14-asr Majapahitdan bo'lgan deb da'vo qildi.^[36] Tekshirish Surya Majapahit bronza zambarakda emblem.

Majapaxit imperiyasining tabiati va uning darajasi munozaralarga sabab bo'ladi. Ba'zi birlari ustidan cheklangan yoki umuman shartli ta'sir ko'rsatgan bo'lishi mumkin irmoq davlatlari Sumatra, Malay yarim oroli, shu jumladan Kalimantan, va sharqiy Indoneziya, qaysi hokimiyat ustidan da'vo qilingan Nagarakretagama.^[37] Geografik va iqtisodiy cheklovlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, odatdagi markazlashgan hokimiyat o'rniga, tashqi davlatlar asosan savdo aloqalari bilan bog'langan, ehtimol bu qirol monopoliyasi edi.^[9](p19) Bilan munosabatlarni da'vo qildi Champa, Kambodja, Siam, Birma janubi va Vetnam va hatto o'z missiyalarini Xitoyga yuborgan.^[9](p19) Majapaxit hukmdorlari boshqa orollar ustidan hokimiyatini kengaytirib, qo'shni qirolliklarni vayron qilgan bo'lsalar-da, ularning e'tiborlari arxipelag orqali o'tgan tijorat savdosining katta qismini boshqarish va egallashga qaratilgan edi.

Majapaxit tashkil etilgan vaqt haqida, Musulmon savdogarlar va prozelitizmchilar hududga kira boshladi. Troyao qabri, islomiy qabriston birikmasining qoldig'i, Majapahitning qirollik poytaxti Trowulan hududida topilgan. Mutaxassislarning ta'kidlashicha, qabriston milodiy 1368-1611 yillarda ishlatilgan, ya'ni Xayam Vuruk davrida 14-asr o'rtalarida musulmon savdogarlar poytaxtda yashagan.^[38]:185:196

Rad etish

1389 yilda Xayam Vuruk vafot etganidan keyin Majapaxit hokimiyati vorislik nizosi bilan tanazzul davriga kirdi.^[25]:241 Xayam Vurukdan keyin shahzoda shahzodaga uylangan valiahd malika Kusumavardxani o'rnini egalladi Vikramavardhana. Xayam Vurukning avvalgi turmushidan valiahd shahzoda ham o'g'li bor edi Wirabhumi, shuningdek, taxtga da'vogar bo'lgan.

Xayam Vuruk vafot etganida, Majapaxit Sumatra va Malay yarim orolining shimoliy qirg'oqlarida o'zlarining vassal davlatlarini qo'ldan boy berib qo'ydi, ikkinchisi esa Xitoy manbalariga ko'ra, uning irmoqli davlatiga aylanadi. Ayutthaya Qirolligi ko'tarilishigacha Malakka Sultonligi tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan Min sulolasi.^[39]

14-asrda malay Singapur qirolligi tashkil etildi va u zudlik bilan Majapaxit dengiz flotini o'ziga jalb qildi Tumasik, isyonkor koloniya. Singapur nihoyat Majapaxit tomonidan 1398 yilda ishdan bo'shatildi,^[40][41][42] taxminan 300 oylik va 200.000 askarlar tomonidan 1 oylik qamaldan so'ng.^[43][44] Oxirgi podshoh, Shri Iskandar Shoh tashkil etish uchun Malay yarim orolining g'arbiy qirg'og'iga qochib ketdi Melaka Sultonligi 1400 yilda.

Paregreg urushi

Deb nomlangan fuqarolar urushi Paregreg urush 1405 yildan 1406 yilgacha bo'lgan deb taxmin qilinadi.^[9](p18) Urush urushlar ketma-ketligi musobaqasi sifatida olib borildi g'arbiy sud boshchiligidagi Vikramavardhana va sharq sudi boshchiligidagi Bhre Wirabhumi. Wikramawardhana g'alaba qozondi. Wirabhumi qo'lga olindi va boshini tanasidan judo qildi. Ammo fuqarolar urushi moliyaviy mablag'larni susaytirdi, qirollikni charchatdi va Majapaxitning tashqi vassallari va mustamlakalariga ta'sirini susaytirdi.^[45]

Ichki kurashlar tufayli zaiflashganiga qaramay, 1409 yilda Majapaxit G'arbiy Sumatranga qarshi hujumni davom ettirdi Pagaruyung qirolligi, ning yarim afsonaviy hisobida qayd etilganidek Minangkabau afsonasi. Yava kuchlari a .da mag'lub bo'lganligi eslatib o'tildi qo'tos kurash.^[46]

Wikramawardhana va Ming ekspeditsiyasi

Zheng Xe flotining, shu jumladan Majapaxit portlarining sayohatlari yo'nalishi.

Wikramawardhana davrida bir qator Ming armada dengiz ekspeditsiyalari boshchiligidagi Chjen Xe,^{[25]:241–242} a Musulmon Xitoylik admiral Yavaga 1405 yildan 1433 yilgacha bir necha bor kelgan. Ushbu xitoylik sayohatlar Osiyodagi ko'plab portlarga tashrif buyurishdi. Afrika Majapahit portlari, shu jumladan. Zheng Xening Yava shahridagi Majapaxit sudiga tashrif buyurgani aytilgan.

Xitoyning ushbu ulkan sayohatlari shunchaki dengiz kashfiyoti emas, balki qudrat namoyishi va geosiyosiy imkoniyatni namoyish etish edi. Xitoylik Min sulolasi yaqinda mo'g'ullar Yuan sulolasini ag'darib tashlagan va Osiyoda geosiyosiy muvozanatni o'zgartirgan dunyoda o'z gegemonligini o'rnatishga intilgan.^[47] Xitoylar pasayib ketayotgan Khmer imperiyasiga qarshi taylarni qo'llab-quvvatlash, ittifoqchi guruhlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash va o'rnatish orqali xitoylar janubiy dengizlar siyosatiga aralashdilar. Hindiston, Shri-Lanka va boshqa joylar Hind okeani qirg'oqlari. Biroq, ehtimol Xitoyning eng muhim aralashuvi yangi tashkil etilganlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashi bo'lishi mumkin Malakka sultonligi, Java-ning Majapahit ta'siriga raqib va ​​qarshi og'irlik sifatida.^[47]

Ilgari Majapahit Malakka bo'g'ozida o'z ta'sirini Sumatra va Malay yarim orolidagi Malay politsiyasining Srivijaya kabi geosiyosiy qudratga erishish istagini o'z ichiga olgan holda erishishga muvaffaq bo'lgan. Hind Majapaxiti o'sha paytda Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo dengizlarida eng kuchli dengiz kuchi bo'lgan va Xitoyning o'z ta'sir doirasiga kengayishiga qarshi bo'lgan. Mingning Malakka yordami va Malakka hamda Zheng Xening xazina parki tomonidan targ'ib qilingan Islomning tarqalishi orolning shimoliy qismi tobora islomni qabul qilishiga va Majapaxitdan mustaqillikka erishishiga sabab bo'lgan Sumatrada Majapahit dengiz ta'sirini susaytirdi. Indragiri, Jambi va Palembang, eskirganlarning qoldiqlari Srivijaya, Sumatradagi Majapahit ostida yagona suzerainty,^[iii] chegaradosh Pagaruyung qirolligi g'arbda va shimolda mustaqil musulmon shohliklari.

Ming sulolasining ushbu sayohatlari Majapaxit tarixshunosligi uchun juda muhimdir, chunki Zheng Xening tarjimoni Ma Xuan yozgan Yingya Shenglan, Majapahitning batafsil tavsifi,^[18] Majapaxit davrida Java madaniyati, urf-odatlari, shuningdek, turli xil ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy jihatlari to'g'risida qimmatli tushuncha beradi.^[19]

Xitoyliklar Malakka muntazam ravishda yordam ko'rsatdilar va uning sultoni Min imperatoriga shaxsan sajda qilish uchun kamida bitta sayohat qildi. Malakka konversiyani faol ravishda rag'batlantirdi Islom mintaqada, Ming floti Yava qirg'oqlarining shimoliy qismida xitoy-malay musulmonlar jamoasini faol ravishda tashkil qilgan va shu bilan Yava hindulariga qarshi doimiy qarshilik ko'rsatgan. 1430 yilga qadar ekspeditsiyalar shimoliy Yava portlarida musulmon xitoy, arab va malay jamoalarini tashkil etishdi Semarang, Demak, Tuban va Ampel; shu tariqa Islom Yavoning shimoliy qirg'og'ida o'z o'rnini egallay boshladi. Malakka Xitoyning Ming himoyasi ostida gullab-yashnagan, Majapaxit esa doimiy ravishda orqaga surilgan.^[47]

Qirolicha Suxita

Morgda qirolichaning portret haykali ilohiylashtirildi Suhita (1429-1447 yillar hukmronligi), Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, Sharqiy Yava, Indoneziya milliy muzeyi.

Wikramawardhana 1426 yilgacha hukmronlik qildi va uning o'rnini qizi egalladi Suhita,^[25]:242 1426 yildan 1447 yilgacha hukmronlik qilgan. U Wirabhumining qizi bo'lgan kanizak tomonidan Vikramavardhananing ikkinchi farzandi edi. Suxitaning hukmronligi Majapahitni ikkinchi marta buyuk buvisi Tribxuvana Vijayatunggadevidan keyin malika regnant tomonidan boshqarildi. Uning hukmronligi Yava afsonalarida abadiylashtirilgan Damarvulan Bu hikoyada Prabu Keniya ismli qiz malikani o'z ichiga olganligi sababli va Suxita davrida urush bo'lgan Blambangan afsonada aytilganidek.^[48]

1447 yilda Suxita vafot etdi va uning o'rnini egalladi Kertavijaya, uning akasi.^[25]:242 U 1451 yilgacha hukmronlik qildi. Kertavijaya vafot etganidan keyin, Bxre Pamotan rasmiy ismi Rajasavardhana bilan qirolga aylandi. U 1453 yilda vafot etdi. Uch yillik qirollik davri, ehtimol vorislik inqirozining natijasi bo'lishi mumkin. Girisawardhana, Kertavijayaning o'g'li, 1456 yilda hokimiyat tepasiga keldi. U 1466 yilda vafot etdi va uning o'rnini Singhavikramavardhana egalladi.

Bo'linish

1468 yilda knyaz Kertabxumi o'zini Majapaxit qiroli sifatida tanitib, Sinxavikramavardhanaga qarshi isyon ko'tardi. Qabul qilingan Singxavikramavardhana Brantas daryosining yuqori oqimiga qarab orqaga chekinib, qirollik poytaxtini ichki qismga ko'chirdi. Yana (sobiq poytaxti Kediri shohligi ), Tropulan shahridagi Bhre Kertabumi va Daxadagi Singxavikramavardhana boshchiligidagi Majapaxitni samarali ravishda ajratish. Singxavikramavardhana o'z hukmronligini o'g'lining o'rniga o'tguncha davom ettirdi Girindrawardhana (Ranawijaya) 1474 yilda.

Va Majapaxitning bo'linish sudining shu davri orasida, qirollik allaqachon qulab tushgan imperiyaning g'arbiy qismini boshqarishga qodir emas edi. Ning ko'tarilayotgan kuchi Malakka sultonligi ustidan samarali nazoratni qo'lga kirita boshladi Malakka bo'g'ozi 15-asrning o'rtalarida va Sumatra ta'sirini kengaytirdi. Va shunga o'xshash voqealar orasida Indragiri va Siantan Malay yilnomalari Malakka Majapahit malika va ularning nikohi uchun mahr sifatida berilgan Malakka sultoni,^[49] arxipelagning g'arbiy qismida Majapahit ta'sirini yanada susaytirdi. Kertabxumi bu vaziyatni barqarorlashtirishga muvaffaq bo'ldi musulmon savdogarlar bilan, ularga Java-ning shimoliy qirg'og'ida savdo huquqini berib, Demak uning markazi sifatida va buning evaziga Majapaxitga sodiq bo'lishlarini so'radi. Ushbu siyosat Majapaxit xazinasini va qudratini oshirdi, ammo hind-buddizmni asosiy din sifatida zaiflashtirdi. Islomiy prozelitizm tezroq tarqaldi, ayniqsa Yava qirg'oq knyazliklarida. Keyinchalik hind-buddist izdoshlarining shikoyatlari Ranavijayaga Kertabumini mag'lub etish uchun yo'l ochdi.

