Apollon dasturi - Apollo program

Apollon dasturi

Mamlakat	Qo'shma Shtatlar
Tashkilot	NASA
Maqsad	Ekipaj oyga qo'nish
Holat	Bajarildi
Dastur tarixi
Narxi	25,4 mlrd dollar (1973)[1] 156 milliard dollar (2019)[2]
Muddati	1961–1972
Birinchi parvoz	SA-1 1961 yil 27 oktyabr (1961-10-27)
Birinchi ekipaj parvozi	Apollon 7 1968 yil 11 oktyabr (1968-10-11)
Oxirgi reys	Apollon 17 1972 yil 19-dekabr (1972-12-19)
Muvaffaqiyatlar	32
Xatolar	2 (Apollon 1 va 13 )
Qisman muvaffaqiyatsizliklar	1 (Apollon 6 )
Sayt (lar) ni ishga tushirish	Kennedi burni Kennedi nomidagi kosmik markaz Oq qum
Avtomobil haqida ma'lumot
Ekipaj vositasi	Apollon CSM Apollon LM
Avtomobil (lar) ni ishga tushirish	Kichkina Jou II Saturn I Saturn IB Saturn V

Qismi bir qator ustida
Qo'shma Shtatlarning kosmik dasturi
Kosmik siyosat
NASA NOAA NRO SPACECOM USSF
Insonning kosmik parvozi dasturlar Merkuriy Egizaklar Apollon Skylab Space Shuttle Shuttle–Mir ISS Tijorat ekipaj Burjlar Artemis
Robotik kosmik parvoz dasturlar CRS Mudofaani qo'llab-quvvatlash Explorers GLS Katta strategik Oy orbiteri Oy prekursori Mariner Mars Exploration Yangi ming yillik Kashshof Sayyoraviy missiyalar Kashfiyot Yangi chegaralar Quyosh tizimini o'rganish Sayyora kuzatuvchisi Ranger Yershunos AQSH Avangard Viking Voyager X-37
Avtotransport vositalarini ishga tushiring Antares Atlas Agena Kentavr LV-3B V Delta II IV Og'ir Falcon 9 Og'ir Redstone Juno I Merkuriy Saturn Men IB V Shuttle-dan olingan SLS Space Shuttle Titan II GLV IIIE IV Avangard
Kosmonavtlar Merkuriy Egizaklar Apollon Space Shuttle

The Apollon dasturi, shuningdek, nomi bilan tanilgan Apollon loyihasi, uchinchi Qo'shma Shtatlar edi insonning kosmik parvozi tomonidan amalga oshiriladigan dastur Milliy aviatsiya va kosmik ma'muriyat (NASA), muvaffaqiyatga erishdi qo'nish birinchi odamlar Oy 1969 yildan 1972 yilgacha. Bu birinchi marta davomida homilador bo'lgan Duayt D. Eyzenxauerning ma'muriyati bir kishini kuzatib borish uchun uch kishilik kosmik kemasi sifatida Mercury loyihasi, bu birinchi amerikaliklarni kosmosga qo'ygan. Keyinchalik Apollon Prezidentga bag'ishlangan Jon F. Kennedi ning 1960 yilgi milliy maqsadi "odamni Oyga tushirish va uni Yerga eson-omon qaytarish" ga murojaat qilib, Kongress 1961 yil 25-mayda. Bu ikki kishidan oldin uchgan AQShning uchinchi inson kosmik parvoz dasturi edi Egizaklar loyihasi 1961 yilda Apollonni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun kosmik parvoz imkoniyatlarini kengaytirish uchun o'ylab topilgan.

Kennedining maqsadi shu kuni amalga oshirildi Apollon 11 missiya qachon astronavtlar Nil Armstrong va Buzz Aldrin ularning qo'nishdi Apollon Oy moduli (LM) 1969 yil 20-iyulda va oy yuzasida yurgan Maykl Kollinz ichida qoldi oy orbitasi ichida buyruq va xizmat ko'rsatish moduli (CSM) va uchalasi ham 24 iyulda Yerga xavfsiz tarzda qo'ndi. Keyingi beshta Apollon missiyasi ham qo'ndi kosmonavtlar Oyda, oxirgi, Apollon 17, 1972 yil dekabrda. Ushbu oltita kosmik parvozda, o'n ikki kishi Oyda yurishdi.

Buzz Aldrin (rasmda) yurgan Oy bilan Nil Armstrong, kuni Apollon 11, 1969 yil 20-21 iyul.

Yerning ko'tarilishi, 1968 yilgi ramziy tasvir Apollon 8 kosmonavt tomonidan olingan Uilyam Anders

Apollon 1961 yildan 1972 yilgacha ishlagan, birinchi parvoz 1968 yilda amalga oshirilgan. 1967 yilda katta muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan. Apollon 1 kabinadagi yong'in dastlabki sinov paytida butun ekipajni o'ldirdi. Birinchi muvaffaqiyatli qo'nishdan so'ng, oyni uzaytirish rejasi bilan to'qqizta qo'nish uchun etarli parvoz apparati qoldi geologik va astrofizik razvedka. Byudjetni qisqartirish shulardan uchtasini bekor qilishga majbur qildi. Qolgan oltita topshiriqning beshtasi muvaffaqiyatli qo'nishga erishdi, ammo Apollon 13 Oyga tranzit paytida kislorod tankining portlashi natijasida qo'nishning oldini olindi, bu esa xizmat ko'rsatish modulining elektr energiyasini etkazib berish qobiliyatini yo'q qildi, CSM qo'zg'alishi va hayotni qo'llab-quvvatlash tizimlarini nogiron qildi. Ushbu funktsiyalar uchun "qutqaruvchi qayiq" sifatida oy modulidan foydalangan holda ekipaj Yerga xavfsiz tarzda qaytib keldi. Apollon ishlatilgan Saturn oilasining raketalari uchun ishlatiladigan raketa sifatida Apollon dasturlari iborat bo'lgan Skylab, a Kosmik stansiya 1973-74 yillarda uchta ekipaj missiyasini qo'llab-quvvatlagan va Apollon-Soyuz, qo'shma AQSh-Sovet Ittifoqi 1975 yilda Yer-orbitadagi missiya.

Apollon bir necha yirikni o'rnatdi insonning kosmik parvozlaridagi muhim bosqichlari. Faqat ekipaj missiyalarini yuborishda yolg'iz o'zi turadi past Yer orbitasi. Apollon 8 boshqa samoviy jismni aylanib chiqqan birinchi ekipaj kosmik kemasi bo'lgan va Apollon 11 odamlarni bitta ustiga qo'ndirgan birinchi ekipaj kosmik kemasi bo'lgan.

Umuman olganda Apollon dasturi 842 funt (382 kg) oy toshlarini va tuproq Oyning tarkibi va geologik tarixini tushunishga katta hissa qo'shadigan Yerga. Dastur NASA-dan keyingi insoniyatning kosmik parvoz qobiliyatiga asos yaratdi va uning qurilishini moliyalashtirdi Jonson kosmik markazi va Kennedi nomidagi kosmik markaz. Apollon shuningdek, raketa va insonning kosmik parvozi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan ko'plab texnologiyalar sohasidagi yutuqlarni rivojlantirdi avionika, telekommunikatsiya va kompyuterlar.

Fon

Kelib chiqishi va kosmik kemalarning texnik-iqtisodiy asoslari

Apollon dasturi davomida tuzilgan Eyzenxauer davomi sifatida 1960 yil boshida ma'muriyat Mercury loyihasi. Merkuriy esa kapsula cheklangan Yer orbital missiyasida faqat bitta kosmonavtni qo'llab-quvvatlashi mumkin edi, Apollon uchtasini olib yurar edi. Mumkin bo'lgan missiyalar tarkibiga a Kosmik stansiya, circumlunar reyslari va oxir-oqibat ekipaj oyga qo'nish.