Majapaxit imperiyasining tugash sanalari an'anaviy ravishda tasvirlangan 1478 yilgacha sinengkalan yoki chandrasengkala (xronogramma ) Sirna ilang kertaning bhumi bu 1400 ga to'g'ri keladi Saka,^[iv] asrlar oxiri sulola yoki sudlarning o'zgarishi odatda tugagan vaqt deb qaraladi) 1527 yilgacha.^[50]:36 1478 yil yil edi Sudarma Visuta urushi general Udaraning (keyinchalik vitse-regentga aylangan) boshchiligidagi Ranavijayya armiyasi Trowulan mudofaasini buzgan va Kertabumini o'z saroyida o'ldirganida,^[51][52] lekin umuman Majapahitning o'zi qulashi emas.

Demak ostiga qo'shimcha kuchlar yubordi Sunan Ngudung, keyinchalik jangda vafot etgan va uning o'rnini egallagan Sunan Kudus, lekin ular Kertabumini qutqarish uchun juda kech kelishdi, garchi ular Ranavijaya qo'shinini qaytarishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. Ushbu voqea Trailokyapuri (Jivu) va Petak yozuvlarida keltirilgan bo'lib, Ranavijaya Kertabxumini mag'lubiyatga uchratganini va Majapaxitni bitta Shohlik sifatida birlashtirganini ta'kidlagan.^[53] Ranavijaya 1474 yildan 1498 yilgacha Girindrawardhana rasmiy nomi bilan, Udara esa uning vitse-regenti bo'lgan. Ushbu voqea o'rtasidagi urushga olib keldi Demak Sultonligi va Yana chunki Demak hukmdorlari Kertabxumining avlodlari edi.

Majapaxitning ichki tomon chekinishining ushbu davrida Yana va Java-da urush, Demak Yava qirg'oqlari va umuman Yavaning hukmron hukmdori bo'lib, Sumatradagi Jambi va Palembang hududlarini Majapaxitdan tortib oldi.^{[54]:154–155}

Demak bosqini va Majapaxitning qulashi

Demak Majapahit o'rnini bosgan Java-dagi eng qadimgi islomiy siyosat edi.

1498 yilda Girindravardhanani vitse-regent Udara tomonidan lavozimidan bo'shatilganida burilish yuz berdi. Ushbu to'ntarishdan so'ng, Demak va Daxa o'rtasidagi urush orqaga qaytdi, ba'zi manbalar bilan^{[JSSV? ]} da'vo qilish Raden Patax, Demak Sultoni, Majapaxitni otasi kabi yolg'iz qoldirgan, boshqalari esa Udara Demakning vassaliga aylanishga rozi bo'lgan, hatto Raden Patahning kenja qiziga uylangan.

Ayni paytda g'arbda, Malakka 1511 yilda portugallar tomonidan qo'lga olingan. Demak va Daxa o'rtasidagi nozik muvozanat, Demakni yo'q qilish imkoniyatini ko'rgan Udara so'raganda tugadi Portugal Malakka yordami, Demakni Malakka va Daxa ostida hujum qilishga majbur qildi Adipati Yunus ushbu ittifoqni tugatish uchun.^[v]

1527 yilda Demak tomonidan ezilgan Daxa (Kediri) qulashi bilan,^[50]:54–55 paydo bo'lgan musulmon kuchlari nihoyat XVI asr boshlarida Majapaxit saltanatining qoldiqlarini mag'lubiyatga uchratdilar.^[57] Va Daxa qulashi bilan ko'plab saroy ahli, hunarmandlar, ruhoniylar va qirollik a'zolari sharqdan orolga ko'chib ketishdi. Bali. Qochqinlar Kertabxumiga qarshi Ranavijayani qo'llab-quvvatlagani uchun Demakning jazosidan qochish uchun sharqqa qochib ketishdi.

Demak Raden (keyinchalik Sulton sifatida toj kiydirgan) Patax (arabcha nomi: Fatoh, lit. "Ozod qiluvchi", "g'olib") boshchiligida keldi, u Majapaxitning qonuniy vorisi sifatida tan olindi. Bobod Tanah Javi va Demak an'analariga ko'ra, Pataxning qonuniyligining manbai shundaki, ularning birinchi sultoni Raden Patax Majapaxit shohi Brawijaya V ning o'g'li xitoylik kanizak bilan birga bo'lgan. Yana bir dalil Demakni Majapahitning vorisi sifatida qo'llab-quvvatlaydi; ko'tarilgan Demak sultonligi nominal mintaqaviy hukmdor sifatida osongina qabul qilindi, chunki Demak sobiq Majapaxit vassali bo'lgan va Sharqiy Yavada sobiq Majapaxit shohligi yaqinida joylashgan.

Demak o'zini mintaqaviy kuch va Java-dagi birinchi islom sultonligi sifatida namoyon qildi. Majapaxit qulaganidan so'ng, Java-dagi hind shohliklari faqat tarkibida qolishdi Blambangan sharqiy chekkasida va Pajajaran g'arbiy qismida. Asta-sekin Hindu jamoalar Sharqiy Yavadagi tog 'tizmalariga va shuningdek qo'shni orolga chekinishni boshladilar Bali. Kichik anklav Hindlar jamoalari ichida qoling Tengger tog 'tizmasi.

Harbiy

Yuanga oid tarixga ko'ra, Majapaxit davridagi askarlarda asosan jihozlanmagan yorug'lik ustunlik qilgan piyoda askarlar. Mo'g'ullarning Yavaga bostirib kirishi paytida Yava qo'shini vaqtincha safarbar qilingan dehqonlar va bir necha zodagon jangchilar sifatida tavsiflangan. Zodagonlar dehqonlardan iborat ulkan orqa qo'shin bilan oldingi safda yurishdi. Yava dehqonlar armiyasi yarim yalang'och va beliga paxta mato bilan yopilgan edi (sarung ). Qurollarning aksariyati kamon va o'qlar, bambuk nayzalar va qisqa pichoqlar. Aristokratlarga hind madaniyati chuqur ta'sir qiladi, odatda qilich va nayza bilan qurollangan, oq kiyingan.^[24]

Majapahit tomonidan ishlatilgan porox qurollari, chapdan o'ngga:

• Qaytib bo'yinturuq bilan, aravachada joylashgan ikki barreli ketbang. 1522. To'pning og'zi shakli shaklida Yava nagasi.
• A chizilgan Xitoy miloddan 1421 yil Yava shahrida topilgan qutbli qurol, ehtimol Yava qutbli qurol, bedil qabri, ushbu quroldan keyin yaratilgan.

Porox texnologiyasi Java-ga kiritilgan Mo'g'ullarning Yavaga bosqini (Hijriy 1293). Majapaxit ostida Mahapatih (Bosh Vazir) Gajah Mada olingan porox texnologiyasidan foydalanilgan Yuan sulolasi dengiz flotida foydalanish uchun.^[58]:57 Keyingi yillarda Majapaxit armiyasi "deb nomlanuvchi yuk ko'taruvchi to'p ishlab chiqarishni boshladi ketbang. Cetbang sobit yoki aylanadigan qurol sifatida o'rnatilishi mumkin, kichik o'lchamdagi cetbang osongina kichik idishlarga o'rnatilishi mumkin. Dengiz jangida ushbu qurol kemaga qarshi emas, balki piyodalarga qarshi qurol sifatida ishlatiladi. Ushbu asrda, hatto 17 asrga qadar Nusantara askarlari deb nomlangan platformada jang qilishdi Balay va samolyotga chiqish tadbirlarini o'tkazdilar. Skattershotlar bilan yuklangan (uzum, ish o'qqa tutildi, yoki mixlar va toshlar) va yaqin masofadan o'qqa tutilgan holda, ketbang ushbu turdagi janglarda juda samarali.^{[59]:241[60]:162}

Majapaxitda elita qo'shinlari bor Bxayangkara. Ushbu qo'shinlarning asosiy vazifasi shoh va nobiliyalarni himoya qilishdir, ammo agar kerak bo'lsa, ular jang maydoniga joylashtirilishi mumkin. Banjar xronikasi qayd etdi Bxayangkara Majapaxit saroyidagi jihozlar:

... zargarlik buyumlari bilan erkaklar bilan zanjirli pochta qilichlari yonida qirq raqamlangan va qizil kopiya [bosh suyagi qopqog'i], ko'tarib yurgan erkaklar astengger [arquebus] qirq kishi, qalqon va qilich ko'targanlar qirq kishi, ko'taruvchilar esa dadap [rattan qalqoni] va sodok [keng pichoqli nayzaga o'xshash qurol] o'n kishilik, (o'nlab) kamon va o'qlarni ko'targan erkaklar, (erkaklar) qirq raqamli oltin bilan naqshlangan nayzalarni ko'targanlar, (erkaklar) qirmizi suvli o'yma bilan Bali qalqonlarini ko'targanlar.

— Hikoyat Banjar. 6.3

• 

  Xitoy dengizining kesilgan qismi Miller atlasi, oltita va uch ustunli jongni ko'rsatmoqda.

• 

  Dan haykalda tasvirlangan zirh konfet Singasarida.

• 

  Bu Jiaozhi arquebus Java arquebus-ga o'xshaydi.

• 

  Xudo tutgan a cuirass, avvalroq, 10-11 asr Nganjuk, Sharqiy Java.

• 

  Java-ning turli xil keris va qutbli qurollari

Xitoy hisobotiga ko'ra, boyroq (yuqori darajadagi) askarlar zirh kiyib yurishgan kavaka.^[vi] Ushbu zirh uzun naycha shaklida va quyma misdan yasalgan. Aksincha, kambag'al (quyi darajadagi) askarlar yalang'och holda jang qilishdi.^[39] Majapaxit davrida Java-da ishlatiladigan boshqa zirh turlari edi waju rante (zanjirli pochta zirhi) va karambalangan (ko'krak qafasi oldida taqilgan metall qatlami).^{[61]:202[62][63]} Yilda Kidung Sunda kanto 2-oyat 85-chi mantriGajah Madaning (vazirlar yoki ofitserlar) zanjirli pochta yoki oltin nishonli ko'krak nishoni shaklida zirh kiygan va sariq kiyimda^[64]:103 Kidung Sundayana kanto 1-oyat 95-oyatda Gajax Mada oltin naqshinkor naqshinkor kiyganligini eslatib o'tdi karambalangan, oltin qatlamli nayza va olmos bilan bezatilgan qalqon bilan qurollangan.^[63][62]

Majapahit shuningdek, arxipelagda o'qotar qurolni ishlatishga kashshof bo'lgan. Garchi poroxga asoslangan qurol yasash to'g'risidagi bilim mo'g'ullarning Java'ga bostirib kirganidan keyin va otashin qurollardan oldinda ma'lum bo'lgan bo'lsa ham, qutbli qurol (bedil qabri ), 1413 yilda Java tomonidan ishlatilganligi qayd etilgan,^[65][59]:245 "haqiqiy" o'qotar qurollar yasash to'g'risida bilim ancha kechroq, XV asr o'rtalaridan keyin paydo bo'ldi. Bu tomonidan olib kelingan Islomiy G'arbiy Osiyo davlatlari, ehtimol Arablar. Kirishning aniq yili noma'lum, ammo uni 1460 yildan erta deb xulosa qilish mumkin.^[66]:23 Bir hisobotda 1500-1506 yillarda Giri kuchlariga qarshi jangda o'qotar qurol ishlatilganligi eslatib o'tilgan:^[67]

Ushbu jangda qaysi turdagi qurol ishlatilganligi haqida ma'lumot berilmagan. So'zibedhil"turli xil kukunli qurollarga tegishli bo'lishi mumkin Java arquebus (爪哇 銃) xitoyliklar tomonidan xabar qilingan. Ushbu turdagi arquebuslar o'xshashlikka ega Vetnam arquebus 17 asr. Qurol juda uzun, uzunligi 2,2 m ga etishi mumkin va o'ziga xos katlama bipodga ega edi.^[68] Tome Piresning 1515 yildagi hisobotida Batara Brawijayaning noibi Gusti Pati armiyasi 200 000 kishidan iborat bo'lib, ularning 2000 nafari otliqlar va 4000 mushketyorlar.^[54]:176 Duarte Barbosa ca. 1510 yilda Yava aholisi artilleriya otish bo'yicha buyuk ustalar va juda yaxshi artilleriya ekanligi aytilgan. Ular ko'plab bitta pulemyotlardan foydalanadilar (cetbang yoki rentaka ), uzun mushketlar, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (qo'l to'pi), Yunoncha olov qurollar (zambaraklar) va boshqa o't o'chirish moslamalari.^{[69]:198[70]:224} Har qanday joy artilleriya tashlashda va undan foydalanishni bilishda juda yaxshi hisoblanadi.^{[71]:254[69]:198}