Dastur nomi berilgan Apollon Yunonistonning yorug'lik, musiqa va Quyosh xudosi tomonidan NASA menejer Abe Silverstayn, keyinchalik u: "Men kosmik kemaga chaqalog'imga ism qo'ygandek nom berdim", dedi.^[3] Silverstayt 1960 yil boshida bir kuni kechqurun uyda "Apollon Quyosh bo'ylab o'z aravasini minib chiqish taklif etilayotgan dasturning katta ko'lamiga mos keladi" deb hisoblaganligi sababli tanladi.^[4]

1960 yil iyulda NASA ma'murining o'rinbosari Xyu L. Drayden Apollon dasturini bir qator sanoat vakillariga e'lon qildi Kosmik vazifalar guruhi konferentsiyalar. Bilan kosmik kemaga dastlabki texnik shartlar qo'yildi missiya moduli idishni alohida buyruq moduli (uchish va qayta kirish kabinasi) va a qo'zg'aysan va uskunalar moduli. 30-avgustda texnik-iqtisodiy asoslash bo'yicha tanlov e'lon qilindi va 25-oktabr kuni uchta o'qish shartnomasi imzolandi Umumiy dinamika / ishonch, General Electric, va Glenn Martin kompaniyasi. Ayni paytda, NASA boshchiligidagi o'z kosmik kemalarini loyihalash bo'yicha tadqiqotlar olib bordi Maksim Faget, uchta sanoat dizaynini baholash va nazorat qilish uchun o'lchov sifatida xizmat qilish.^[5]

Siyosiy bosim kuchaymoqda

1960 yilning noyabrida Jon Kennedi Amerikadan ustunligini va'da qilgan kampaniyadan so'ng prezident etib saylandi Sovet Ittifoqi dalalarida kosmik tadqiqotlar va raketaga qarshi mudofaa. 1960 yilgi saylovgacha Kennedi "raketalar oralig'i "u va boshqa ko'plab senatorlar Prezident Eyzenxauerning harakatsizligi tufayli Sovet Ittifoqi va AQSh o'rtasida rivojlangan deb o'ylashdi.^[6] Harbiy kuchdan tashqari, Kennedi aerokosmik texnologiyalarni milliy obro'ning ramzi sifatida ishlatgan va AQShni "birinchi emas, birinchi navbatda va birinchi navbatda, lekin birinchi davr" qilishga va'da bergan.^[7] Kennedining so'zlariga qaramay, u prezident bo'lganidan keyin darhol "Apollon" dasturining maqomi to'g'risida qarorga kelmadi. U kosmik dasturning texnik tafsilotlari haqida kam ma'lumotga ega edi va ekipajning Oyga qo'nishi uchun talab qilingan katta moliyaviy majburiyatni bekor qildi.^[8] Kennedining yangi tayinlangan NASA ma'muri bo'lganda Jeyms E. Uebb agentligi uchun byudjetni 30 foizga oshirishni so'ragan Kennedi NASA-ning yirik booster dasturini tezlashtirishni qo'llab-quvvatladi, ammo kengroq masala bo'yicha qarorni kechiktirdi.^[9]

1961 yil 12 aprelda Sovet kosmonavt Yuriy Gagarin Sovet Ittifoqi bilan texnologik raqobatda qolib ketishdan Amerika qo'rquvini kuchaytirib, kosmosga uchgan birinchi odam bo'ldi. AQSh uyining yig'ilishida Fan va astronavtika qo'mitasi Gagarinning parvozidan bir kun o'tib, ko'plab kongressmenlar Amerika yetib borishini ta'minlashga qaratilgan avariya dasturini qo'llab-quvvatlashlarini va'da qildilar.^[10] Kennedi bu xabarlarga javoban amerikaliklarning Sovetlarga javoblari to'g'risida majburiyat olishdan bosh tortdi.^[11]

Prezident Kennedi qo'shma majlis oldidan Oyga odam qo'yish haqidagi taklifini taqdim etadi Kongress, 1961 yil 25-may

20 aprelda Kennedi o'z xatlarini yubordi Vitse prezident Lyndon B. Jonson, Jonsondan Amerikaning kosmik dasturi holati va NASAga yetib olish imkoniyatini beradigan dasturlarni ko'rib chiqishni so'radi.^[12][13] Jonson taxminan bir hafta o'tgach javob qaytarib, "agar biz bu mamlakat etakchilik mavqeiga ega bo'lish uchun maksimal darajada harakat qilmasak ham, kerakli natijalarga erishmaymiz ham" degan xulosaga keldi.^[14][15] Uning eslatmasiga ko'ra, ekipajga tushgan Oyga qo'nish kelajakda etarlicha etarli, ehtimol AQSh birinchi bo'lib unga erishishi mumkin.^[14]

1961 yil 25 mayda, AQShning birinchi kosmik parvozidan yigirma kun o'tgach Ozodlik 7, Kennedi ekipajga Oyga qo'nishni taklif qildi Kongressga shoshilinch milliy ehtiyojlar to'g'risida maxsus xabar:

Endi ko'proq qadam tashlash vaqti keldi - bu Amerikaning yangi yangi korxonasi uchun vaqt - bu millat kosmosga erishishda aniq etakchi rolni egallashi kerak, bu esa ko'p jihatdan bizning kelajagimiz Yerdagi kalitimiz bo'lishi mumkin.

... O'ylaymanki, ushbu xalq maqsadga erishish uchun, shu o'n yil tugamasdan oldin, odamni Oyga qo'nish va uni Yerga xavfsiz qaytarish vazifasini bajarishi kerak. Ushbu davrdagi biron bir kosmik loyiha insoniyat uchun ta'sirchan bo'lmaydi yoki kosmosni uzoq masofada o'rganishda muhimroq bo'ladi; va hech birining bajarilishi shunchalik qiyin yoki qimmat bo'lmaydi.^[16]To'liq matn  

NASA kengayishi

Kennedining taklifi paytida faqat bitta amerikalik kosmosda uchgan edi - bir oydan kam oldin - va NASA hali kosmonavtni orbitaga yubormagan edi. NASA-ning ba'zi xodimlari ham Kennedining ulkan maqsadiga erishish mumkinligiga shubha qilishdi.^[17] 1963 yilga kelib, Kennedi harakatlarning takrorlanishini yo'q qilish uchun AQSh-SSSR qo'shma Oy missiyasini bajarishga rozi bo'ldi.^[18]

Ekipaj qo'nishining aniq maqsadi kosmik stantsiyalar va tsirkumlunar parvozlarning yanada beparvo maqsadlarini almashtirish bilan NASA tez rivojlanishga erishish uchun Convair, GE va Martin kompaniyalarining texnik-iqtisodiy asoslarini bekor qilib, Faget's bilan davom etishiga qaror qildi. buyruq va xizmat ko'rsatish moduli dizayni. Missiya moduli faqat qo'shimcha xona sifatida foydali va shuning uchun keraksiz ekanligi aniqlandi.^[19] Ular Fagetning dizaynidan 1961 yil oktyabr oyida kosmik kemalarni sotib olish bo'yicha takliflar uchun yana bir tanlov uchun spetsifikatsiya sifatida foydalanganlar. 1961 yil 28-noyabrda bu e'lon qilindi Shimoliy Amerika aviatsiyasi shartnomani yutgan edi, garchi uning taklifi Martinnikiga o'xshamagan bo'lsa ham. Veb, Drayden va Robert Seamans Shimoliy Amerikaning NASA bilan uzoqroq aloqasi tufayli uni afzal ko'rdi uning oldingisi.^[20]

1969 yil oxiriga kelib odamlarning Oyga tushishi eng keskin texnologik ijodkorlikni va resurslarning eng katta majburiyatini talab qildi (25 milliard dollar; 2019 yilda 156 milliard dollar)^[2] hech qachon tinchlik davrida har qanday xalq tomonidan qilingan. Apollon dasturi eng yuqori cho'qqisida 400,000 kishini ish bilan ta'minlagan va 20000 dan ortiq sanoat firmalari va universitetlarining qo'llab-quvvatlashini talab qilgan.^[21]

1960 yil 1 iyulda NASA Marshall kosmik parvoz markazi (MSFC) yilda Xantsvill, Alabama. MSFC og'ir liftlar sinfini ishlab chiqdi Saturnni uchiruvchi transport vositalari Apollon uchun talab qilinadi.^[22]

Uchuvchisiz kosmik kemalar markazi

Apollon dasturini boshqarish imkoniyatlaridan oshib ketishi aniq bo'ldi Robert R. Gilrut "s Kosmik vazifalar guruhi mamlakatning ekipaj kosmik dasturini NASA-dan boshqarib kelgan Langley tadqiqot markazi. Shunday qilib, Gilrutga o'z tashkilotini yangi NASA markaziga aylantirish vakolati berildi Uchuvchisiz kosmik kemalar markazi (MSC). Sayt tanlangan Xyuston, Texas, tomonidan ehson qilingan quruqlikda Rays universiteti va Administrator Webb 1961 yil 19 sentyabrda konvertatsiya qilish to'g'risida e'lon qildi.^[23] Shuningdek, NASA tez orada o'z missiyalarini boshqarish amaliyotini kengaytirishi aniq edi Cape Canaveral Air Force Station ishga tushirish inshootlari Florida, shuning uchun yangi Missiyani boshqarish markazi MSC tarkibiga kiritiladi.^[24]

Media-ni ijro etish

Prezident Kennedi nutq so'zlamoqda Rays universiteti, 1962 yil 12 sentyabr (17 min, 47 s)

1962 yil sentyabr oyida, shu vaqtga qadar ikkita Mercury Mercion astronavti Yer atrofida aylanib chiqqach, Gilrut o'z tashkilotini Xyustondagi ijaraga olingan joyga ko'chirgan edi va MSC inshootining qurilishi davom etayotgan edi, Kennedi Raysga tashrif buyurib, o'zining chaqirig'ini takrorladi. mashhur nutq:

Ammo nima uchun, ba'zilar, Oy? Nima uchun buni bizning maqsadimiz sifatida tanladingiz? Va ular so'rashi mumkin: nega eng baland toqqa chiqish kerak? Nima uchun 35 yil oldin Atlantika okeaniga uchib ketdingiz? ... Biz Oyga borishni tanlaymiz. Biz bu o'n yil ichida Oyga borishni va boshqa narsalarni qilishni osonligi uchun emas, balki qiyinligi uchun qilishni tanlaymiz; chunki bu maqsad kuchimiz va mahoratimizning eng yaxshisini tartibga solish va o'lchashga xizmat qiladi; chunki bu qiyinchilik biz qabul qilishga tayyor, birini keyinga qoldirishni istamaymiz va yana biri g'alaba qozonishga intilamiz ...^[25] To'liq matn  

MSC 1963 yil sentyabr oyida qurib bitkazildi. U AQSh Kongressi tomonidan 1973 yilda vafotidan ko'p o'tmay Lindon Jonson sharafiga o'zgartirildi.^[26]

Operatsion markazini ishga tushiring

Apollon Florida shtatidagi Kanaveralni ishga tushirish inshootlaridan ortib ketishi ham aniq bo'ldi. Uchrashuv uchun eng yangi ikkita kompleks barpo etilgandi Saturn I va IB eng shimoliy qismida raketalar: LC-34 va LC-37. Ammo ekipajdagi oy missiyasi uchun zarur bo'lgan mamont raketasi uchun bundan ham kattaroq inshoot zarur bo'lar edi, shuning uchun 1961 yil iyul oyida Kanaveraldan shimolda joylashgan Ishga tushirish operatsiyalari markazi (LOC) uchun er sotib olish boshlandi. Merritt oroli. Markazni loyihalashtirish, rivojlantirish va qurish ishlari olib borildi Kurt H. Debus, doktor a'zosi Verner fon Braun original V-2 raketasi muhandislik jamoasi. Debus LOCning birinchi direktori etib tayinlandi.^[27] Qurilish 1962 yil noyabrda boshlangan. Kennedining vafotidan so'ng, Prezident Jonson 1963 yil 29 noyabrda LOC va Kenevi Cape Canaveral nomlarini o'zgartirish to'g'risida buyruq chiqardi.^[28]

Jorj Myuller, Verner fon Braun va Eberxard Ris tomosha qiling AS-101 otish xonasidan boshlash

LOC tarkibiga kiritilgan Kompleksni ishga tushirish 39, a Boshqarish markazini ishga tushiring va 130 million kubik (3 700 000 m.)³) Portret yig'ilish binosi (VAB), unda kosmik transport vositasi (raketa va kosmik kemalar) a mobil ishga tushirish platformasi va keyin a tomonidan ko'chirildi paletli transportyor bir nechta ishga tushirish maydonchasidan biriga. Eng kamida uchta yostiq rejalashtirilgan bo'lsa-da, faqat ikkita, A deb belgilangan va B, 1965 yil oktyabrda qurib bitkazildi. LOC tarkibiga shuningdek Operatsiyalar va kassa binosi (OCB) unga Egizaklar va "Apollon" kosmik kemalari dastlab raketa vositalariga qo'shilishidan oldin qabul qilingan. Apollon kosmik kemasi ikkitadan sinovdan o'tkazilishi mumkin edi vakuum kameralari 250 ming futgacha (76 km) balandlikdagi atmosfera bosimini simulyatsiya qilishga qodir, bu deyarli vakuum.^[29][30]

Tashkilot

Administrator Uebb Apollon xarajatlarini nazorat ostida ushlab turish uchun o'z tashkilotida loyihani boshqarish bo'yicha ko'proq ko'nikmalarni rivojlantirish kerakligini anglab etdi, shuning uchun u Dr. Jorj E. Myuller yuqori boshqaruv ishi uchun. Myuller Apollonni samarali boshqarish uchun zarur bo'lgan NASAni qayta tashkil etishda o'z so'zini aytishi sharti bilan qabul qildi. Keyinchalik Uebb boshqariladigan kosmik parvozlar idorasini (OMSF) qayta tashkil etish uchun Associate Administrator (keyinchalik administrator o'rinbosari) dengizchilari bilan ishladi.^[31] 1963 yil 23-iyulda Uebb Myullerning boshqariluvchi kosmik parvoz bo'yicha assotsiatsiyalashgan ma'murining o'rinbosari etib tayinlanganligini e'lon qildi. D. Brainerd Xolms 1 sentyabrdan boshlab nafaqaga chiqqanligi to'g'risida. Uebb qayta tashkil etilganida, uchuvchisiz kosmik kemalar markazi direktorlari (Gilrut), Marshall kosmik parvoz markazi (fon Braun) va ishga tushirish operatsion markazi (Debus) Myullerga xabar berishdi.^[32]

Myuller o'zining harbiy havo kuchlarining raketa loyihalari bo'yicha tajribasiga asoslanib, ba'zi yuqori malakali menejerlarni yuqori martabali ofitserlar orasidan topish mumkinligini tushundi. AQSh havo kuchlari, shuning uchun u Uebbdan Generalni yollash uchun ruxsat oldi Samuel C. Fillips, uning samarali boshqaruvi bilan obro 'qozongan Minuteman dastur, OMSF dastur tekshiruvi sifatida. Fillipsning yuqori darajadagi ofitseri Bernard A. Shriever Filippni Apollon dasturining direktori etib tayinlash sharti bilan Filippni NASAga va uning ostidagi ofitserlar shtabiga berishga rozi bo'ldi. Myuller bunga rozi bo'ldi va Fillips Apollonni 1964 yil yanvaridan boshlab, 1969 yilning iyulida birinchi marta odam qo'nishiga erishguniga qadar boshqarib, keyin havo kuchlari safiga qaytdi.^[33]

Missiya rejimini tanlash

Jon Xubolt tushuntirish LOR kontseptsiya

Uchun erta Apollon konfiguratsiyasi To'g'ridan-to'g'ri ko'tarilish va Yer Orbitasi Rendezvous, 1961

Kennedi maqsadni belgilab qo'yganidan so'ng, Apollon missiyasini rejalashtiruvchilar kosmik kemani loyihalashtirishda qiyinchiliklarga duch kelishdi, shu bilan inson hayoti, xarajatlari va texnika va astronavt mahoratiga bo'lgan talablarni minimallashtirishga qodir. Missiyaning to'rtta rejimi ko'rib chiqildi:

• To'g'ridan-to'g'ri ko'tarilish: Kosmik qurilmalar birlashma sifatida uchirilib, oyning orbitasiga chiqmasdan, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Oy yuzasiga qarab borishi kerak edi. 50.000 funt (23000 kg) Yerga qaytish kemasi barcha uch astronavtlarni 113000 funt (51000 kg) pastga tushirish harakatlanish bosqichiga tushiradi.^[34] Oyda qoladigan narsa. Ushbu dizayn juda qudratli ishlab chiqishni talab qilishi kerak edi Saturn C-8 yoki Novo Oyga 163000 funt (74000 kg) foydali yuk tashiydigan raketa.^[35]
• Yer Orbitasi Rendezvous (EOR): Bir necha marotaba raketa uchirilishi (ba'zi rejalarda 15 tagacha) Direct Ascent kosmik kemalari va harakatlantiruvchi birliklarning qismlarini olib yurishi mumkin edi. translunar in'ektsiya (TLI). Ular Yer orbitasida bitta kosmik kemaga yig'ilishi kerak edi.
• Oy yuzasi tiklanishi: Ikkita kosmik kema ketma-ket uchiriladi. Birinchisi, Yerga qaytish uchun yonilg'i tashuvchi avtomatlashtirilgan transport vositasi Oyga tushadi va bir muncha vaqt o'tgach, ekipaj vositasi uni kuzatib boradi. Yonilg'i quyishni avtomatlashtirilgan transport vositasidan ekipaj vositasiga o'tkazish kerak edi.^[36]
• Lunar Orbit Rendevvous (LOR): Bu maqsadga erishgan g'olib konfiguratsiya bo'lib chiqdi Apollon 11 1969 yil 24-iyulda: bitta Saturn V 63,882 funt (28,852 kg) dan tashkil topgan 96,886 funt (43,947 kg) kosmik kemani uchirdi. Apollon buyruq va xizmat ko'rsatish moduli Oy atrofidagi orbitada va 33,278 funt (15,095 kg) ikki bosqichda qoldi Apollon Oy moduli Ikkita astronavtlar tomonidan er yuziga uchirilgan kosmik kemalar qo'mondon moduli bilan bog'lanish uchun qaytib uchib ketishdi va keyin tashlandilar.^[37] Kichikroq kosmik kemani Oyga qo'nish va undan ham kichikroq qismini (10,042 funt yoki 4555 kilogramm) Oy orbitasiga qaytarish, Yerdan uchirilishi kerak bo'lgan umumiy massani minimallashtirdi, ammo bu dastlab uchrashish xavfi tufayli ko'rib chiqilgan so'nggi usul edi va docking.