Birinchi haqiqiy otliq qo'shin, kooperativ otliq chavandozlarning uyushgan bo'limi, XII asrda Yavada paydo bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin.^[72] Eski yava matni kakawin Bhomāntaka erta yava otlarini o'rganish va otchilikni eslatib o'tdi.^[73]:436 Matnda 12-asrgacha Yava qo'shinlarining asosini tashkil etgan yangi tashkil qilingan yava otliqlari va yaxshi shakllangan elita piyoda qo'shinlari o'rtasida mubolag'a mavjud emas.^[74]:113 Milodning 14-asrida Yava otlarning muhim zotdoriga aylandi va orol hatto Xitoyga ot etkazib beruvchilar qatoriga kiritilgan.^[75]:208 During the Majapahit period, horse numbers and quality of Javanese breeds steadily grew so that in 1515 CE Tomé Pires praised the richly caparisoned horses of the Javanese gentry, equipped with stirrups inlaid with gold and lavishly decorated saddles that were "not found anywhere else in the world".^{[54]:174–175}

The main warship of Majapahit navy was the jong. The jongs were large transport ships which could carry 500-800 tons of cargo and 200-1000 people, 70-180 meter in length. A jong from 1420 has a carrying capacity of 2000 tons and nearly crossed the Atlantika okeani.^[76] The exact number of jong fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs when Majapahit attacked Pasai.^[30] Oldin Battle of Bubat 1357 yilda Sunda qirol va qirol oilasi suzib o'tib Majapaxitga etib kelishdi Yava dengizi 200 yirik kemalar va 2000 kichik kemalardan iborat flotda.^{[64]:16–17, 76–77} Qirol oilasi to'qqiz qavatli gibrid Xitoy-Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo axlatiga o'tirdi (Eski Yava: Jong sasanga wagunan Tatarnagari tiniru uzuk). Ushbu gibrid axlat xitoylik texnikani o'z ichiga olgan, masalan, temir tirnoqlarni yog'och dublonlar bilan birga ishlatish, suv o'tkazmaydigan kamon qurish va markaziy rulni qo'shish.^{[77]:270[78]:272–276} Besides that, other types of vessels used by Majapahit navy are malangbang, kelulus, lancaran, penjajap, pelang, jongkong, cerucuh va tongkang.^[30][43][79] Modern depictions of Majapahit navy often depict haddan tashqari ships, in reality, these ships were from 8th century Borobudur ship engraving. Research by Nugroho concluded that vessels used by Majapahit did not use outrigger, and using Borobudur engraving as the basis for reconstructing Majapahit ship is wrong.^{[80][61]:266–267}

Explorations and navigation

During Majapahit era Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470-1517), o'z kitobida Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese Janubiy Yava xalqi bir kun atigi to'rt soat davom etadigan va "dunyoning har qanday joyiga qaraganda sovuqroq" bo'lgan orolga etib borgan joyigacha "uzoq Janubiy erlarga" suzib ketganligini aytdi. Zamonaviy tadqiqotlar shuni aniqladiki, bu joy eng janubiy nuqtadan kamida 900 dengiz mili (1666 km) janubda joylashgan. Tasmaniya.^{[81]:248–251}

The Javanese people, like other Avstronesiyalik millatlar, qat'iyatli navigatsiya tizimidan foydalaning: Dengizdagi yo'nalish turli xil tabiiy belgilar yordamida va juda o'ziga xos xususiyatlardan foydalangan holda amalga oshiriladi. astronomiya "deb nomlangan texnikayulduzcha yo'l navigatsiyasi ". Asosan, navigatorlar ma'lum yulduzlarning ufqdan yuqoriga ko'tarilish va botish holatidan foydalanib tanilgan orollarga kemaning kamonini aniqlaydilar.^[82]:10 Majapaxit davrida, kompaslar va magnitlar ishlatilgan va kartografiya (xaritalash fani) ishlab chiqilgan: bo'ylama va ko'ndalang chiziqlar, rumb chiziqlari va kemalar sayohat qilgan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri marshrut yo'nalishlaridan to'la xaritalardan foydalanish evropaliklar tomonidan qayd etilgan bo'lib, portugallar Yava xaritalarini eng yaxshi xarita deb hisoblashgan. 1500s.^[81][83]

Qachon Afonso de Albukerk conquered Malacca (1511), the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese pilot, which already included part of the Amerika. Albukerk jadvaliga nisbatan shunday dedi:^[84]

"... Yava uchuvchisining katta xaritasi, unda Yaxshi Umut burni, Portugaliya va Braziliya, Qizil dengiz va Fors dengizi, chinnigullar orollari, xitoylar va gomlarning navigatsiyasi, ularning rumbalari va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri marshrutlari bilan kemalar, ichki qismi va qirolliklar bir-biri bilan qanday chegaradosh. Mening fikrimcha. Janob, bu men ko'rgan eng yaxshi narsa edi va janob hazratlari buni ko'rishdan juda xursand bo'lishadi; unda java yozuvida ismlar bor edi, lekin menda yonida o'qish va yozishni biladigan java bor edi. Men ushbu asarni janob hazratlariga jo'nataman, Frantsisko Rodriges boshqasidan izlagan, janob hazratlari haqiqatan ham qaerda ekanligini ko'rishlari mumkin. Xitoy va Gores Sizning kemalaringiz Klove orollariga, oltin konlari joylashgan joyga va Yava va Banda orollariga, o'sha davrdagi harakatlar, uning zamondoshlaridan ko'ra borishi kerak; and it appears highly probable, that what he has related is substantially true: but there is also reason to believe that he composed his work from recollection, after his return to Europe, and he may not have been scrupulous in supplying from a fertile imagination the unavoidable failures of a memory, however richly stored."- Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, April 1512.

Culture, art and architecture

The main event of the administrative calendar took place on the first day of the month of Caitra (March–April) when representatives from all territories paying soliq yoki o'lpon to Majapahit came to the capital to pay court. Majapahit's territories were roughly divided into three types: the palace and its vicinity; the areas of east Java and Bali which were directly administered by officials appointed by the king; va tashqi bog'liqliklar which enjoyed substantial internal muxtoriyat.^[34](p107)

Madaniyat

Wringin Lawang, the 15.5-meter tall qizil g'isht split gate in Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.

Poytaxt Trowulan, was grand and known for its great annual festivities. Buddizm, Shaivizm va Vaishnavizm were all practised: the king was regarded as the incarnation of the three. The Nagarakretagama zikr qilmaydi Islom, but there were certainly Muslim courtiers by this time.^[9](p19)

The first European record about Majapahit came from the travel log of the Italyancha Mattiussi, fransiskalik friar. In his book: "Travels of Friar Pordenonning hidlari ", he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java va Banjarmasin in Borneo, between 1318–1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a mission into the Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua, kesib o'tdi Qora dengiz ichiga Fors, all the way across Kalkutta, Madrasalar va Shri-Lanka. Keyin u tomon yo'l oldi Nikobar island to Sumatra, before visiting Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land through Vetnam, Xitoy, all the way through the silkroad to Europe in 1330.

In his book, he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals).^[vii] He also mentioned that in this island was found a lot of chinnigullar, kub, muskat yong'og'i va boshqa ko'plab ziravorlar. He mentioned that the King of Java had an impressive, grand, and luxurious palace. The stairs and palace interior were coated with oltin va kumush, and even the roofs were gilded. He also recorded that the kings of the Mo'g'ul had repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and managed to be sent back to the mainland.^[viii] The Javanese kingdom mentioned in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit is between 1318–1330 during the reign of Jayanegara.

Yilda Yingya Shenglan – a record about Chjen Xe 's expedition (1405-1433) – Ma Xuan describes the culture, customs, various social and economic aspects of Chao-Va Majapaxit davrida (Java).^[19] Ma Huan visited Java during Zheng He's 4th expedition in 1413, during the reign of Majapahit king Vikramavardhana. He describes his travel to Majapahit capital, first, he arrived at the port of Tu-pan (Tuban ) where he saw large numbers of Chinese settlers migrated from Guandun and Chou Chang. Then he sailed east to thriving new trading town of Ko-erh-hsi (Gresik ), Su-pa-erh-ya (Surabaya ), and then sailing inland into the river by smaller boat to the southwest until reached the river port of Chang-ku (Changgu).^[19] Continued travel by land to the southwest he arrived in Man-che-po-I (Majapahit), where the king stay. There are about 200 or 300 foreign families resides in this place, with seven or eight leaders to serve the king. The climate is constantly hot, like summer.^[18]He describes the king's costumes; wearing a crown of gold leaves and flowers or sometimes without any headgear; bare-chested without wearing a robe, the bottom parts wears two sashes of embroidered silk. Additional silk rope is looped around the waist as a belt, and the belt is inserted with one or two short blades, called pu-la-t'ou (belati or more precisely kris dagger), walking barefoot. When travelling outside, the king rides an fil or an ox-drawn carriage.^[18]

Chiroyli Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.

Commoners' clothing for men is without headgear and women arrange their hair like a bun secured with a hairpin. They wore clothing on the upper body and wrapped unstitched fabrics around the bottom part,^[ix] Men from a boy aged three to elders slipped pu-la-t'ou (dagger) in their belt. The dagger, made entirely of steel with intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, karkidon 's horn or fil suyagi carved with a depiction of human or demon, the carving works are exquisite and skilfully made.^[18][19]

Majapahit people, men and women, favoured their head.^[x] If someone was touched on his head, or if there is a misunderstanding or argument when drunk, they will instantly draw their knives and stab each other. When the one being stabbed was wounded and dead, the murderer will flee and hide for three days, then he will not lose his life. But if he was caught during the fight, he will instantly be stabbed to death (execution by stabbing). The country of Majapahit knows no konserva for major or minor punishment. They tied the guilty men on his hands in the back with rattan rope and paraded them, and then stabbed the offender in the back where there is a floating rib which resulted in instant death.^[18] Judicial executions of this kind were frequent.

The population of the country did not have a bed or chair to sit and to eat they do not use a spoon or chopsticks. Men and women enjoy chewing betel yong'og'i mixed with, betel leaves, and white chalk made from ground mussels shells.^[19] Ular ovqatlanadilar guruch for the meal, first, they took a scoop of water and soak betel in their mouth, then wash their hands and sit down to make a circle; getting a plate of rice soaked in butter (probably kokos suti ) and gravy, and eat using hands to lift the rice and put it in their mouth. When receiving guests, they will offer the guests, not the choy, but with betel nut.^[18]

The population consisted of Muslim merchants from the west (Arab and Muslim Indians, but mostly those from Muslim states in Sumatra), Chinese (claimed to be descendants of Tang sulolasi ), and unrefined locals. The king held annual jousting tournaments.^[18](p45) About the marriage rituals; the groom pays a visit to the house of the bride's family, the marriage union is consummated. Three days later, the groom escorts his bride back to his home, where the man's family beat drums and brass gongs, blowing pipes made from coconut shells (senterewe), beating a drum made from bambuk tubes (probably a kind of bamboo gamelan yoki kolintang ), and light fireworks.^[19] Escorted in front, behind, and around by men holding short blades and shields. While the bride is a matted-hair woman, with an uncovered body and barefooted. She wraps herself in embroidered silk, wears a necklace around her neck adorned with gold beads, and bilakuzuklar on her wrist with ornaments of gold, silver and other precious ornaments. Family, friends and neighbours decorate a decorative boat with betel leaf, areca nut, reeds and flowers are sewn, and arrange a party to welcome the couple on such a festive occasion. When the groom arrives home, the gong and drum are sounded, they will drink wine (possibly arrack yoki tuak ) and play music. After a few days, the festivities end.^[18]

About the burial rituals, the dead body was left on the beach or empty land to be devoured by dogs (for lower-class), cremated, or committed into the waters (Javanese:larung). The upper-class performed suttee, a suicide ritual by widowed wives, concubines or female servants, through o'zini yoqish by throwing themselves into flaming cremation fire.^[18][19]

In this record, Ma Huan also describes a musical troupe travelling during full moon nights. Numbers of people holding shoulders creating an unbroken line while singing and chanting in unison, while the families whose houses being visited would give them copper coins or gifts. He also describes a class of artisans that draws various images on paper and give a theatrical performance. The narrator tells the story of legends, tales and romance drawn upon a screen of rolled paper.^[18] This kind of performance is identified as yo'l bébér, an art of story-telling that has survived for many centuries in Java.^[19]

Portugaliyalik diplomat Tome Pires, who visited the archipelago in 1512, recorded the culture of Java in the late Majapahit era. Pires' account tells about the lords and nobles in Java. Ular quyidagicha tavsiflanadi

...tall and handsome, lavishly adorned, and they have richly caparisoned horses. They use krises, swords, and lances of many kinds, all inlaid with gold. They are great hunters and horsemen - the horse had stirrups all inlaid with gold and inlaid saddles, which are not to be found anywhere else in the world. The Javanese lords are so noble and exalted that there is no nation to compare with them over a wide area in these parts. They have their head shorn - half tonsured - as a mark of beauty, and they always run their hands over their hair from the forehead upwards unlike what European did. The lords of Java are revered like gods, with great respect and deep reverence.

The lords go out hunting or pleasure-seeking in such exalted style. They spend all their time in pleasures, the retinues had so many lances in holders of gold and silver, so richly inlaid, with so many to'siqlar, greyhounds and other dogs; and they have so many pictures painted with images and hunting scenes. Their clothes are adorned with gold, their krises, swords, knives, cutlasses are all inlaid with gold; they have numbers of concubines, jennetlar, elephants, oxen to draw the wagons of gilt and painted woodwork. The nobilities go out in triumphal cars, and if they go by sea they go in painted and ornamented kelulus; there are beautiful apartments for their women, other places for the nobles who accompanied him.^[54]

Adabiyot

Gold figure from the Majapahit period representing Sutasoma being borne by the man-eater Kalmasapada.

The literature of Majapahit was the continuation of Yava Kavi Hindu-Buddhist scholarly tradition that produces kakawin poem that has been developed in Java since the 9th century Medang Mataram era, all the way through Kadiri and Singhasari periods. Notable Javanese literary works dated from an earlier period, such as Kadiri's 11th century Kanwa's Arjunavivaxa, 12th-century Dharmaja's Smaradaxana, Sedah's Bharatayuddha, Panuluh's Xarivangsa also popular Panji cycles are continuously preserved and rewritten by Rakawi (Hindu-Buddhist poet or scholar) in Majapahit era. Notable literary works that were produced in the Majapahit period among others are Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, Tantular's Sutasoma va Tantu Pagelaran. Popular tale of Shri Tanjung va Damarvulan also dated from Majapahit period. Bular Eski yava kakavinlar were written and composed by Rakawis (poets) to worship the king of the gods whose incarnation the king represented.^[85]

Nagarakretagama composed by Prapanca in 1365 is a vital source of the premier historical account of Majapahit historiography. While Sutasoma is an important literature for modern Indonesian nationhood, since the national motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, odatda tarjima qilingan Turli xillikdagi birlik, was taken from a pupuh (kanto ) of this manuscript.^[86]

Palm bargi qo'lyozmasi Kakawin Sutasoma, XIV asrdagi Yava she'ri.

This quotation comes from Sutasoma canto 139, stanza 5. The full stanza reads as follows:

Rwâneka dhâtu winuwus Buddha Wiswa,
Bhinnêki rakwa ring apan kena parwanosen,
Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan Siwatatwa tunggal,
Bhinnêka tunggal ika tan hana dharma mangrwa.

Originally, the poem was meant to promote the religious tolerance between the Hindu and Buddhist religions, specifically promote the syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.^[85]

In Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan describes the writing system used in Majapahit. For the writing, they had known the alphabet using So-li (Chola - Coromandel/Southern India) letters. There is no paper or pen, they use Chiao-chang (kajang) or palm leaf (lontar ), written by scraping it with a sharp knife. They also have a developed language system and grammar. The way the people talk in this country is very beautiful and soft.^[18]

San'at

Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.

The Pala school of art of the Indian Pala imperiyasi influenced the art and architecture of Majapahit.^[87]Majapahit art was the continuation of East Javanese art, style and aesthetically developed since the 11th century during the Kediri and Singhasari period. Unlike the earlier naturalistic, relaxed and flowing figures of classical Central Java-style (Sailendra san'at v. 8th to 10th century), this East Javanese style demonstrates a stiffer pose, stylised and rendered in yo'l -like figures, such as those carved on East Javanese temple's bas-reliefs. The bas-reliefs were projected rather flat from the background. This style was later preserved in Balinese art, ayniqsa, unda Kamasan style classical paintings and Balinese wayang.

The statues of Hindu gods and Buddhist deities in Majapahit art were also the continuations of its previous Singhasari art. The statues of East Javanese period tends to be a stiffer and frontal-formal pose, compared to the statues of Central Javanese art (c. 9th century) that are more Indianized style, relaxed in tribhanga pozitsiya. The stiffer pose of Majapahit gods statues is probably in accordance with the statue's function as the deified portrayal self of the dead Majapahit monarch. The carving, however, is richly decorated, especially with a fine floral carving of lotus plants carved on the stela behind the statue. Examples of Majapahit statues are the Harihara statue from Simping temple, believed to be the deified portrayal of King Kertarajasa, the statue of Parwati believed to be the portrayal of Queen Tribhuwana, and a statue of the queen Suhita discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java.

Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern Java, 14th century, Museum of Asian Art, San Francisco.

Clay pottery and brick masonry are a popular feature in Majapahit art and architecture. The Majapahit Terrakota art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of terakota artefacts were discovered in Trowulan. The artefacts range from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels, water containers, cho'chqa banklari, bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to pipes and roof tiles.

One of the most interesting findings is the Majapahit piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks have been discovered in Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer for saving or money container. So'z celengan yilda Yava va Indoneziyalik means both "savings" and "piggy bank". Bu so'zdan kelib chiqqan celeng which means "wild boar", the qo'shimchasi "-an" was added to denote its likeness. One important specimen is stored in the National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since this large piggy bank has been found broken to pieces.

Terracotta money boxes also have been found in different shapes, such as tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important terracotta artefact is the head figurine of a man popularly thought to be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was depicted in these figurines.

Arxitektura

Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.

Uning kitobida Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan also describes the Majapahit cities: most of them do not have walls surrounding the city or the suburbs. He describes the king's palace in Majapahit. The king's residence is surrounded with thick red brick walls more than three chang high (about 30.5 feet or 9.3 metres), with length of more than 200 paces (340 yards or 310 metres) and on the wall there are two layers of gates, the palace is very well guarded and clean. The king's palace was a two-storey building, each of them 3 or 4 chang high (9–14.5 metres or 30–48 feet). It had wooden plank floors and exposed mats made from rattan or reeds (presumably palm leaves), where people sat cross-legged. The roof was made of hardwood shingles (Javanese:sirap) laid as tiles.^[18]

The houses of commoners had thatched roofs (nipa palma leaves). Every family has a storage shed made of bricks, about 3 or 4 Chih (48.9 inches or 124 centimetres) above the ground, where they kept the family property, and they lived on top of this building, to sit and sleep.

The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles, in contrast to earlier central Javanese style. This east Javanese temple style is also dated back from Kediri period c. 11-asr. The shapes of Majapahit temples tend to be slender and tall, with a roof constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the perspective illussion that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although some of the temples dated from Majapahit period used andezit yoki qumtosh, qizil g'isht is also a popular construction material.

The 16.5-metre tall Bajang Ratu Paduraksa gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.

Garchi g'isht da ishlatilgan konfet of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.^[88] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo, and Surawana temple near Kediri. Jabung temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Bajrajinaparamitapura, despite some parts of its roof and pinnacles are now missing, it is one of the most well-preserved Majapahit temple architecture. Another example includes Gunung Gangsir temple near Pasuruan. Some of the temples are dated from the earlier period but renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to Kediri davr. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. Another notable temple of Eastern Javanese style is Javi ibodatxonasi in Pandaan – also visited by King Hayam Wuruk, the temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Jajawa, and was dedicated as a mortuary temple for his great grandfather, King Kertanegara of Singhasari.

Some of the typical architectural styles are believed to be developed during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate commonly called as kori agung yoki paduraksa, and also split gate of candi bentar. The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest surviving candi bentar dated from Majapahit era. The candi bentar odatdagi Majapaxit ibodatxonasi shaklini oldi - uch qismdan iborat; oyoq, tanasi va baland tomi - odamlar o'tishi uchun markazda o'tish joyini yaratish uchun ikkita oynali inshootga teng ravishda bo'lingan. Ushbu turdagi darvoza eshiklari yo'q va haqiqiy mudofaa maqsadini ta'minlamaydi, ammo o'tish joyini toraytiradi. Ehtimol, bu balandlikdagi tomga keyingi qo'shilishdan oldin ulug'vorlik tuyg'usini yaratish uchun faqat tantanali va estetik maqsadga xizmat qilgan. paduraksa yopiq eshikli eshik. Ning misoli kori agung yoki paduraksa uslub darvozasi - bu Kala iblislari, sikloplar va Shri Tanjung haqida hikoya qiluvchi barelyef bilan juda bezatilgan nafis Bajang Ratu darvozasi. Majapaxit me'morchiligining odatiy uslubi Yava va Bali me'morchiligi keyingi davr. Majapahit uslubidagi pendopo pavilyon, kandi bentar va paduraksa darvozalarining hozirgi kunda keng tarqalishi Majapaxit estetikasining Yava va Bali me'morchiligiga ta'siri tufayli yuzaga kelgan.^[89]

Bosqichli teraslar, pavilonlar va ikkiga bo'lingan eshiklar ning Keto Lawu tog 'yonbag'ridagi ma'bad majmuasi.

Keyingi davrda Majapaxit qulashi yaqinida Majapahitning san'ati va me'morchiligi mahalliy avstronesiyalikning tiklanishiga guvoh bo'ldi. megalitik me'moriy elementlar, kabi Sukuh va Keto ning g'arbiy yon bag'irlarida joylashgan ibodatxonalar Lawu tog'i. Ushbu baland ibodatxonalarning shakli hindlarning me'morchiligining baland binolarini namoyish etuvchi Majapaxit ibodatxonalaridan farqli o'laroq qadam piramida, Mesoamericanga juda o'xshash piramidalar. Bosqichli piramida tuzilishi deb nomlangan Punden Berundak (pog'onali tepaliklar) - bu keng tarqalgan megalitik tuzilish Indoneziyaning tarixdan oldingi davri hind-buddist madaniyati qabul qilinishidan oldin.

Iqtisodiyot

The Tau-I Chi, taxminan yozilgan. 1350 yil, Java ning boyligi va davrning farovonligi haqida eslatib o'tilgan:

"Yava dalalari boy va uning tuprog'i tekis va yaxshi sug'orilgan, shuning uchun don va guruch mo'l-ko'l, boshqa mamlakatlarga qaraganda ikki baravar ko'p. Odamlar o'g'irlamaydilar va yo'lga tashlangan narsalar olinmaydi." oddiy so'z: "gullab-yashnagan Java" bu mamlakatni anglatadi. Erkaklar va ayollar boshlarini o'rab, uzun kiyim kiyishadi. "^[90](p124)

Shuningdek, Yingya Shenglan, Ma Xuan Yava iqtisodiyoti va bozori haqida xabar berdi. Guruch yiliga ikki marta yig'ib olinadi va uning donasi kichik. Ular shuningdek, oq rangni yig'ib olishadi kunjut va yasmiq, lekin yo'q bug'doy. Ushbu er hosil beradi sapan daraxti (qizil bo'yoq ishlab chiqarish uchun foydalidir), olmos, sandal daraxti, tutatqi, puyang Qalapmir, kantaridlar (tibbiyotda ishlatiladigan yashil qo'ng'izlar), po'lat, toshbaqalar, toshbaqa qobig'i, g'alati va noyob qushlar; kabi katta to'tiqush tovuq kabi katta, qizil va yashil to'tiqushlar, besh rangli to'tiqushlar, (barchasi inson ovoziga taqlid qilishi mumkin) gvineya qushi, "qush teskari osilib turadi", besh rangli kaptar, tovus, 'betel qushi', marvarid qushi va yashil kaptarlar. Bu erdagi hayvonlar g'alati: oq kiyik bor, oq maymun va boshqa har xil hayvonlar. Cho'chqalar, echkilar, qoramol, otlar, parrandalar va barcha turlari mavjud o'rdaklar, ammo eshaklar va g'ozlar topilmaydi.^[18]