1961 yil boshida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ko'tarilish odatda NASA missiyasining foydasiga vazifa bo'ldi. Ko'pgina muhandislar uchrashuv va to'xtash manevralari amalga oshirilmagani uchun qo'rqishdi Yer orbitasi, deyarli imkonsiz bo'lar edi oy orbitasi. LOR himoyachilari, shu jumladan Jon Xubolt Langley tadqiqot markazida LOR yondashuvi taklif qilgan vaznni kamaytirishni ta'kidladi. 1960 va 1961 yillar davomida Xyubolt LORni hayotga tatbiq etiladigan va amaliy variant sifatida tan olish uchun kurash olib bordi. NASA ierarxiyasini chetlab o'tib, u bir qator eslatmalar va ushbu masala bo'yicha hisobotlarni Associate Administrator Robert Seamans-ga yubordi; u "cho'lda qandaydir ovoz kabi" gapirganini tan olgan holda, Xoubolt ushbu savolni o'rganishda LORni chegirmaslik kerakligini iltimos qildi.^[38]

1961 yil iyul oyida dengizchilar tomonidan uning maxsus texnik yordamchisi Nikolas E. Golovin boshchiligidagi vaqtinchalik qo'mita tashkil etish. uchirish vositasi Apollon dasturida foydalanish NASA missiyasining rejimi qarorida burilish nuqtasini ko'rsatdi.^[39] Ushbu qo'mita tanlangan rejim raketa tashuvchisi tanlovining muhim qismidir, deb tan oldi va gibrid EOR-LOR rejimi foydasiga tavsiya qildi. LORni ko'rib chiqish, shuningdek Houboltning to'xtovsiz ishi - yondashuvning amaliyligini ommalashtirishda muhim rol o'ynadi. 1961 yil oxiri va 1962 yil boshlarida LOR-ni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun boshqariladigan kosmik kemalar markazining a'zolari, shu jumladan, boshqariladigan kosmik parvozlar boshqarmasi direktorining yangi yollangan muovini, Jozef Shea, LOR chempioni bo'lgan.^[40] Ushbu qaror tufayli yo'qotishi kerak bo'lgan Marshall kosmik parvoz markazining (MSFC) muhandislari uning foydasiga ishonch hosil qilish uchun ko'proq vaqt talab qildilar, ammo ularning konversiyasi to'g'risida 1962 yil 7-iyun kuni bo'lib o'tgan brifingda Verner fon Braun e'lon qildi.^[41]

Ammo NASA ichki kelishuvga erishganidan keyin ham, u suzib yurishdan yiroq edi. Kennedining ilmiy maslahatchi Jerom Vizner Prezident lavozimiga kelguniga qadar Kennediga insonning kosmik parvoziga qarshi ekanligini bildirgan,^[42] va odamlarni Oyga qo'ndirish to'g'risidagi qarorga qarshi bo'lib, NASAdan ketgan Golovinni o'zining "kosmik vositalar panelini" boshqarishga, go'yo kuzatish uchun, lekin aslida NASA ning qarorlarini ikkinchi taxmin qilish uchun yolladi. Saturn V Shea, Seamans va hatto Webbni o'zini himoya qilishga majbur qilib, 1962 yil 11 iyulda matbuotga rasmiy e'lonini kechiktirib, Webbni qarorni "taxminiy" deb atashga majbur qildi.^[43]

Vizner bosimni davom ettirdi, hatto Prezidentning sentyabrga ikki kunlik tashrifi davomida kelishmovchiliklarni jamoatchilikka e'lon qildi Marshall kosmik parvoz markazi. Vizner fon Braunning taqdimoti paytida matbuot oldida "Yo'q, bu yaxshi emas" deb xitob qildi. Uebb sakrab tushdi va fon Braunni himoya qildi, toki Kennedi janjalni tugatguncha, bu masala "hali ham qayta ko'rib chiqilishi kerak". Uebb qat'iy ushlab turdi va a taklif uchun so'rov Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) pudratchilariga nomzodga. Vizner, nihoyat, prezidentning oktyabrga aloqadorligi sababli, Kennedining idorasida nizoni birdaniga hal qilishni istamay, tavakkal qildi. Kuba raketa inqirozi va Kennedining Vebni qo'llab-quvvatlashidan qo'rqish. NASA tanlovni e'lon qildi Grumman 1962 yil noyabr oyida LEM pudratchisi sifatida.^[44]

Kosmik tarixchi Jeyms Xansen shunday xulosaga keladi:

1962 yilda NASA ushbu o'jarlik bilan qabul qilingan ozchiliklarning fikrini qabul qilmasdan, Qo'shma Shtatlar hali ham Oyga etib borgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo bu, albatta, Prezident Kennedining nishonlangan sana - 1960 yillarning oxirigacha amalga oshmagan bo'lar edi.^[45]

LOR usuli qo'mondonlik kemasi ishlamay qolganda, qo'nish kemasini "qutqaruvchi qayiq" sifatida ishlatishga imkon berishning afzalligi bor edi. Ba'zi hujjatlar ushbu nazariya usul tanlanishidan oldin va keyin muhokama qilinganligini isbotlaydi. 1964 yilda MSC tadqiqotida "The LM [qutqaruvchi qayiq sifatida] ... nihoyat tashlab yuborildi, chunki hech kim oqilona emas CSM foydalanishni taqiqlovchi nosozlik aniqlanishi mumkin SPS."^[46] Ajablanarlisi shundaki, aynan shunday muvaffaqiyatsizlik yuz berdi Apollon 13 kislorod tankining portlashi KSMni elektr quvvatisiz qoldirganda. Oy moduli ekipajni uyga xavfsiz olib kelish uchun harakatlanish, elektr quvvati va hayotni ta'minladi.^[47]

Kosmik kemalar

Apollon qozon Buyruq moduli ko'rgazmada Meteor krateri Mehmonlar markazi Vinslow, Arizona.

Fagetning dastlabki Apollon dizayni kosmik stantsiya, sislunar va Oyga qo'nish missiyalariga mos ravishda harakatga keltiriladigan va elektr quvvatini ta'minlaydigan bir nechta xizmat ko'rsatish modullaridan biri tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan konus shaklidagi buyruq modulidan foydalangan. Kennedining Oyga qo'nish maqsadi rasmiylashtirilgandan so'ng, qo'mondonlik va xizmat ko'rsatish modulining (CSM) batafsil dizayni boshlandi, unda ekipaj butun ko'tarilish missiyasini o'tkazadi va qaytish safari uchun oy sathidan ko'tariladi. kattaroq qo'nish harakatlantiruvchi moduli. Oy orbitasi uchrashuvining yakuniy tanlovi CSM-ning rolini yangi kosmik kemasi - Oy ekskursiyasi moduli (LEM, keyinchalik LM (Oy moduli) ga qisqartirilgan) bilan birga ekipajni tashish uchun ishlatiladigan translunar paromga o'zgartirdi. /ˈlɛm/), bu ikki kishini Oy yuziga olib chiqib, CSM-ga qaytaradi.^[48]

Buyruq va xizmat ko'rsatish moduli

Apollon 15 CSM Oy orbitasida

The buyruq moduli (CM) konusning ekipaj kabinasi bo'lib, uch fazogirni uchirishdan oy orbitasiga va Yer okeaniga qo'nishga qaytib borishga mo'ljallangan edi. Bu "Apollon" kosmik kemasining asosiy tarkibiy qismi edi, chunki u dasturni "Apollon" ning dastlabki dizaynlaridan kelib chiqqan holda katta konfiguratsion o'zgarishsiz saqlab qoldi. Uning tashqi tomoni an bilan qoplangan ablativ issiqlik himoyasi va o'ziga xos edi reaktsiyani boshqarish tizimi (RCS) dvigatellari uning munosabatini nazorat qilish va uni boshqaring atmosferaga kirish yo'l. Parashyutlar uning tushishini sekinlashishi uchun ko'tarilgan. Modulning bo'yi 11,42 fut (3,48 m), diametri 12,83 fut (3,91 m) va og'irligi taxminan 12 250 funt (5560 kg) bo'lgan.^[49]

Silindrsimon xizmat ko'rsatish moduli (SM) buyruq modulini qo'llab-quvvatladi, xizmat ko'rsatuvchi dvigatel va yonilg'i quyish moslamalari bilan RCS va a yonilg'i xujayrasi bilan energiya ishlab chiqarish tizimi suyuq vodorod va suyuq kislorod reaktiv moddalar. Yuqori daromad S-tasma antenna Oy parvozlarida shaharlararo aloqa uchun ishlatilgan. Oyning kengaytirilgan missiyalarida orbital ilmiy asboblar to'plami olib borildi. Xizmat moduli qayta kirishdan oldin bekor qilindi. Modulning uzunligi 24,6 fut (7,5 m) va diametri 12,83 fut (3,91 m) bo'lgan. Oyga uchishning dastlabki versiyasi og'irligi taxminan 23300 funtni (23.300 kg) to'la quvvat bilan to'ldirgan bo'lsa, oyning orbitasida ilmiy asboblar to'plamini olib o'tishga mo'ljallangan keyingi versiyasi 54000 funtdan (24000 kg) sal ko'proq bo'lgan.^[49]

Shimoliy Amerika aviatsiyasi CSM va NASA uchun Saturn V raketasining ikkinchi bosqichini qurish bo'yicha shartnomani yutib oldi. CSM dizayni Oy orbitasi uchrashuvini tanlashdan oldin boshlanganligi sababli, harakatlantiruvchi dvigatel CSMni Oydan ko'tarish uchun o'lchamga ega edi va shu tariqa translyar parvozi uchun zarur bo'lgan kuchning ikki baravariga oshirildi.^[50] Shuningdek, oy moduli bilan bog'lanish uchun hech qanday shart yo'q edi. 1964 yildagi dasturni aniqlash bo'yicha o'tkazilgan tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra dastlabki dizayn I blok sifatida davom ettirilishi kerak, u erta sinov uchun ishlatilishi kerak, Block II esa oyning haqiqiy kosmik kemasi docking uskunalarini o'z ichiga oladi va I blokini ishlab chiqishda olingan saboqlardan foydalanadi.^[48]

Apollon Oy moduli

Apollon 11 Oy moduli Burgut tomonidan suratga olingan Oyda Nil Armstrong

The Apollon Oy moduli (LM) Oy orbitasidan tushib, Oyga ikki astronavtni qo'ndirish va ularni orbitaga qaytarish uchun buyruq moduli bilan uchrashish uchun mo'ljallangan edi. Yer atmosferasida uchish yoki Yerga qaytish uchun mo'ljallanmagan, uning fyuzelyaji umuman aerodinamik fikrlarsiz ishlab chiqilgan va juda engil tuzilishga ega edi. U har biri o'z dvigateliga ega bo'lgan alohida tushish va ko'tarilish bosqichlaridan iborat edi. Tushish bosqichida tushish uchun yoqilg'i quyish vositasi, sirt ustida ishlatiladigan sarf materiallari va sirtni qidirish uskunalari mavjud edi. Ko'tarilish bosqichida ekipaj kabinasi, ko'tariluvchi dvigatel va reaktsiyani boshqarish tizimi mavjud edi. Dastlabki LM modeli taxminan 33,300 funt (15,100 kg) ni tashkil etdi va sirt 34 soatgacha saqlanib qoldi. Kengaytirilgan oy moduli og'irligi 36200 funtdan (16.400 kg) oshdi va sirt uch kundan ortiq turishga imkon berdi.^[49] Oy modulini loyihalashtirish va qurish bo'yicha shartnoma tuzildi Grumman aviatsiya muhandislik korporatsiyasi, va loyiha tomonidan nazorat qilingan Tomas J. Kelli.^[51]

Avtotransport vositalarini ishga tushiring

Miqyosga yo'naltirilgan to'rtta Apollon raketa majmuasi: Kichkina Jou II, Saturn I, Saturn IB va Saturn V

Apollon dasturi boshlanishidan oldin, Verner fon Braun va uning raketa muhandislari jamoasi juda katta raketalarni ishlab chiqarish rejalari ustida ish boshladilar. Saturn seriyasi va undan ham kattaroq Novo seriyali. Ushbu rejalar orasida fon Braun armiyadan NASAga ko'chirildi va Marshall kosmik uchish markazining direktori etib tayinlandi. Uch kishilik "Apollon" qo'mondonlik va xizmat ko'rsatish modulini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Oy yuzasiga, katta raketa pog'onasi ustiga yuborish uchun dastlabki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ko'tarilish rejasi, yangi yuk ko'tarish qobiliyatini 180,000 funt (82,000) funtdan yuqori bo'lgan "Nova" sinfini talab qiladi. kg).^[52] 1962 yil 11 iyunda Oy orbitasi uchrashuvidan foydalanish to'g'risidagi qaror Saturn V-ni Novaning o'rnini egallashga imkon berdi va MSFC uni rivojlantirishga kirishdi Saturn raketalari oilasi Apollon uchun.^[53]

Apollon, xuddi Merkuriy singari, kosmik missiyalar uchun bir nechta raketani ishlatganligi sababli, NASA kosmik-raketa vositalarining kombinatsiyalangan seriyali raqamlaridan foydalangan: Saturn I uchun AS-10x, Saturn IB uchun AS-20x va Saturn V uchun AS-50x (taqqoslang Merkuriy-Redstone 3, Merkuriy-Atlas 6 ) barcha missiyalarni loyiha egizaklaridagi kabi ketma-ket raqamlash o'rniga ularni belgilash va rejalashtirish. Bu inson parvozlari boshlangan paytgacha o'zgartirildi.^[54]

Kichkina Jou II

Apollon, xuddi Merkuriy kabi, a ni talab qiladi qochish tizimini ishga tushirish (LES) ishga tushirilmasa, ushbu tizimning malakaviy parvoz sinovlari uchun nisbatan kichik raketa zarur edi. Undan kattaroq raketa Kichkina Jou Merkuriy tomonidan ishlatilishi talab qilinadi, shuning uchun Kichkina Jou II tomonidan qurilgan Umumiy dinamikasi /Ishonch. 1963 yil avgustdan keyin malakaviy sinov parvozi,^[55] to'rtta LES sinov parvozlari (A-001 orqali 004 ) da qilingan Oq qumli raketalar oralig'i 1964 yil maydan 1966 yil yanvargacha.^[56]

Saturn I

Saturn IB raketasi uchirildi Apollon 7, 1968

AQShning birinchi og'ir ko'taruvchi raketasi bo'lgan Saturn I dastlab qisman jihozlangan CSM-larni Yerning past orbitasida sinovdan o'tkazishni rejalashtirgan edi. The S-I birinchi bosqich yondi RP-1 sakkizta klasterli suyuq kislorod (LOX) oksidlovchi bilan Rocketdyne H-1 1,500,000 funt quvvatli (6,670 kN) tortish kuchini ishlab chiqaradigan dvigatellar. The S-IV ikkinchi bosqichda oltita suyuq vodorod yoqilg'isi ishlatilgan Pratt va Uitni RL-10 90,000 funt quvvatga ega (400 kN) kuchga ega dvigatellar. The S-V uchinchi bosqich Saturn Ida to'rt marta harakatsiz parvoz qildi.^[57]

Birinchi to'rtta Saturn I sinov parvozlari LC-34dan amalga oshirildi, faqat birinchi bosqich jonli, suv bilan to'ldirilgan qo'g'irchoqli yuqori bosqichlar. LC-37 samolyotidan jonli S-IV bilan birinchi reys ochildi. Buning ortidan beshta uchirish boshlandi qozon CSM-lar (belgilangan AS-101 orqali AS-105 1964 va 1965 yillarda orbitaga chiqarildi. Ularning uchtasi Apollon dasturini qo'llab-quvvatladi Pegasus chastotasi va zo'ravonligini o'lchash orqali translyatsiya muhitining xavfsizligini tekshiradigan sun'iy yo'ldoshlar mikrometeorit ta'sirlar.^[58]