Mevalar uchun barcha turlari mavjud banan, kokos, shakarqamish, anor, lotus, mang-chi-shi (manggis yoki mangostin ), tarvuz va lang Ch'a (langsat yoki chiziqlar ). Mang-chi-shi - bu anorga o'xshash narsa, uni apelsin kabi tozalang, uning to'rt dona oq tanasi bor, shirin va nordon ta'mi va juda mazali. Lang-cha Loquat-ga o'xshash mevalar, ammo undan kattaroq tarkibida shirin va nordon ta'mga ega bo'lgan uchta blokli oq go'sht mavjud. Shakar qamishining oq poyalari bor, yirik va qo'pol, ildizi 3 ga etadi chang (30 fut 7 dyuym). Bundan tashqari, barcha turdagi qovoq va sabzavotlar mavjud, shunchaki etishmasligi shaftoli, olxo'ri va ko'k piyoz.^[18]

Majapaxit terakota cho'chqachilik banki, 14 yoki 15 asr Trowulan, Sharqiy Java. (To'plam Indoneziya milliy muzeyi, Jakarta )

Soliqlar va jarimalar naqd pulda to'langan. Yava iqtisodiyoti qisman 8-asrning oxiridan boshlab oltin va kumush tangalardan foydalangan holda monetizatsiya qilingan. Ilgari, 9-asr Wonoboyo xazina Markaziy Yavada topilgan qadimiy Javan oltin tangalari makkajo'xori kabi urug 'shaklida, kumush tangalar esa tugmachalarga o'xshashligini ko'rsatdi. Taxminan 1300 yilda, Majapaxitning birinchi qiroli davrida, muhim o'zgarish yuz berdi: mahalliy tangalar butunlay chetdan olib kelingan mis mis naqd pullari bilan almashtirildi. Taxminan 40 kg og'irlikdagi 10 ming 388 qadimiy xitoy tangalari mahalliy oddiy odamning hovlisidan ham chiqarilgan. Sidoarjo 2008 yil noyabrda. Indoneziyaning Sharqiy Yava yodgorliklarini muhofaza qilish byurosi (BP3) ushbu tangalarning Majapaxit davrida bo'lganligini tasdiqladi.^[91] Chet el valyutasidan foydalanishning sababi hech qanday manbada keltirilgan emas, ammo aksariyat tadqiqotchilar buni Yava iqtisodiyotining tobora murakkablashib borayotgani va uning valyuta kundalik bozor operatsiyalarida foydalanishga yaroqli bo'lgan kichikroq nominallardan foydalangan tizim. Bu oltin va kumushga unchalik mos bo'lmagan rol edi.^[34](p107) Bular kepeng Xitoy tangalari - markazida to'rtburchaklar teshiklari bo'lgan yupqa dumaloq mis tangalar. Teshik pulni tangalar qatoriga bog'lash uchun mo'ljallangan edi. Ushbu kichik o'zgarishlar - chetdan olib kelingan xitoylik mis tangalar - Majapahitning ixtiro qilinishiga imkon berdi, bu kesilgan sopol idishlar yordamida tejash usuli. Bular odatda Majapaxit xarobalarida uchraydi, tangalarni qo'yish uchun kichik teshikchadagi yoriq. Eng mashhur shakli - bu cho'chqa shaklidagi shakl celengan (piggy bank).

Yozuvlardagi tarqoq ma'lumotlardan ichki iqtisodiyot ko'lami to'g'risida ba'zi fikrlarni to'plash mumkin. 1358 yilgi Canggu yozuvlarida mamlakatdagi 78 ta parom o'tish joylari (Java mandala) eslatib o'tilgan.^[34](p107) Majapaxit yozuvlarida oltin va kumush ustalardan tortib, ichkilik sotuvchilari va qassoblarga qadar bo'lgan ko'plab kasb-hunar turlari haqida so'z boradi. Garchi bu kasblarning aksariyati avvalgi davrlarda mavjud bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, agrar bo'lmagan ishlardan daromad oladigan aholining ulushi Majapaxit davrida yanada oshganga o'xshaydi.

Trowulan shahrida topilgan qadimgi qizil g'ishtli kanal. Majapaxit yaxshi rivojlangan irrigatsiya infratuzilmasiga ega edi.

Majapaxitning katta farovonligi, ehtimol, ikkita omil bilan bog'liq edi. Birinchidan, Yavaning shimoli-sharqiy pasttekisligi guruchga yaroqli edi etishtirish va Majapaxit davrida juda ko'p sug'orish loyihalar amalga oshirildi, ba'zilari hukumat ko'magida. Ikkinchidan, Majapahitning shimoliy sohilidagi portlari, ehtimol ziravorlarni olish uchun marshrut bo'ylab muhim stantsiyalar bo'lgan Maluku va ziravorlar Java orqali o'tayotganda ular Majapahit uchun muhim daromad manbai bo'lishgan bo'lar edi.^[34](p107)

Nagarakretagamada Vilvatikta hukmdorining shuhrati (Majapaxitning sinonimi) uzoqdan kelgan chet ellik savdogarlar, shu jumladan hindular, xmerlar, siyam va xitoyliklarni jalb qilganligi aytilgan. Keyingi davrda, Yingya Shenglan g'arbdan kelgan ko'plab xitoylik savdogarlar va musulmon savdogarlar (Arab va Hindistondan, lekin asosan Sumatra va Malay yarim orolidagi musulmon davlatlaridan) Tupan, Gresik va Xujung Galuh kabi Majapaxit port shaharlarida (Surabaya ). Ba'zi chet elliklarga, ehtimol Java-da yarim doimiy yashashni qabul qilib olgan va tashqi savdodan tashqari boshqa turdagi korxonalarni olib borganlarga nisbatan maxsus soliq undirilgan. Majapaxit imperiyasi xitoyliklar bilan savdo aloqalariga ega edi Min sulolasi, Annam va Champa bugun Vetnam, Kambodja, Siyam Ayutthayan, Birma Martaban va janubiy Hindiston Vijayanagara imperiyasi.^[92]

Majapaxit davrida Osiyodan keltirilgan tovarlarning deyarli hammasi Javada topilgan. Buning sababi Majapahit imperiyasi tomonidan uzoq joylarga savdo qilish uchun har xil turdagi kemalardan, xususan, Jongdan foydalangan holda keng yuk tashishdir.^{[61]:267–293} 1413 yilda Java-ga tashrif buyurgan Ma Xuan (Zheng Xening tarjimoni) Java-dagi portlar Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi boshqa portlarga qaraganda tovarlarni sotish va xizmatlarni taklif qilishini aytdi.^[61]:241

Ma'muriyat

Uchta dizayn Surya Majapahit, qirollikning quyosh timsolidir.

Hukmronligi davrida Xayam Vuruk, Majapahit ma'muriy maqsadlarda yaxshi tashkil etilgan byurokratik tuzilmani ishlatgan. Majapaxit tarixi davomida ierarxiya va tuzilish nisbatan buzilmagan va o'zgarishsiz qolmoqda.^[93] Podshoh, eng asosiy hukmdordir chakravartin u universal hukmdor sifatida qaraladi va er yuzidagi tirik xudo deb ishoniladi. Qirol eng yuqori siyosiy hokimiyat va qonuniylikni egallaydi.

Byurokratiya xodimlari

Kundalik boshqaruv paytida qirolga byurokratik davlat amaldorlari yordam berishadi, ular qatoriga ma'lum hurmatli unvonlarga ega bo'lgan qirollarning yaqin qarindoshlari ham kiritilgan. Qirol buyrug'i yoki farmoni odatda podshohdan yuqori amaldorlarga o'zlarining bo'ysunuvchilariga yaxshi etkazilgan. Majapaxit sudlarining mansabdor shaxslari:

• Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini, odatda qirolning merosxo'ri uchun ajratilgan
• Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran, kengashi vazirlar kundalik boshqaruvni olib boradiganlar
• Dharmmadhyaksa, qonunlar, davlat qonunlari va diniy qonunlarning mansabdor shaxslari
• Darmma-upapatti, diniy ishlar bo'yicha rasmiylar

Vazirlari ichida Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran unvonli eng muhim va eng yuqori vazir bor Rakryan Mapatih yoki Patih Hamangkubxumi. Ushbu holat o'xshashdir Bosh Vazir va ular qirol bilan birgalikda urush yoki tinchlikni o'z ichiga olgan muhim davlat siyosatini belgilaydilar. Dharmmadhyaksa rasmiylari orasida ham bor Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan (Shtatning eng baland hindulari Shivaist ruhoniy) va Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan (Shtatning eng oliy buddist ruhoniysi), ikkalasi ham har bir diniy e'tiqodning diniy qonunlarining vakolatlari.

Qirol oilasi deb nomlangan oqsoqollardan tashkil topgan maslahatchilar kengashi ham mavjud Bxattara Saptaprabxu. Ushbu kengash ettita nufuzli oqsoqollardan iborat - asosan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qirol bilan bog'liq. Ular Bhres (Dyuk yoki Düşes) Majapaxit viloyatlari hukmdorlari, mintaqaviy qirollar sifatida ish yuritgan. Ushbu kengash yig'ilib, maslahat beradi, qirolni ko'rib chiqadi va ko'pincha sudda muhim bir ishni ko'rib chiqish uchun yig'ilish tashkil qiladi. Mahamantri Gajax Madani jazolash uchun vaqtincha to'xtatib qo'yishi, ularning sharmandali halokati uchun javobgar bo'lganligi sababli ularning idorasiga misol bo'ldi. Bubat voqeasi. Kengash, shuningdek, Raden Gajaxni (Narapati) Bxre Virabxumining boshini tanasidan judo qilganligi uchun qatl etishga hukm qildi. Paregreg urushi.^[94](p481)

Hududiy ierarxiya

Majapaxitning asosiy sohasi va viloyatlari (Mankanagara) Java ning sharqiy va markaziy qismlarida, shu jumladan Madura va Bali orollarida.

Majapaxit o'z hududidagi erlarning ierarxiya tasniflarini tan oladi:

1. Bxumi: qirol tomonidan boshqariladigan qirollik
2. Nagara: tomonidan boshqariladigan viloyat rajya (hokim), yoki natha (lord) yoki bhre (shahzoda yoki gersog)
3. Watek: regency tomonidan boshqariladi wiyasa,
4. Kuvu: tuman, tomonidan boshqariladi lurah,
5. Wanua: qishloq tomonidan boshqariladi thani,
6. Kabuyutan: qishloq yoki muqaddas joy.

Uning shakllanishi paytida Majapahit an'anaviy sohasi faqat sharqiy va markaziy Yavadagi kichik vassal podsholiklardan (viloyatlardan) iborat. Ushbu mintaqa viloyat podshohlari tomonidan boshqariladi Paduka Bxattara sarlavha bilan Bhre. Bu unvon monarxdan pastda joylashgan va gersog yoki gersoginyaga o'xshash eng yuqori lavozim. Odatda, bu lavozim qirolning yaqin qarindoshlariga tegishli edi. Ular o'z viloyatlarini boshqarish, soliqlarni yig'ish, poytaxtga har yili o'lpon yuborish va o'z chegaralarini himoya qilishni boshqarish kerak.

Xayam Vuruk davrida (1350–1389) shohning yaqin qarindoshlari tomonidan boshqariladigan Majapaxitning 12 viloyati bo'lgan:

Hududiy bo'linish

Majapaxit Gajaxa Madani ma'muriyati davrida talassokratiya imperatorlik bosqichiga kirganida, Majapaxit ta'sir doirasiga bir qancha xorijiy vassal davlatlar kiritildi, natijada yangi yirik hududiy kontseptsiya aniqlandi:

Nagarakretagama ma'lumotlariga ko'ra 1365 yilda Hayam Vuruk boshchiligidagi Majapahit ta'sirining darajasi.