1962 yil sentyabr oyida NASA 1965 yil oxiridan 1966 yilgacha Saturn I-da to'rtta CSM parvozlarini amalga oshirishni rejalashtirgan edi, bu esa Egizaklar loyihasi bilan bir vaqtda edi. 22,500 funt (10,200 kg) foydali yuk hajmi^[59] qo'shilishi mumkin bo'lgan tizimlarni jiddiy ravishda cheklab qo'ygan bo'lar edi, shuning uchun 1963 yil oktyabr oyida yangilanganlardan foydalanish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi Saturn IB barcha ekipajdagi Yer orbitali parvozlari uchun.^[60]

Saturn IB

Saturn IB Saturn I ning yangilangan versiyasi edi S-IB birinchi bosqich H-1 dvigatelini yangilab, kuchni 1600000 funt quvvatga (7120 kN) oshirdi. Ikkinchi bosqich S-IV o'rnini S-IVB-200, bitta tomonidan quvvatlanadi J-2 suyuq vodorod yoqilg'isini LOX bilan yondiradigan dvigatel, 200 000 ishlab chiqarish uchun funt-kuch (890 kN ) surish.^[61] Saturn V-ning uchinchi bosqichi sifatida S-IVB-ning qayta tiklanadigan versiyasidan foydalanilgan. Saturn IB qisman yonilg'i quyiladigan CSM yoki LM uchun etarli bo'lgan 40,000 funtdan (18,100 kg) pastroq bo'lgan Yer orbitasiga yuborishi mumkin edi.^[62] Saturn IB samolyotlari va parvozlari AS-200 seriyali raqami bilan belgilandi, "AS" "Apollon Saturn" va Saturn nomidagi raketa oilasining ikkinchi a'zosini ko'rsatadigan "2".^[63]

Saturn V

A Saturn V raketa 1969 yil Apollonni uchiradi

Saturn V raketalari va parvozlari "Apollon Saturn" ni ko'rsatadigan "AS" va Saturn V ni ko'rsatadigan "5" AS-500 seriyali raqami bilan belgilandi.^[63] Uch bosqichli Saturn V Oyga to'liq yoqilg'i bilan ta'minlangan CSM va LM yuborish uchun mo'ljallangan edi. Diametri 33 fut (10,1 m) bo'lgan va 96800 funt (43,900 kg) oylik yuk bilan 363 fut (110,6 m) balandlikda bo'lgan. Keyinchalik uning oyga tushishi uchun uning qobiliyati 103,600 funt (47,000 kg) ga o'sdi. The S-IC birinchi bosqichda RP-1 / LOX 7,500,000 funt-quvvat (33,400 kN) ga ko'tarilgan 7,500,000 funt-quvvat (33,400 kN) kuch uchun yoqildi. Ikkinchi va uchinchi bosqichlar suyuq vodorodni yoqib yubordi, uchinchi bosqich esa S-IVB ning o'zgartirilgan versiyasi bo'lib, tortish kuchi 230000 funt (1020 kN) ga ko'tarildi va dvigatelni translyar in'ektsiya uchun qayta ishga tushirish qobiliyati mashinalar orbitasi.^[64]

Kosmonavtlar

Apollon 1 ekipaj: Ed White, qo'mondon uchuvchi Gus Grissom va Rojer Chaffi

Apollon dasturi davomida NASA ning parvozlar ekipaji ishlari bo'yicha direktori bo'lgan Donald K. "Deke" Sleyton, asl nusxalardan biri Mercury Seven tufayli 1962 yil sentyabr oyida tibbiy asosga ega bo'lgan kosmonavtlar yurak xiralashishi. Slayton egizaklar va Apollon ekipajining barcha topshiriqlarini bajarishga mas'ul bo'lgan.^[65]

Apollon dasturida 32 ta astronavtga uchish vazifalari topshirildi. Ulardan 24 tasi Yer orbitasini tark etib, 1968 yil dekabridan 1972 yil dekabrigacha Oy atrofida uchishdi (ulardan uchtasi ikki marta). 24 ning yarmi Oy yuzasida yurishdi, biroq ularning hech biri bir marta qo'nishidan keyin unga qaytmagan. Oy sayr qiluvchilaridan biri o'qitilgan geolog edi. 32 dan, Gus Grissom, Ed White va Rojer Chaffi ga tayyorgarlik ko'rish uchun quruqlikdagi sinov paytida o'ldirilgan Apollon 1 missiya.^[54]

Apollon 11 ekipaji, chapdan: qo'mondon Nil Armstrong, Buyruq moduli uchuvchisi Maykl Kollinz va Oy moduli uchuvchisi Buzz Aldrin

Apollon astronavtlari "Merkuriy" va "Egizaklar" loyihasi faxriylari, shuningdek, keyingi ikki astronavt guruhi orasidan tanlangan. Barcha topshiriqlarga Egizaklar yoki Merkuriy faxriylari tomonidan buyruq berildi. Apollon 11 ga birinchi ikkita qo'nish orqali barcha rivojlanish parvozlarida (Yer orbitasida CSM rivojlanish parvozlaridan tashqari) ekipajlar Apollon 12, kamida ikki (ba'zan uchta) egizaklar faxriylarini o'z ichiga olgan. Doktor Xarrison Shmitt, birinchi bo'lib geolog NASA olimi astronavt kosmosda uchish va Oyga so'nggi missiyada tushish, Apollon 17. Shmitt ishtirok etdi oy geologiyasi barcha Apollon qo'nish ekipajlarini tayyorlash.^[66]

NASA ushbu 32 astronavtning barchasini eng yuksak sharafi - Ajoyib xizmat medali "taniqli xizmat, qobiliyat yoki jasorat" va shaxsiy "NASA missiyasiga katta taraqqiyotni ko'rsatadigan hissasi" uchun berilgan. Medallar vafotidan keyin 1969 yilda Grissom, Uayt va Chaffiga, so'ngra barcha missiyalar ekipajlariga topshirildi. Apollon 8 oldinga. Birinchi Yer orbitasidagi sinov missiyasini uchirgan ekipaj Apollon 7, Valter M. Shirra, Donn Eyzel va Uolter Kanningem, kamroq mukofotlangan NASA xizmatining ajoyib medali, intizom bilan bog'liq muammolar tufayli parvoz direktori ularning parvoz paytida buyurtmalar. NASA ma'muri 2008 yil oktyabr oyida ularni o'limidan keyin Shirra va Eyzelga "Xizmat ko'rsatgan medallar" bilan taqdirlashga qaror qildi.^[67]

Oy missiyasining profili

Oyga qo'nish bo'yicha birinchi missiyani quyidagicha bajarish rejalashtirilgan edi:^[68]

• 

  Ishga tushirish Uchta Saturn V bosqichlar taxminan 11 daqiqa davomida yonib, 100 dengiz miliga (190 km) dumaloq yurishga erishadi mashinalar orbitasi. Uchinchi bosqich orbitaga erishish uchun yoqilg'ining ozgina qismini yoqadi.

• 

  Translunar in'ektsiya Kosmik qurilmalar tizimining tayyorligini tekshirish uchun bir-ikki orbitadan so'ng S-IVB Uchinchi bosqich kosmik kemani Oyga yuborish uchun taxminan olti daqiqa davomida hukmronlik qiladi.

• 

  Transpozitsiya va joylashtirish The Kosmik kemalar Oy moduli adapteri (SLA) panellari CSMni bo'shatish va LMni ochish uchun ajratiladi. Buyruq moduli uchuvchisi (CMP) CSM-ni xavfsiz masofadan uzoqlashtiradi va 180 ° ga buriladi.

• 

  Ekstraksiya CMP CSM-ni LM bilan biriktiradi va to'liq kosmik kemani S-IVB dan uzoqlashtiradi. Oyga sayohat ikki kundan uch kungacha davom etadi. Midcourse tuzatishlari yordamida zarur bo'lganda amalga oshiriladi SM dvigatel.

• 

  Oy orbitasi kiritish Kosmik kemasi Oyning orqasida taxminan 60 dengiz milini (110 km) bosib o'tadi va SM dvigateli kosmik kemani sekinlashtirishi va uni 60 dan 170 gacha dengiz miliga (110 dan 310 km gacha) orbitaga kiritish uchun otiladi, bu tez orada Ikkinchi yonish bilan 60 dengiz milida aylana shaklida.