• Negara Agungyoki asosiy davlat - Buyuk davlat. Majapaxitning an'anaviy yoki boshlang'ich maydoni imperiya bosqichiga o'tishdan oldin shakllangan. Bunga poytaxt va qirol o'z hukumatini samarali amalga oshiradigan atrofdagi joylar kiradi. Qirollik poytaxti va uning atrofidagi hudud Trowulan, Canggu porti va Brantas daryosi poytaxt yaqinidagi vodiy, shuningdek poytaxtning janubi va janubi-sharqidagi tog'li hududlargacha Pananggungan va Arjuno-Welirang cho'qqilar, shohlikning asosiy sohasi. Majapahit Trowulan hududini Canggu bilan bog'laydigan Brantas daryosi vodiysi koridori va Kahuripan (Sidoarjo) daryosi va Xujung Galuh port (Surabaya) qismlari sifatida qaraladi Negara Agung.
• Mankanegara, atrofdagi joylar Negara Agung - an'anaviy ravishda Sharqiy va Markaziy Yavadagi Majapaxit viloyatlarini nazarda tutadi. Bu hudud Yavaning sharqiy yarmini qamrab olgan, uning barcha viloyatlari Bhres (gersoglar), qirolning yaqin qarindoshlari. Ushbu hududlarga bevosita Yava Majapahit saroy madaniyati ta'sir qiladi va har yili o'lpon to'lashga majburdir. Ushbu hududlar odatda to'g'ridan-to'g'ri bog'liq bo'lgan, ittifoq tuzadigan yoki Majapaxit qirol oilasi bilan turmush qurgan o'z hukmdorlariga ega. Majapaxit o'z mansabdorlari va zobitlarini shu joylarda joylashtirgan va tashqi savdo faoliyatini tartibga solgan va soliqlar yig'gan, ammo ular katta ichki avtonomiyalardan foydalanganlar. Bunga qolganlari kiradi Java orol, Madura va Bali. Ammo keyingi davrda madaniyati rivojlangan yoki Java madaniyati bilan taqqoslanadigan yoki sezilarli savdo ahamiyatiga ega bo'lgan chet el provinsiyalari ham hisoblanadi. mancanegara. Yoki viloyatning podshohga bo'ysunadigan (vassal) o'z mahalliy hukmdorlari yoki mintaqani boshqarish uchun qirol tomonidan tayinlangan va yuborilgan regent bor. Ushbu sohaga quyidagilar kiradi Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung va Palembang yilda Sumatra.
• Nusantara, Yava madaniyatini aks ettirmaydigan, ammo koloniyalarga kiritilgan joylar va ular har yili o'lpon to'lashlari kerak edi. Ular o'zlarining mahalliy siyosati buzilmagan, katta avtonomiyalar va ichki erkinliklarga ega edilar va Majapaxit o'zlarining amaldorlarini yoki harbiy zobitlarini bu erda joylashtirishi shart emas edi; ammo, Majapaxit nazoratidagi har qanday qiyinchiliklar jiddiy javob berishi mumkin. In vassal podshohliklari va mustamlakalari kabi hududlar Malay yarim oroli, Borneo, Kichik Sunda orollari, Sulavesi va Maluku.

1,79 kilogramm, 21 karatli Majapahit davri oltin tasvir yilda kashf etilgan Agusan, Filippinlar, Majapaxit davridagi Nganjukning bronza tasvirlaridan nusxa ko'chirilgan,^[95] Majapahitning Filippinning janubiga madaniy ta'sirini anglatadi.

Nagarakretagama arxipelagdagi vassal davlatlar deb ta'riflangan 80 dan ortiq joylarni eslatib o'tdi.^[7] Canto 13-da, bir nechta erlar Sumatra zikr qilingan va ba'zilari zamonaviy sohalarga mos kelishi mumkin: Jambi, Palembang, Teba (Toba ) va Dharmasraya. Shuningdek, Qandis, Kahvas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar va Paneli, Kampe, Haru (qirg'oq bo'yi Shimoliy Sumatra, bugun atrofida Medan ) va Mandailing. Tamiyang (Aceh Tamiang Regency ), negara Perlak (Peureulak ) va Padang Lawas, G'arbda Samudra bilan birga qayd etilgan (Samudra Pasay ) va Lamuri, Batan (Bintan ), Lampung va Barus. Tanjungnegara shtatlari ham ro'yxatga olingan (ishoniladi) Borneo ): Kapuas Katingan, Sampit, Kota Lingga, Kotawaringin, Sambas va Lawas.

Nagarakretagama Canto-da yana 14 ta er qayd etilgan: Kadandangan, Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu (Sibu yilda Saravak ), Barune (Bruney ), Kalka, Saludung (yoki Sabahdagi Serudong daryosi yoki Seludong Manilada), Solot (Sulu ), Pasir, Barito, Savaku, Tabalung va Tanjung Kutei. Xujung Medinida (Malay yarim oroli ), Paxang birinchi bo'lib eslatib o'tilgan. Keyingisi Langkasuka, Saimvang, Kelantan va Trengganu, Johor, Paka, Muar, Dungun, Tumasik (Temasek, qayerda Singapur bugun), Kelang (Klang vodiysi ) va Keda, Jeray (Gunung Jerai ), Kanjapiniran, barchasi birlashgan.

Shuningdek, Canto 14-da Java sharqidagi hududlar mavjud: Badaxulu va Lo Gajah (bugungi qism Bali ). Gurun va Sukun, Taliwang, Sapi (Sape shahri, Sumbawa orolining sharqiy uchi, tomonidan Sape Strait ) va Dompo, Sang Hyang Api, Bima. Xutan Kadali (Buru orol). Gurun oroli va Lombok Merah. Obod turmush bilan birga Sasak (markaziy, shimoliy va sharqiy) Lombok ) allaqachon boshqarilgan. Bantayan bilan Luvu. Keyinchalik sharqda Udamakatraya (Sangir va Talaud ). Shuningdek, aytib o'tilgan Makassar, Tugma, Banggay, Kunir, Galiao bilan Selayar, Sumba, Yakkaxon, Muar. Shuningdek, Wanda (n) (Banda orol), Ambon yoki Maluku orollari, Kay-orollar, Vanin (Onin yarim oroli, bugun Fakfak Regency, G'arbiy Papua), Seran, Timor va boshqa orollar.

14-asr boshlarida Osiyo

Majapaxitning asl tabiati suzerainty hali ham o'rganish mavzusi bo'lib, hatto tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ldi. Nagarakretagama Majapahitni ulkan markaz deb ta'riflaydi mandala Sumatradan Yangi Gvineyagacha cho'zilgan 98 irmoqdan iborat. Ba'zi olimlar bu da'voni faqat cheklangan ta'sir doirasi yoki hatto geografik bilimlarning bayoni sifatida bekor qildilar.^[4](p87) Tarixchi Hasan Djafar kabi olimlar buni ta'kidladilar Nusantara "boshqa orollar" deb tarjima qilinishi kerak, bu ularning Majapaxit suverenitetidan tashqarida ekanligini anglatadi. Uning ta'kidlashicha, Majapaxit hududi faqat Sharqiy va Markaziy Yavada cheklangan.^[96]

Shunga qaramay, Xayam Vuruk hayoti davomida yava aholisi chet elda obro'-e'tibor va ta'sirga ega bo'lganligi shubhasiz.^[7] Majapaxit flotlari vaqti-vaqti bilan rasmiy taklifni olish uchun arxipelagdagi ko'plab joylarga tashrif buyurgan bo'lishi kerak yoki Majapaxit sudining ulug'vorligi Majapaxitning buyrug'iga bo'ysunishni istamasdan, viloyat hokimlarini o'lpon yuborish uchun jalb qilishi mumkin edi.^[4](p87)

Ushbu uchta toifaning barchasi Negara Agung, Mankanegara va NusantaraMajapahit imperiyasining ta'sir doirasiga kirgan, ammo Majapahit o'zining tashqi diplomatik aloqalarini belgilaydigan to'rtinchi sohani ham tan olgan:

• Mitreka Satata, so'zma-so'z "umumiy tartibdagi sheriklar" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Bu Majapaxit vakolatining sub'ekti emas, balki Majapaxitning tengdoshi deb hisoblangan mustaqil xorijiy davlatlarni anglatadi. Nagarakretagama 15-kantoniga ko'ra, xorijiy davlatlar Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya ning Siam ), Darmmanagari (Nakhon Si Thamarat qirolligi Tailand janubida, Rajapura (Ratchaburi ) va Singhanagari (Singora yoki zamonaviy Songkla ), Marutma (Martaban yoki Mottama, zamonaviy janubiy Myanma ), Champa (bugun Janubiy Vetnam), Kamboja (Kambodja ) va Yawana (Annam ).^[97][98] Mitreka Satata Majapaxitniki deb hisoblash mumkin ittifoqchilar, chunki Xitoy va Hindistondagi boshqa xorijiy qirolliklar ushbu toifaga kiritilmagan, garchi Majapahit ushbu xalqlar bilan tashqi aloqalarni olib borganligi ma'lum bo'lgan.

Majapaxit poytaxtidagi yadrodan siyosiy tuzilishlar va hokimiyatning tarqalishi modeli chet eldagi mol-mulki orqali tarqalib, keyinchalik tarixchilar tomonidan "mandala "model. mandala" atamasi sanskritcha "aylana" dan kelib chiqqan bo'lib, uning chegaralari emas, balki markazi tomonidan belgilanadigan qadimiy Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo tipik siyosatini tushuntirish uchun va u ma'muriy integratsiyani boshdan kechirmasdan ko'plab boshqa irmoqlik siyosatlaridan iborat bo'lishi mumkin.^[99] Majapahit Mandala ta'sir doirasiga mansub hududlar Mankanegara va Nusantara toifalariga kirgan. Ushbu hududlar odatda mahalliy hokimlarga ega, katta avtonomiyalarga ega va Majapaxit ma'muriyatiga qo'shimcha integratsiyasiz siyosiy instituti buzilmagan. Xuddi shu mandala modeli avvalgi imperiyalarga ham tegishli edi; Srivijaya va Angkor, shuningdek Majapahitning qo'shni mandalalari; Ayutthaya va Champa.

Majapaxit an deb qaraladimi degan savol imperiya yoki yo'qligi aslida "imperiya" so'zi va tushunchasi ta'rifiga bog'liq. Majapaxit chet eldagi mol-mulkini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri boshqarishni amalga oshirmagan, ular doimiy harbiy ishg'ol qilmagan va keng doirada siyosiy va madaniy me'yorlarini o'rnatmagan; shuning uchun u an'anaviy ma'noda imperiya sifatida etarlicha ko'rib chiqilmaydi. Ammo, agar imperiya bo'lish o'z xohishiga ko'ra harbiy kuchni proektsiyalash, vassallar tomonidan haddan oshganlikni rasmiy ravishda tan olish va poytaxtga muntazam o'lpon etkazib berishni anglatsa, demak Java ning boshqa arxipelagiya sohasi bilan munosabati imperatorlik deb qaralishi mumkin; shuning uchun Majapahitni imperiya deb hisoblash mumkin.^[8]

Keyingi davrda Majapaxitning chet eldagi mulki susay boshladi. Ga binoan Waringin Pitu yozuvi (1447 yilda) Majapaxitning asosiy sohasi hukmron tomonidan boshqariladigan 14 viloyatdan iborat bo'lganligi eslatib o'tilgan. Bhre.^[100] Yozuvda yozilgan viloyatlar:

Ammo yozuvda Majapaxitning boshqa davrlardagi vassallari haqida so'z yuritilmagan, masalan:

• Indragiri^{[ajratish kerak ]} Sumatra va Siantan (hozirda Pontianak ga ko'ra Borneo g'arbiy sohilida) Malay yilnomalari, mahr sifatida berilgan Malakka Majapahit malika va Mansur Shoh uning hukmronligi davrida.^[49] Sulton Mansur Shoh 1459 - 1477 yillarda hukmronlik qilgan,^[25] shuni anglatadiki, Indragiri va Siantan ikkalasi ham Majapahit nazorati ostida 1447 yilda.
• Jambi va Palembang tomonidan qo'lga kiritilgandan keyingina Majapaxit suzerainty ostida bo'lishni to'xtatdi Demak ^{[54]:154–155} Ranavijaya boshchiligidagi Majapaxitga qarshi urush paytida ba'zan 1478 - 1498 yillarda.
• Va Bali Majapaxit qulashi paytida Hind-Yava tsivilizatsiyasining so'nggi tayanchi bo'lganligi ma'lum bo'lgan.^[25]

Mintaqaviy kuchlar bilan aloqalar

XIV asrning Fort Canning Hill-da topilgan Sharqiy Yava Majapahit uslubidagi oltin qo'ltiqchalar va uzuklar, Singapur, buni taklif qiladi Tumasik yoki Singapur Majapaxit ta'sir doirasiga kirgan.