• 

  Dam olish vaqtidan keyin qo'mondon (CDR) va oy moduli uchuvchisi (LMP) LM ga o'tib, uning tizimlarini quvvatlantiradi va qo'nish moslamasini joylashtiradi. CSM va LM ajratiladi; CMP LM ni vizual ravishda tekshiradi, keyin LM ekipaj xavfsiz masofani uzoqlashtiradi va tushish dvigatelini yoqadi Orbitaga tushirish, bu uni a ga olib boradi perilune taxminan 50,000 fut (15 km).

• 

  Quvvatli nasl Perilunada tushishni boshlash uchun pastga tushadigan dvigatel yana yonadi. CDR vertikal qo'nish uchun pithoverdan keyin nazoratni o'z zimmasiga oladi.

• 

  CDR va LMP bir yoki bir nechtasini bajaradi EVAlar oyning sirtini o'rganish va namunalarni yig'ish, dam olish vaqtlari bilan almashinish.

• 

  The ko'tarilish bosqichi pastga tushirish bosqichini start maydonchasi sifatida ishlatib ko'taradi.

• 

  LM uchrashuvi va CSM bilan bog'lanish.

• 

  CDR va LMP o'zlarining moddiy namunalari bilan yana CM ga o'tadi, so'ngra LM ko'tarilish bosqichi o'tib ketadi va oxir-oqibat orbitadan tushib, yuzaga qulab tushadi.

• 

  Yerdan tashqariga in'ektsiya CS dvigatel CSM-ni Yerga qaytarish uchun yonadi.

• 

  SM qayta kirishdan oldin o'chiriladi va CM 180 ° ga burilib, qayta kirish uchun to'mtoq uchini oldinga qaratadi.

• 

  Atmosferadagi tortishish CMni sekinlashtiradi. Aerodynamic heating surrounds it with an envelope of ionized air which causes a communications blackout for several minutes.

• 

  Parachutes are deployed, slowing the CM for a splashdown in the tinch okeani. The astronauts are recovered and brought to an samolyot tashuvchisi.

• 

  Lunar flight profile (distances not to scale).

Profile variations

Media-ni ijro etish

Nil Armstrong pilots the Apollo Oy moduli Burgut and lands himself and navigator Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, July 20, 1969

• The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollon 10, and Apollo 11) used a bepul qaytish traektoriyasi, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.^[69]
• After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seysmometrlar on the Moon,^[70] the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations to induce vibrations in the Moon's structure. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollon 16, where a loss of munosabat nazorati after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.^[71]
• As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit.^[72]
• Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing.^[73]

Rivojlanish tarixi

Uncrewed flight tests

Apollo uncrewed development mission launches. Click on a launch image to read the main article about each mission

Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. Birinchi, AS-201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of 265.7 nautical miles (492.1 km) and splashed down 4,577 nautical miles (8,477 km) downrange in the Atlantika okeani.^[74] Ikkinchisi, AS-202 on August 25, reached 617.1 nautical miles (1,142.9 km) altitude and was recovered 13,900 nautical miles (25,700 km) downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the service module engine and the command module heat shield.^[75]

A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nose cone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.^[76]

Preparation for crewed flight

Two crewed orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer.^[77] The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit.^[78]

After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB).^[79] The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar ekstravekulyar faoliyat (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.^[80]

Dek Sleyton, the grounded Merkuriy astronavti who became director of flight crew operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee.^[81] NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans Jeyms McDivitt va Devid Skott, kalxat bilan Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Uolli Shirra, Eisele, and rookie Uolter Kanningem were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205.^[81]

In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.^[82]

Program delays

The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first crewed mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually, the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.^[83]

North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first uncrewed Saturn V flight AS-501 from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)^[84]

The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team " to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Li Atvud, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans.^[85] Ayni paytda, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for crewed flight in 1967, not long after the first crewed CSM flights.^[86]

Apollon 1 olovi

Charred Apollo 1 cabin interior

Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first crewed flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.^[87]

The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First, the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.^[88]

Block II spacesuit in January 1968, before (left) and after changes recommended after the Apollo 1 fire

NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in command module design, workmanship and quality control".^[88] At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as command module program manager.^[89] Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Jozef Frensis Shi, uni almashtirish bilan Jorj Low.^[90]

To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials.^[91] The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door.^[91] NASA discontinued the crewed Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for uncrewed Saturn V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not.^[80]

Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests

On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, crewed or uncrewed. The sequence would start with Apollon 4 to cover the first three uncrewed flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes.^[54][92]

In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the crewed lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were uncrewed Saturn V validation; B was uncrewed LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was crewed CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D. was the first crewed CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); va G would be the first crewed landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, Men for lunar orbital survey missions, and J for extended-stay lunar landings.^[93]

The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on human-rating the LM and Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block I CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed.

Apollon 5 (AS-204) was the first uncrewed test flight of the LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second uncrewed test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be crewed.^[94]

This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollon 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo tebranishi, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the service module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly crew, canceling a third uncrewed test.^[95]

Crewed development missions

Apollo crewed development mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission

Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems.^[96]

Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs.^[97] In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts.^[98][99] The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman va Jim Lovell va kalxat Uilyam Anders captured the world's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Rojdestvo arafasi, and returning safely to Earth.^[100]

Nil Armstrong descends the LM's ladder in preparation for the first steps on the lunar surface, as televised live on July 20, 1969

The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollon 9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portativ hayotni qo'llab-quvvatlash tizimi (PLSS) outside the LM.^[101] The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Tomas P. Stafford, Jon Young va Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within 50,000 feet (15 km) of the lunar surface.^[102]

The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Tinchlik dengizi at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft,^[103] walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24.^[104]

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.

— Nil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the Moon's surface^[105]

Production lunar landings

Apollo production crewed lunar landing mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission

In November 1969, Gemini veteran Charlz "Pit" Konrad va kalxat Alan L. Bin made a precision landing on Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyer 3 uncrewed lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the Bo'ronlar okeani. The command module pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon kichik Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes.^[103] On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth.^[106]

Apollo landings on the Moon, 1969–1972

The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jek Svigert va Fred Xays in April 1970, headed for the Mauro shakllanishi. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications.^[47] Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.^[107]

The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs was enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the Oyda harakatlanuvchi transport vositasi (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.^[108]

Mission cutbacks

About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19.^[109] The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center yilda Xantsvill, Alabama, Michoud majmuasi yilda Yangi Orlean, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Jonson nomidagi kosmik markaz in Houston, Texas.^[110]

The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollon 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.^[111]

Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollon 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, bilan Styuart Roosa va Edgar Mitchell.^[112] This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,^[113] and completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time.^[112]

In August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nikson proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Boshqarish va byudjet idorasi Direktor o'rinbosari Kaspar Vaynberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions.^[114]

Extended missions

Oyda harakatlanuvchi transport vositasi used on Apollos 15–17

Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, Alfred Worden va Jeyms Irvin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Xadli Rill, and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about 77 kilograms (170 lb) of lunar material.^[115]

Plaque left on the Moon by Apollon 17

Apollo 16 landed in the Dekart tog'lari on April 20, 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingli va Charlz Dyuk. Young and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.^[116]

Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Toros - Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Dr. Harrison H. Shmitt.^[117] Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18,^[118] but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing.^[119] Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.^[117]

Bekor qilingan missiyalar

Several missions were planned for but were cancelled before details were finalized.

Missiyaning qisqacha mazmuni

Manba: Apollon raqamlar bo'yicha: statistik ma'lumot (Orloff 2004)^[121]

Samples returned

The most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the Ibtido Rok, returned from Apollo 15.

Ferroan Anorthosite Moon rock, returned from Apollo 16.

The Apollo program returned over 382 kg (842 lb) of lunar rocks and tuproq uchun Oyni qabul qilish laboratoriyasi Xyustonda.^{[122][121][123]} Today, 75% of the samples are stored at the Oy namunalari laboratoriyasi binosi built in 1979.^[124]

The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometrik tanishish texnikalar. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years for the bazaltika dan olingan namunalar lunar maria, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the baland tog'lar qobiq.^[125] As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Quyosh sistemasi, that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Ibtido Rok, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission.^[126] Bu anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anortit, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust.^[127] A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart.^[128] KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean ).^[129]

Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with mikrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high-pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly ilgari surilgan as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.^[130]

Analysis of the composition of the lunar samples supports the ulkan ta'sir gipotezasi, that the Moon was created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth.^[131]

Xarajatlar

Apollo cost $25.4 billion (or approximately $156 billion in 2019 dollars when adjusted for inflation via the YaIM deflyatori index).^[1]

Of this amount, $20.2 billion ($124 billion adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and production of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, space suits, scientific experiments, and mission operations. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related ground facilities, such as the NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data acquisition network, added an additional $5.2 billion ($31.9 billion adjusted).

The amount grows to $28 billion ($172 billion adjusted) if the costs for related projects such as Project Gemini and the robotic Ranger, Yershunos va Oy orbiteri programs are included.^[132]

NASA's official cost breakdown, as reported to Congress in the Spring of 1973, is as follows:

Accurate estimates of human spaceflight costs were difficult in the early 1960s, as the capability was new and management experience was lacking. Preliminary cost analysis by NASA estimated $7 billion - $12 billion for a crewed lunar landing effort. NASA Administrator James Webb increased this estimate to $20 billion before reporting it to Vice President Johnson in April 1961.^[133]

Project Apollo was a massive undertaking, representing the largest research and development project in peacetime. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the country and accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s.^[134] It proved unsustainable.

After the first Moon landing, public and political interest waned, including that of President Nixon, who wanted to rein in federal spending.^[135] NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on average, $445 million ($2.28 billion adjusted)^[136] each while simultaneously developing the Space Shuttle. The final fiscal year of Apollo funding was 1973.

Apollon dasturlari

Looking beyond the crewed lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollon X) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollon teleskopi tog'i, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack.^[137] The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission.^[138]

The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dublyaj qilingan Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979.^[139][140]

The Apollon-Soyuz program also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation spaceflight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle va Xalqaro kosmik stantsiya dasturlar.^[140][141]

Recent observations

Tinchlik bazasi, imaged in March 2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

2008 yilda, Yaponiya aerokosmik tadqiqotlar agentligi "s SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface.^[142]

Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotlashtirilgan Oy razvedkasi orbiteri, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31 mi) above the Moon, photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights landed.^[143][144] All of the U.S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar surface and return to the mission Command Module in lunar orbit; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown.^[145]

In a November 16, 2009, editorial, The New York Times opined:

[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites. The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out, make out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, it's a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed—the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we're able to come to looking directly back into the human past ...There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary.^[146]

Meros

Ilm-fan va muhandislik

The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.^[147] Apollo stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015.^[148] The parvoz kompyuteri design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Polaris va Minuteman missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integral mikrosxemalar (IC). By 1963, Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high.^[149]

Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini.^[150] Apollon loyihasi NASA tomonidan yangi yutuqlarni o'zlashtirishi bilan ta'minlandi yarim o'tkazgich elektron texnologiyalar, shu jumladan metall-oksid-yarimo'tkazgichli dala effektli tranzistorlar (MOSFETs) Sayyoralararo monitoring platformasi (IMP)^[151][152] va kremniy integral mikrosxema chips in the Apollon rahbarlik qiladigan kompyuter (AGC).^[153]

Madaniy ta'sir

Moviy marmar photograph taken on December 7, 1972, during Apollo 17. "We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth." -Eugene Cernan

Apollon 8 ekipaji Yer va Oyning birinchi jonli televizion suratlarini Yerga qaytarib yubordi va yaratilish haqidagi hikoyani o'qidi Ibtido kitobi, 1968 yil Rojdestvo arafasida.^[154] Dunyo aholisining taxminan to'rtdan biri Oyning to'qqizinchi orbitasida Rojdestvo arafasida uzatishni ko'rgan - tirik yoki kechikkan -^[155] va dunyo aholisining taxminan beshdan bir qismi "Apollon-11" sayrining jonli uzatilishini tomosha qilishdi.^[156]

Apollon dasturi ham ta'sir ko'rsatdi ekologik faollik 1970 yillarda kosmonavtlar tomonidan olingan fotosuratlar tufayli. Eng taniqli o'z ichiga oladi Yerning ko'tarilishi, tomonidan olingan Uilyam Anders Apollon 8 va Moviy marmar, Apollon 17 kosmonavtlari tomonidan olingan. Moviy marmar atrof-muhitning kuchayishi paytida chiqarilgan va Yerning zaifligi, zaifligi va kosmosning kengligi oralig'ida izolyatsiya tasvirlangan ekologik harakatning ramzi bo'ldi.^[157]

Ga binoan Iqtisodchi, Apollon Prezident Kennedining Sovet Ittifoqini o'z zimmasiga olish maqsadini amalga oshirishga muvaffaq bo'ldi Kosmik poyga yakkalik va muhim yutuqni qo'lga kiritish orqali, ustunligini namoyish etish erkin bozor tizimi. Nashr maqsadga erishish uchun dastur ulkan, markazlashgan hukumat byurokratiyasi doirasida ulkan davlat resurslarini tashkil etishni talab qilganini kinoya bilan ta'kidladi.^[158]

Apollon 11 translyatsiya ma'lumotlarini tiklash loyihasi

Apollon 11 ning 40 yilligi oldidan 2009 yilda NASA missiyaning jonli efirga uzatilgan oy sayrining asl videofilmlarini qidirib topdi. Uch yillik izlanishdan so'ng, lentalar o'chirilgan va qayta ishlatilgan degan xulosaga kelishdi. Buning o'rniga mavjud bo'lgan eng yaxshi efirga uzatilgan televizion kadrlarning yangi raqamli qayta tiklangan versiyasi chiqarildi.^[159]

Filmdagi tasvirlar

Hujjatli filmlar

Ko'plab hujjatli filmlar "Apollon" dasturi va "Kosmik poyga" ni o'z ichiga oladi, jumladan:

Hujjatlar

Apollon dasturi yoki ba'zi bir missiyalar amalga oshirildi sahnalashtirilgan yilda Apollon 13 (1995), Apollon 11 (1996), Yerdan Oygacha (1998), Idish (2000), Kosmik poyga (2005), Moonshot (2009) va Birinchi odam (2018).

Xayoliy

Apollon dasturi bir nechta badiiy asarlarning diqqat markazida bo'lgan, jumladan:

• Apollon 18, 2011 yil dahshat salbiy baholarga chiqarilgan film.
• Butun insoniyat uchun, 2019 yilda Sovet Ittifoqi odamni Oyga muvaffaqiyatli tushirgan birinchi xalq bo'lgan muqobil haqiqatni tasvirlaydigan 2019 teleseriali. Qolgan seriyalar NASA Oyga Apollon missiyasini davom ettirish bilan 1960-yillarning oxiri va 1970-yillarning boshidagi muqobil tarixni aks ettiradi.

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

Ushbu maqola o'z ichiga oladijamoat mulki materiallari veb-saytlaridan yoki hujjatlaridan Milliy aviatsiya va kosmik ma'muriyat.

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar

• Apollon dasturi tarixi NASA inson kosmik parvozi (HSF) veb-saytida
• Apollon dasturi NASA tarixi dasturining ofisida
• "Apollon spinofflari". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 4 aprelda.
• Apollon dasturi da Milliy havo va kosmik muzeyi
• Apollonning 35 yilligi munosabati bilan interaktiv xususiyat NASAda (yilda.) Chiroq )
• Oy missiyasining xronologiyasi da Oy va sayyora instituti

Bu haqda NASA xabar bermoqda

• Apollon dasturining qisqacha hisoboti (PDF), NASA, OAJ-09423, 1975 yil aprel
• NASA tarixi seriyasining nashrlari
• Loyiha Apollon rasmlari va texnik diagrammalari NASA tarixi dasturining ofisida
• The Apollon Lunar Surface Journal Erik M. Jons va Ken Glover tomonidan tahrirlangan
• The Apollon parvoz jurnali V. Devid Vuds tomonidan, va boshq.

Multimedia

• NASA Apollon dasturi tasvirlari va videolari
• Apollon rasmlar arxivi da Arizona shtati universiteti
• Prezident Jon F. Kennedi, NASA ma'muri Jeyms Uebbning audioyozuvi va stenogrammasi, va boshq., Apollon kun tartibini muhokama qilish (Oq uy kabinet xonasi, 1962 yil 21-noyabr)
• Apollon loyihasi arxivi Kipp Teague tomonidan yaratilgan Apollon tasvirlari, videofilmlari va audio yozuvlarining katta ombori
• Flickr-dagi Apollon loyihasi arxivi
• Apollon rasm atlasi - Oy va sayyora instituti deyarli 25000 ta Oy tasvirlari
• Qisqa film Apollon vaqti (1975) saytidan bepul yuklab olish mumkin Internet arxivi
• Apollonning sayohatlari - NASA hujjatli filmi kuni YouTube