Bir necha asrlar davomida - davridan beri Srivijaya va Medang Mataram (taxminan 10-asr), Sumatran o'rtasidagi klassik raqobat Malaycha davlatlar va Yava qirolliklar mintaqadagi geosiyosat dinamikasini shakllantirdilar.Ularning iqtisodiy manfaatlarini ko'zlab dengizni qo'riqlashdagi faoliyati, shuningdek, ushbu manfaatlarni himoya qilish bo'yicha harbiy harakatlari Malayziya va Yava aholisi o'rtasida to'qnashuvlarga olib keldi.^[101] Yaratilishining boshidanoq Majapaxit o'zidan avvalgi mavjudotning tashqi dunyoqarashini meros qilib oldi - Singhasari shohligi, unda uning so'nggi shohi Kertanegara ishga tushirish orqali chet elda o'z ta'sirini taxmin qildi Pamalayu Sumatra va Malay yarim orolidagi Malay politsiyasini Yava ta'sir doirasiga kiritish uchun ekspeditsiya (1275-1293). Ilgari Singhasari savdo yo'lida, ayniqsa Malakka bo'g'ozida hukmronlik qilishga intilgan va shuningdek, mo'g'ul-xitoy yuanining Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoga ta'sirini ularning manfaatlariga tahdid deb bilgan. 1293 yilda qaytib kelgan Pamalayu ekspeditsiyasi uning tashkil topishi paytida Jambi va Dharmasrayadagi Malay qirolliklarini Yava suzerligi ostida olib keldi. Shuning uchun, Java ko'pincha o'zini Indoneziya arxipelagidagi aksariyat siyosatlarning ustasi deb biladi.

Majapaxitning birinchi ikki monarxi - Vijaya va Jayanegara hukmronligi davrida qirollik bir necha isyonlarga duchor bo'lgan holda o'z hukmronligini mustahkamlash uchun kurashgan. Biroq, uning uchinchi monarxi - Qirolicha Tribxuvana Tunggadevi va uning o'g'li Xayam Vuruk hukmronligi davridagina qirollik o'z kuchlarini chet elda loyihalashtira boshladi. Majapaxitning ustunlikka bo'lgan ishonchi ularning iqtisodiy va demografik qiyosiy ustunligi bilan to'xtatildi; agrar hamda dengiz xalqi; ularning katta guruch ishlab chiqarishi, ulkan inson resurslari, uyushgan jamiyat, shuningdek kema qurish, navigatsiya va harbiy texnologiyalarni o'zlashtirishlari; qo'shnilariga nisbatan juda yaxshi. Ushbu kuchli tomonlardan Gajah Mada qirollik ta'sirini kengaytirish va dengiz imperiyasini qurish uchun foydalangan. Bu juda imperialistik nuqtai nazar Majapaxitning qo'shnilariga nisbatan zo'rlik bilan munosabatda bo'lishini taxmin qildi; Pabali (Balini bosib olish, 1342-1343) va Pasunda Bubat (1356). Majapaxit Balini o'z orbitasiga vassal davlat sifatida tortib oldi. Sunda qirolligi bilan halokatli diplomatiya ular orasida adovatni keltirib chiqardi.

Adityawarman, Majapaxitning katta vaziri Bxairava sifatida tasvirlangan. U tashkil etdi Pagaruyung qirolligi Markaziy Sumatrada.

Malayadagi Sumatra shtatlaridagi Majapaxit hukmronligi bilan namoyish etildi Adityawarman Malayupura. Qirol Jayanearaning amakivachchasi Adityavarman Majapaxit saroyida tarbiyalangan va Majapaxit sudida katta vazir lavozimiga ko'tarilgan. U Sumatraning sharqiy qirg'oq mintaqasini zabt etish uchun Majapahit harbiy ekspansiyasiga yuborilgan. Keyinchalik Adityawarman qirollik sulolasiga asos solgan Minangkabau yilda Pagarruyung va 1347-1375 yillarda oltin savdosini nazorat qilishni o'z zimmasiga olish uchun Sumatra markaziga raislik qildi.

Indoneziya arxipelagi ichida Majapaxit o'zini ulkan mandala markazi deb bilgan. Ushbu tushuncha o'zining uch bosqichli ma'muriy ierarxiyasi bilan namoyon bo'ladi; Nagara Agung, Mankanegara va Nusantara. Majapahit dengiz janubi-sharqiy Osiyodan tashqarida, Mitreka Satata yoki umumiy tartibda sherik bo'lib, unda bir nechta davlatlarni ittifoqchi deb bilgan. Ular Ayutthaya, Nakhon Si Thammarat Qirolligi, Ratchaburi, Songkla, Mottama, Champa, Kambodja va Annam.

Sumatran jabhasida Majapahit Palembang, Jambi va Dxarmasrayani bosib olib, bosib oldi Pasay va shuningdek, bu hal qilishni ko'rdi Tumasik, bu keyinchalik bo'ladi Singapur qirolligi, uning isyonkor mustamlakasi sifatida, va shuning uchun ular bilan tegishli ravishda shug'ullanish.

Xayam Vuruk davridan keyingi keyingi yillarda Majapaxit chet eldagi ba'zi narsalarini qo'lidan boy berib qo'ydi. Bu ilgari Majapaxit hukmronligi ostida o'tkazilgan bir nechta siyosatning rivojlanishiga va ko'tarilishiga olib keldi, masalan Bruney va Malakka. Malakka XV asrda ko'tarilishi, ayniqsa, juda muhim, chunki u Malapka bo'g'ozini boshqarishda Majapaxitning oxir-oqibat muvaffaqiyatsizligini anglatadi. Ilgari Majapaxit potentsial mintaqaviy raqibining o'sishini to'xtatishga harakat qilgan; Palibangdagi qo'zg'olonni jazolash va Singapurani egallab olish bilan Srivijaya bilan bir qatorda malaycha odob-axloq qoidalari. Shu ma'noda, Malakka haqiqatan ham arxapelagiya sohasida hukmronlik qilish uchun kurashda Majapaxitning raqibi bo'lgan. Ushbu sezilgan raqobatga qaramay, amalda, ikki qirollik bir-biriga yaqin va kuchli iqtisodiy va madaniy aloqalarga ega edilar. O'sha paytda Xujung Galuh va Tubanning Majapaxit portlari bilan Melaka porti o'rtasidagi savdo aloqasi rivojlangan bo'lishi kerak.

O'rtacha pastki qatorda (№ 8) Yǒng-Lè Tōng-Bǎo (永樂 cash) pul tanga ostiga quyilgan Yng-Lé imperatori Ming sulolasining (永樂 帝). Ular juda ko'p miqdorda tashlangan va ishlatilgan Ashikaga, Ryukyu, shuningdek Majapahit.

Majapaxit hukmronlik uchun haqiqiy raqib, ammo kuchli edi Xitoy xitoylari. Yuan qulaganidan so'ng, Ming imperatori o'z kuchini Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda namoyish etishni xohladi. Boshqa tomondan, Majapaxit ushbu arxipelagiya sohasini ularniki deb bildi va xitoyliklarning har qanday aralashuviga yoqmaydi. Majapaxit Paregreg fuqarolar urushi va uning zodagonlari o'rtasida tinimsiz to'qnashuvlar tufayli zaiflashgandan so'ng, dahshatli odamlarning kelishi Ming xazina sayohatlari boshchiligidagi Chjen Xe Majapaxit qirg'oqlarida Majapahit obro'si va qudratini chetga surib qo'ydi. Boshqa tomondan, Ming, Malakaning ko'tarilishini faol qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Ushbu Ming himoyasi Majapaxitni endi Malakkani itarishni istamaslikka olib keldi.^[47]

Majapahitning yakuniy dushmani, ammo uyda juda yaqin joylashgan edi; The Demak Sultonligi Markaziy Yavaning shimoliy qirg'og'ida. Malakka Mingni qo'llab-quvvatlashi va Malakka Islomni faol ravishda prozelitizm qilish, arxipelagda musulmon savdogarlar jamoasining gullab-yashnashi va o'sishiga olib keldi, shu jumladan Yava shimoliy qirg'og'idagi Majapahit portlarida. Bu o'z navbatida Yava Hindu-Buddistlar podshohligining obro'sini asta-sekin pasaytirib yubordi va bir necha avlodlardan so'ng bir paytlar qudratli Majapaxit imperiyasining qulashiga olib keldi.^[102]

Meros

Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit ibodatxonasi") Denpasar, Bali, odatda Majapahit qizil g'isht me'morchiligini namoyish etadi.

Majapaxit Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda tashkil topgan eng yirik imperiya edi.^[34](p107) Uning sharqiy Yava mintaqasidagi siyosiy qudrati tarqoq bo'lsa-da, asosan suzerlikni tantanali ravishda e'tirof etishdan iborat bo'lsa-da, Majapaxit jamiyati ham tijorat, ham badiiy faoliyatda yuqori darajada rivojlangan. Uning poytaxtida kosmopolit aholi yashagan, ular orasida adabiyot va san'at rivojlangan.^[34](p107)

Mahalliy afsonalar soni va folklor Mintaqada Majapaxit saltanati haqida eslatib o'tilgan edi. Yava manbalaridan tashqari, Majapahit qirolligi yoki uning general Gajah Madani eslatib o'tgan ba'zi mintaqaviy afsonalarini ham topish mumkin; Aceh, Minangkabau, Palembang, Malay yarim oroli, Sunda, Bruney, Balidan Sumbavaga. Ularning aksariyati o'z erlariga keladigan Yava kuchlari haqida eslatib o'tdilar, bu, ehtimol, bir vaqtlar arxipelagada hukmronlik qilgan imperiyaning keng tabiatining mahalliy tasdig'i edi. The Hikayat Raja Pasay, 14-asr Aceh xronika Majapahit dengiz hujumiga qarshi Samudra Pasay 1350 yilda. Xronikada Majapaxit bosqini Sulton Ahmad Malik Az-Zohirning Pasay shahzodasi Tun Abdul Jalil va Majapaxit malikasi Raden Galuh Gemerencang o'rtasidagi qirollik nikohini buzganlikda ayblanib, qirol juftligining o'limiga sabab bo'lganligi tasvirlangan. .^[29]

Qudus masjidining Majapaxit uslubidagi minorasi.

G'arbiy Sumatrada Minangkabau afsonasi Yava Majapaxit qirolligi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan bosqinchi chet el shahzodasi bufalo jangida mag'lub bo'lganligini eslatib o'tdi.^[46] G'arbiy Yavada Pasunda Bubat fojia indoneziyaliklar atrofida afsonani aylanib chiqishiga sabab bo'ldi, bu a o'rtasidagi nikohni taqiqlaydi Sunduzcha va a Yava, chunki bu barqaror emas va faqat er-xotinga azob keltiradi.^[103] Malay yarim orolida Malaycha yilnomalar ning qulashi haqidagi afsonani eslatib o'tdi Singapur Majapaxit kuchlariga 1398 yilda Sang Rajuna Tapa xiyonati tufayli shaharning mustahkam darvozasini ochdi.^[104] Yilda Bruney, Lumut Lunting va Pilong-Pilongan orollari haqidagi xalq afsonasi Bruney ko'rfazi Majapahit bilan ham bog'langan.^[105]

Majavaxit davrida bir nechta Yava afsonalari paydo bo'lgan yoki mashhur bo'lgan. The Panji tsikllari, ning ertagi Shri Tanjung va epos Damarvulan, Yava tilidagi mashhur ertaklar Bali adabiyoti. Panji haqidagi ertaklar Kediri podsholigi davrida qadimgi davrlarda yozilgan, Shri Tanjung va Damarvulan eposi esa Majapaxit davrida sodir bo'lgan. Ushbu ertaklar Mataram Sultonligi davrida Yava madaniyatida mashhur mavzu bo'lib qoldi va ko'pincha ilhom manbai bo'ldi. yo'l soya qo'g'irchoqlari namoyishi, ketoprak va topeng raqs dramasi. Panji ertaklari, xususan, Sharqiy Yavodan tarqalib, Malay yarim oroli, Kambodja va Siamga qadar Raden Inao yoki Enau (u Malay yarimoroli, Kambodja va Siamgacha) bo'ylab adabiyot va raqs dramalari uchun ilhom manbai bo'ldi.Tailandcha: อิเหนา) Kurepan.^[106]

Majapaxit muhim va doimiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi Indoneziya san'ati va me'morchilik. 14-asrda imperiyaning kengayishi butun arxipelagdagi Yava madaniy ta'sirining tarqalishiga hissa qo'shdi. Javanizatsiya. Ehtimol, bu davrda ba'zi Yava madaniy elementlari, masalan gamelan^[107] va kris, kengaytirilib, Java tashqarisidagi orollarga tanishtirildi. Poytaxt pavilonlari arxitekturasining tavsiflari (pendopo ) ichida Nagarakretagama yava aholisini uyg'otish Kraton shuningdek Bali ibodatxonalari va bugungi saroy birikmalari. Ko'pincha ishlaydigan Majapahit me'moriy uslubi terakota va qizil g'isht keyingi davrda Java va Bali me'morchiligiga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Majapaxit uslubi candi bentar split darvoza, the kori yoki paduraksa baland qizil g'ishtli darvoza, shuningdek pendopo pavilon, ko'rinib turganidek, Yava va Bali me'moriy xususiyatlarida hamma joyda keng tarqalgan Menara Kudus masjidi, Keraton Kasepuhan va Sunyaragi parki Cirebon, Mataram Sultonligi Qirollik qabristoni Kota Gede, Yogyakarta Balidagi turli xil saroylar va ibodatxonalar.^[89]

Bosh yengillik Candi Penataran yava uslubini tasvirlaydi pendopo pavilon, odatda Java va Bali bo'ylab topilgan.

Jonli, boy va bayramona Balin madaniyati Majapaxit merosidan biri sifatida qaraladi. Yava Hindu tsivilizatsiyasi Airlangga Majapaxit shohlari davriga Bali madaniyatiga chuqur ta'sir ko'rsatdi va shakllantirdi tarix.^[108] Qadimgi aloqalar va Majapaxit merosi ko'p jihatdan kuzatilishi mumkin; arxitektura, adabiyot, diniy marosimlar, raqs-drama va san'at asarlari. Majapahit Sharqiy Yava ibodatxonalarida estetikasi va barelyef uslubi Bali ibodatxonalarida saqlanib qolgan va ko'chirilgan. Buning sababi shundaki, imperiya qulaganidan keyin ko'plab Majapaxit zodagonlari, hunarmandlari va ruhoniylari yo Sharqiy Yava ichki tog'li mintaqasida yoki Balining tor bo'g'ozi bo'ylab boshpana topishgan. Darhaqiqat, qaysidir ma'noda Bali qirolligi Majapaxitning vorisi edi. Kabi ko'p sonli Majapahit qo'lyozmalari Nagarakretagama, Sutasoma, Pararaton va Tantu Pagelaran, Bali va Lombok qirollik kutubxonalarida yaxshi saqlanib kelingan va Majapahit haqidagi ma'lumot va tarixiy yozuvlarni taqdim etadi. Majapaxit hindu-yava madaniyati Bali madaniyatini shakllantirdi, bu xalq so'zlarini keltirib chiqardi; "Java bo'lmasa, Bali yo'q". Buning evaziga Bali qadimgi hind yava tsivilizatsiyasini himoya qilish va saqlash uchun so'nggi tayanch sifatida tan olingan.

The Knaudning Krisi, eng qadimgi krislardan biri Majapaxit davriga tegishli

Qurol-yarog'da, Majapahit kengayishi, bu quroldan keng foydalanish uchun javobgardir keris Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi xanjar; Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malayziya, Bruneydan Tailandning janubigacha. Garchi keraplar va unga o'xshash mahalliy xanjarlar Majapaxitdan oldin bo'lgan deb taxmin qilingan bo'lsa-da, ammo imperiyaning kengayishi 1492 yil atrofida uning mintaqada tarqalishiga va tarqalishiga yordam berdi.^[109] Masalan, Knaudning Krisi, saqlanib qolgan eng qadimgi krislardan biri 1264 yil Sakaga tegishli (bu 1342 yilga to'g'ri keladi). Kris haqidagi malay afsonasi Sari taming Majapahit kelib chiqishi bilan ham bog'liq.

Keyingi asrlarda indoneziyaliklar uchun Majapaxit o'tmish buyukligining ramziga aylandi. Islom sultonliklari Demak, Pajang va Mataram Majapaxitga qonuniyligini o'rnatishga intildi.^[9](p40) Demak o'zining asoschisi sifatida Kertabumi orqali vorislik qatorini talab qildi Raden Patax, sudda xronikalar Kertabumining o'g'li tug'ilishidan oldin yuborilgan xitoylik malika Putri Cina bilan o'g'li deb aytilgan.^[9](pp36-37) Sulton Agung ning fathi Wirasaba (hozirgi Mojoagung) 1615 yilda - o'sha davrda sultonning o'zi boshchiligidagi muhim strategik va iqtisodiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan kichik shaharcha, ehtimol shunday ramziy ahamiyatga ega bo'lishi mumkin edi, chunki bu sobiq Majapahit poytaxti joylashgan.^[9](p43) Markaziy Yava saroylari an'analariga ega va nasabnoma Majapaxit qirollik yo'nalishlariga aloqadorligini isbotlashga urinish, odatda hayotiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan qabr shaklida havola Java-da - bu qonuniylik bunday ulanish orqali kuchayadi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Bali, xususan, Majapahit va Bali o'zlarini shohlikning haqiqiy merosxo'rlari deb hisoblang.^[88]

Tasvirlangan Gajah Mada va Majapahit tarixining yuqori relyeflari Monas, o'tmish buyukligining Indoneziya milliy g'ururiga aylandi.

Zamonaviy Indoneziya millatchilari, shu jumladan 20-asr boshlari Indoneziya milliy tiklanishi, have invoked the Majapahit Empire.^[6] Indonesian founding fathers—especially Sukarno va Muhammad Yamin, built a historical construct around Majapahit to argue for the ancient unified realm, as a predecessor of modern Indonesia.^[96] The memory of its greatness remains in Indonesia and is sometimes seen as a precedent for the current political boundaries of the Republic.^[9](p19) Many of modern Indonesian national symbols derived from Majapahit Hindu-Buddhist elements. The Indonesian national flag "Sang Merah Putih " ("Red and White") or sometimes called "Dwiwarna" ("The bicolour"), derived from the Majapahit royal colour. The Indonesian Navy flag of red and white stripes also has a Majapahit origin. The Indonesian national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ", is a quotation from an Eski yava she'r "Kakawin Sutasoma", written by a Majapahit poet, Mpu Tantular.^[110]

The Indonesian coat of arms, Garuda Pancasila, also derives from Javanese Hindu elements. The statue and relief of Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as Prambanan qadimdan Mataram era, and the Panataran shuningdek Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the king Airlangga sifatida tasvirlangan Vishnu minish Garuda.

In its propaganda from the 1920s, the Indoneziya Kommunistik partiyasi presented its vision of a classless society as a reincarnation of a romanticised Majapahit.^[9](p174) It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the Yangi buyurtma as an expression of state expansion and consolidation.^[111] Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast territory and is politically centred on Java.

Telekommunikatsiya muzeyi oldidagi Gajah Mada haykali Taman Mini Indoneziya Indah, Jakarta. Palapa, Indonesia's first telecommunication satellite launched in 9 July 1976 was named after Palapa qasamyodi.

Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom Indoneziya, an Indonesian telecommunication company, was named after Sumpah Palapa, the famous oath taken by Gajah Mada, who swore that he would not taste any spice as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient oath of unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of telekommunikatsiya. The name was chosen by the president Suxarto, and the program was started in February 1975.

Pura Kawitan Majapahit was built in 1995 as a homage to honour the empire that inspires the nation. Majapahit is often regarded as the antecedent of the modern state of Indonesia. This Hindu temple complex is located within Trowulan just north of Segaran pool.^[112]

During the last half-year of 2008, the Indonesian government sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is believed to be the place where the palace of Majapahit once stood. Jero Vatsik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture and Tourism stated that the Majapahit Park would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, to prevent further damage caused by home-made brick industries that developed in the surrounding area.^[113] Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians, since constructing the park's foundation in Segaran site located in south side of Trowulan muzeyi will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which are historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government then argued that the method they were applying were less destructive since digging method were used instead of drilling.^[114]

Hukmdorlar ro'yxati

Genealogy diagram of Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Hukmdorlar hukmronlik davri bilan ajralib turadi.

The rulers of Majapahit was the dynastic continuity of the Singhasari kings, which started by Shri Ranggah Rajasa, asoschisi Rajasa dynasty 13-asr oxirida.

Majapaxit ommaviy madaniyatda

Theatrical performance depicting the Mongol invasion of Java, performed by 150 students of Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta. The history of Majapahit continues to inspire contemporary artists.

Celebrated as 'the golden era of the archipelago', the Majapahit empire has inspired many writers and artists (and continues to do so) to create their works based on this era or to describe and mention it. The impact of the Majapahit theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:

1. Sandyakalaning Majapahit (1933), or Twilight/Sunset in Majapahit is a historical romance that took place during the fall of Majapahit empire, written by Sanusi paneli.
2. Panji Koming (since 1979), a weekly kulgili chiziq by Dwi Koendoro published in the Sunday edition of Kompas, telling the everyday life of Panji Koming, a common Majapahit citizen. Although it took place in the Majapahit era, the comic strip serves as witty satira va tanqid of modern Indonesian society. From a political, social, cultural and current point of view, Indonesia is described as the 'reenkarnatsiya ' of the Majapahit empire. The current Indonesian president is often portrayed as a Majapahit monarch or prime minister.
3. Saur Sepuh (1987–1991), a radio drama and film by Niki Kosasih. Begun as a popular radio drama program in the late 1980s, Saur Sepuh is based on 15th-century Java, centred around the story about a fictional hero named Brama Kumbara, the king of Madangkara, a fictional kingdom neighbour of the Pajajaran. In several stories the Paregreg war is described, that is to say, the civil war of Majapahit between Wikramawardhana and Bhre Wirabhumi. This part has been made into a single feature film entitled 'Saur Sepuh' as well.
4. Tutur Tinular, a radio drama and film by S Tidjab. Tutur Tinular is a Jang sanati historical epic fictional story with the Majapahit era serving as the background of the story. The story also involved a romance between the hero named Arya Kamandanu and his Chinese lover Mei Shin.
5. Wali Songo, the film tells the story of nine Musulmon saints ('wali') who spread Islom Java-ga. The story took place near the end of the Majapahit era and the formation of Demak. It describes the decaying Majapahit empire where royals are fighting each other for power while the commoners suffer.
6. Senopati Pamungkas (1986, reprinted in 2003), a martial art-historical epic novel by Arswendo Atmowiloto. It takes place in the late Singhasari period and formation of Majapahit. This novel describes the sagas, royal intrigues, and romance of the formation of the kingdom as well as the adventure of the main character, a commoner named Upasara Wulung and his forbidden love affair with princess Gayatri Rajapatni, whom later becomes the consort of Raden Vijaya, the first king of Majapahit.
7. Imperium Majapahit, a comic book series by Jan Mintaraga, published by Elexmedia Komputindo. This series tells the history of Majapahit from its formation until the decline.
8. Puteri Gunung Ledang (2004), a Malayziya epic film based on a traditional Malay legend. This film recounts the love story between Gusti Putri Retno Dumilah, a Majapahit princess, and Tuxni osib qo'ying, a Malaccan admiral.
9. Gajah Mada, a pentalogiya tomonidan yozilgan Langit Kresna Hariadi depicting a fictionalised detail of Gajah Mada 's life from the Kuti rebellion ga qadar Bubat War.
10. Dyah Pitaloka (2007), a novel written by Hermawan Aksan, fictionalising the detailed life story of Sundanese princess Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi atrofida o'rnatilgan Bubat War. The novel virtually takes the same context and was inspired by the Kidung Sundayana.
11. Jung Jawa (2009), an anthology of short stories written by Rendra Fatrisna Kurniawan, imagining the life of the Nusantara people, published by Babel Publishing.
12. Civilization 5: Brave New World (2013), qayerda Gajah Mada appeared as one of the leaders of a great civilisation in the second expansion of the Sivilizatsiya 5 o'yin. He is the leader of the Indonesian civilisation, with the emblem of the Indonesian empire being the Surya Majapahit, although in the game the empire is known as the "Indonesian empire" instead.
13. Keyinchalik, yilda Civilization 6 (2016), a downloadable content has one of its rulers, Dyah Gitarja (referred as Gitarja in-game) as the leader of the Indonesian civilization, with the emblem being a simpler version of the Surya Majapahit. The unique unit of Indonesian civilization is the jong.
14. Ustida Rajalarning ko'tarilishi expansion pack from Imperiyalar davri II, Gajah Mada appears in a campaign detailing his rise and then fall after the Pasunda Bubat tragedy. Shuningdek, u tashqi ko'rinishda paydo bo'ldi Age of Empires II Definitive Edition.
15. The flag of Majapahit, Getih-Getah Samudra yoki Gula Kelapa, ko'rsatilgan Age of Empires III Definitive Edition as the flag for Indonesia, a revolutionary nation available for Dutch civilization. A unit called Cetbang Cannon is available for Indonesia.

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar