Tongva - Tongva

Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Tongva (ajralish).
Tongva
Tongva woman.jpg
1905 yilda bu erda suratga olingan Jeyms Rozemir xonim (Nitsisa Xigera ismli ayol) so'nggi ravonlardan biri bo'lgan Tongva ma'ruzachilar. Etnograf uchun ma'lumot beruvchi C. Xart Merriam, u keng qo'llaniladigan manba sifatida ko'rsatildi endonim Tongva.[1]
Jami aholi
3,900+
Aholisi sezilarli bo'lgan hududlar
Qo'shma Shtatlar Qo'shma Shtatlar (Kaliforniya Kaliforniya )
Tillar
Ingliz tili, Ispaniya, avval Tongva
Din
An'anaviy qabila dini, nasroniylik

The Tongva (/ˈtɒŋvə/ TONG-va ) an Kaliforniyaning tub aholisi dan Los-Anjeles havzasi va Janubiy kanal orollari, taxminan 4000 kvadrat milni (10000 km) qamrab olgan maydon2).[1][2] Prekolonial davrda odamlar 100 ga yaqin qishloqlarda yashagan va asosan qabila qabilalari nomi bilan emas, balki ularning qishloq nomi bilan aniqlangan.[3] Davomida mustamlaka, odamlar deb nomlangan Gabrieleño va Fernandenyo,[a] dan olingan ismlar Ispaniyaning missiyalari o'z erlarida qurilgan: Missiya San-Gabriel Arkanel va San-Fernando Rey-de-Ispaniya missiyasi.[b] Ism Tongva eng keng tarqalgan ism va 20-asrning oxirida mashhurlikka erishgan. Boshqalar esa kimligini aniqlashni tanlaydilar Kiz va atamani ishlatish bo'yicha kelishmovchiliklar Tongva.[4]

Qo'shni bilan birga Chumash, Tongva o'sha paytda eng nufuzli odamlar edi Evropa kelish. Ular keng rivojlangan savdo tarmog'i orqali choy damlab (taxta qurilgan qayiqlar) va jonli oziq-ovqat va an-ga asoslangan moddiy madaniyat Mahalliy dunyoqarash bu odamlarni yaratilish cho'qqisi sifatida emas, balki a-ning bir yo'nalishi sifatida joylashtirdi hayot tarmog'i (ularda aniq ko'rinib turibdiki yaratish hikoyalari ).[5][1][2][6] Vaqt o'tishi bilan turli jamoalar o'zgacha shevalarda gaplasha boshladilar Tongva tili, qismi Takik ning kichik guruhi Uto-astekan tili oila. Bunday tillar beshta yoki undan ko'p bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin (uchta janubiy Kanal orollarida va kamida ikkita materikda).[1] Evropa aloqasi birinchi bo'lib 1542 yilda ispaniyalik kashfiyotchi tomonidan amalga oshirilgan Xuan Rodriges Kabrillo kimni kutib oldi Santa-Katalina odamlar tomonidan kanoeda. Ertasi kuni Kabrillo va uning odamlari materikdagi katta ko'rfazga kirdilar, ular u erda ko'rgan ko'plab tutun yong'inlari sababli "Bay de los Fumos" ("Tutunlar ko'rfazi") deb nomladilar. Odatda bu ishoniladi San-Pedro ko'rfazi, hozirgi kunga yaqin San-Pedro.[7]

The Gaspar de Portolá 1769 yilda ekspeditsiya tomonidan San Gabrielning Missiyasi tashkil topishiga olib keldi Nasroniy missioner Junipero Serra 1771 yilda va bir davrni boshlagan majburiy ko'chirish, qullik va ta'sir qilish Eski dunyo kasalliklar.[8] Bu olib keldi tez qulash Tongva jamiyatining va hayot yo'llari.[9] Qarshilik va isyonlar qasos olishda sodir bo'ldi, shu jumladan 1785 yilda Nikolas Xose va ayol boshliq tomonidan muvaffaqiyatsiz isyon ko'tarildi. Toypurina.[1][3] 1821 yilda, Meksika o'z mustaqilligini qo'lga kiritdi dan Ispaniya va missiyalarni dunyoviylashtirdi, sotish missiya fermerlarga va Tongvani assimilyatsiya qilishga majbur qilish.[10] Ko'pchilik bo'ldi ersiz bu vaqt ichida qochqinlar.[10] 1848 yilda, Kaliforniya Qo'shma Shtatlarga berildi quyidagilarga rioya qilish Meksika-Amerika urushi. AQSh hukumati 1851 yildan 1852 yilgacha 8,5 million akr (3400000 ga) er va'da qilgan 18 ta shartnomani imzoladi. rezervasyonlar. Biroq, ushbu shartnomalar hech qachon ratifikatsiya qilinmagan,[11] va Tongvaning vakili bo'lmagan va hech qanday vakolatga ega bo'lmagan odamlar bilan muzokara olib borilgan berish ularning erlari.[12] Amerika ishg'oli paytida ko'plab odamlar nishonga olingan hibsga olish va sifatida ishlatilgan sudlangan ishchilar uchun shaharni kengaytirish uchun qonuniy qullik tizimida Angliya-Amerika ko'chmanchilar, 1880 yilda yangi ko'pchilikka aylangan.[10]

20-asrning boshlarida, asosan jamoat sifatida tanilgan Gabrieleño haqida yo'qolib ketish haqidagi afsona paydo bo'ldi. Meksikalik-amerikalik shu vaqtgacha. Biroq, xalqning yaqin birlashmasi bir-biri bilan o'zaro aloqada bo'lib turdi Tejon dovoni va San-Gabriel shaharchasi 20-asrga kelib.[8][13] 2006 yildan beri to'rtta tashkilot o'zlarini xalq vakili deb da'vo qilmoqda: Gabrielino-Tongva qabilasi, ularning nomidagi defisdan "defis" guruhi sifatida tanilgan;[14] "slash" guruhi sifatida tanilgan Gabrielino / Tongva qabilasi;[15] Kizh Nation (Gabrieleño Missiya guruhi hindulari);[16] va Gabrieleño / Tongva qabilalar kengashi.[17] Guruhlardan ikkitasi, defis va qiyshiq guruh, an qurish masalasida dushmanlik bilan bo'linish natijasidir Hindiston kazino.[18] 1994 yilda Kaliforniya shtati Gabrielinoni "Los-Anjeles havzasining tub qabilasi sifatida" tan oldi.[19] Tongvaning vakili bo'lgan biron bir uyushgan guruhga erishilmadi federal hukumat tomonidan qabila sifatida tan olinishi.[11] 2008 yilda 1700 dan ortiq odam Tongva deb tanilgan yoki nasabdan nasabga da'vo qilgan.[11] 2013 yilda federal tan olinishga ariza bergan to'rtta Tongva guruhi birgalikda 3900 dan ortiq a'zo bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan edi.[20]

Ism

Tongva

Ism bilan yozilgan skameyka Tongva ustida.

So'z Tongva tomonidan qayd etilgan C. Xart Merriam 1903 yil oktyabrda ko'plab informatorlardan, shu jumladan atrofida yashagan Jeyms Rozemir xonim (ism-sharif Narsisa Iguera) ismli Gabrieleño ayolidan. Tejon Fort, Beykerfild yaqinida.[21][1] Merriam orfografiyasida endonim talaffuz qilinishini aniq ko'rsatib turibdi /ˈtɒŋveɪ/, TONG-ay.[22]

Kiz

Asosiy maqola: Kiz

Odamlarning ayrim a'zolari kimligini aniqlashni tanlaydilar Kiz dan ko'ra Tongva.[23]

Gabrieleño

Gabrieleño atrofidagi tub xalqlarga berilgan ism edi San Gabrielning missiyasi Ispanlar tomonidan. Bu odamlar ilgari o'zlariga murojaat qilgan ism emas edi. Biroq, bu "Gabrieleño" yoki "Gabrielino" kabi har bir rasmiy qabilalar nomining bir qismi bo'lib qoladi.[24][25][26][27] Ushbu atamani ishlatish bilan bog'liq qabila guruhlari o'rtasidagi kelishmovchilik tufayli Tongva, Gabrieleño vositachilik atamasi sifatida ishlatilgan. Masalan, Debra Martin, shahar kengashi a'zosi bo'lganida Pomona, 2017 yilda mahalliy Ganesha bog'idagi yog'och haykallarni ushbu hududning tub aholisiga bag'ishlash loyihasini olib bordi, qaysi nom bilan bog'liq katta mojaro yuzaga keldi, Tongva yoki Kiz, bag'ishlash lavhasida ishlatilgan bo'lar edi. Ushbu atamani ishlatish uchun taxminiy kelishuvga erishildi Gabrieleño, kolonial kelib chiqishiga qaramay.[28]

Tarix

Missiya muddatidan oldin

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Takik tillari, Uto-Aztekan, Kaliforniyaning tub aholisi, Mahalliy Kaliforniya aholisi va Arxaik janubi-g'arbiy
Missiya hindistonlik (Gabrieleño) ayolning don omborini acorns bilan to'ldirayotgan fotosurati, taxminan 1898

Ko'pgina dalillar Tongvaning nasldan naslga o'tishini anglatadi Uto-Aztekan - hozirgi zamonda paydo bo'lgan so'zlovchi xalqlar Nevada va 3,5 ming yil oldin janubi-g'arbiy-janubiy Kaliforniyaning qirg'oq bo'yidagi Janubiy Kaliforniyaga ko'chib o'tgan. Arxeolog Don Laylander tomonidan taklif qilingan modelga ko'ra, bu migrantlar avval singib ketgan yoki tashqariga chiqarib yuborilgan Xokan - so'zlovchi aholi.[29][30] Milodning 500 yiliga kelib, bitta manbada Tongva ular bilan bog'liq bo'lgan barcha erlarni egallab olgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo bu tushunarsiz va olimlar o'rtasida bahsli.[29]

Gacha Ruscha va Ispaniyaning mustamlakasi hozirgi Kaliforniya deb ataladigan joyda Tongva birinchi navbatda ularning bog'liq qishloqlari tomonidan aniqlangan (Topanga, Cahuenga, Tujunga, Kukamonga va boshqalar.) Masalan, shaxslar Yaanga sifatida tanilgan Yaangavit odamlar orasida (missiya yozuvlarida ular sifatida qayd etilgan Yabit).[3][31] Tongva yuzga yaqin qishloqda yashagan.[2] Bir yoki ikkita urug 'odatda Tongva hayotining markazi bo'lgan qishloqni tashkil qiladi.[3]

Tongva tilida gaplashar edi Uto-Aztekan oila (Tongvaning uzoq ajdodlari, ehtimol xalq sifatida birlashdi ichida Sonoran cho'llari, ehtimol 3000 dan 5000 yil oldin). Ichidagi xilma-xillik Takik guruh "o'rtacha darajada chuqur"; qiyosiy lingvistlarning taxminiy taxminlariga ko'ra, odatdagi Takikning tarqalishi Luiseño-Juaneño bir tomondan va Tongva-Serrano boshqa tomondan, taxminan 2000 yil oldin. (Bu ning differentsiatsiyasi bilan solishtirish mumkin Romantik tillar Evropa).[32] Tongva / Serrano guruhining alohida Tongva va Serrano xalqlari yaqinda paydo bo'lgan va ta'sirlangan bo'lishi mumkin Ispaniyaning missionerlik faoliyati.

Tongva hududining aksariyati "deb nomlangan joyda joylashgan edi Sonoran qarag'ay, qarag'ay yong'og'i, mayda ov va kiyikning boy ekologik resurslariga ega hayot zonasi. Sohil bo'yida mollyuskalar, dengiz sutemizuvchilari va baliqlar mavjud edi. Gacha Xristianlashtirish, hukmronlik qilmoqda Tongva dunyoqarashi Insonlar yaratilish cho'qqisi emas, aksincha, ularning bir bo'lagi edi hayot tarmog'i. Odamlar o'simliklar, hayvonlar va er bilan birgalikda o'zaro hurmat va g'amxo'rlikning o'zaro munosabatlarida edilar, bu ularning yaratilish hikoyalarida ko'rinadi.[5] Tongva vaqtni shunday tushunadi chiziqli emas va ajdodlar bilan doimiy aloqa mavjud.[33]

1542 yil 7 oktyabrda Ispaniyalik kashfiyotchi boshchiligidagi ekspeditsiya ekspeditsiyasi Xuan Kabrillo yetdi Santa-Katalina Kanal orollarida, uning kemalarini Tongva kanoeda kutib oldi. Ertasi kuni Kabrillo va uning odamlari, Gabrieleño xalqi bilan aloqada bo'lganligi ma'lum bo'lgan birinchi evropaliklar, materikdagi katta ko'rfazga kirishdi, ular ko'pchilikni hisobga olgan holda "Baya de los Fumos" ("Tutunlar ko'rfazi") deb nomladilar. u erda ular tutun yong'inlarini ko'rdilar. Odatda bu ishoniladi San-Pedro ko'rfazi, hozirgi kunga yaqin San-Pedro.[7]

Mustamlaka va topshiriq davri (1769-1834)

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Missiya hindulari va Serrano xalqi
Gabrielenoni aks ettirgan Ferdinand Deppe (1832) tomonidan San-Gabriel missiyasining surati kiiy bilan tule.

The Gaspar de Portola 1769 yildagi ekspeditsiya Tongva hududiga etib kelgan quruqlikdagi birinchi aloqa bo'lib, ispan mustamlakasining boshlanishini ko'rsatdi. Frantsiskan padre Junipero Serra Portola bilan birga. Ekspeditsiyadan keyingi ikki yil ichida Serra to'rtta missiyani tashkil qildi,[8] shu jumladan San Gabrielning missiyasi, 1771 yilda tashkil etilgan va 1774 yilda qayta qurilgan va San-Fernandoning missiyasi, 1797 yilda tashkil etilgan. San-Jabroilda qul bo'lgan odamlar deb nomlangan Gabrieleños, San-Fernandoda qul bo'lganlar deb atalgan Fernandenos. Garchi ularning til iboralari bir-biridan ajralib turadigan bo'lsa-da, ular bir-biridan juda ko'p farq qilmaganlar va ehtimol missiyalarning mavjudligi standart ko'rinishga ega bo'lgan ikkita shevadan ko'ra yarim o'nlab lahjalar bo'lgan.[34] Fernandenyo va Gabrieleño hududlarining chegaralari asosan taxminlarga asoslangan bo'lib, ikkala guruhning urf-odatlari bo'yicha bir-biridan keskin farq qilgani ma'lum emas. Kengroq Gabrieleño guruhi hozirgi holatni egallab oldi Los-Anjeles okrugi janubida Sierra Madre va yarmi Oranj okrugi, shuningdek, orollari Santa-Katalina va San-Klemente.[34]

Ispanlar 1771 yilda San-Gabriel missiyasining qurilishini nazorat qildilar. Ispan mustamlakachilari foydalanganlar qul mehnati Missiyalarni qurish uchun mahalliy qishloqlardan.[35] Asl missiya yo'q qilinganidan so'ng, ehtimol tufayli El Nino suv toshqini tufayli, ispaniyaliklar 1774 yilda missiya shimolga besh mil uzoqlikda ko'chib o'tishdi va Tongvani "Gabrieleno" deb atay boshladilar. Yaanga Gabrieleño aholi punktida Los-Anjeles daryosi, missionerlar va hind nefitlari yoki suvga cho'mganlar, 1781 yilda Los-Anjelesdagi birinchi shaharni qurdilar. El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula (Bizning xonimimiz qishlog'i, Porziuncola farishtalari malikasi). 1784 yilda opa-singillar missiyasi Nuestra Senora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia, Yaanga shahrida ham tashkil etilgan.[35]

Butun qishloqlar suvga cho'mishdi va halokatli natijalar bilan missiya tizimiga singdirildi.[3] Masalan, 1788 yildan 1815 yilgacha Guaspet qishlog'ining tub aholisi San-Gabrielda suvga cho'mishgan. Missiyalarga yaqinlik mahalliy Kaliforniyaliklar uchun ommaviy tanglikni keltirib chiqardi, ular "kundalik hayotning barcha jabhalarida, shu jumladan nutq, ovqatlanish, ishlash va g'ayritabiiy narsalar bilan bog'lanish odob-axloqlarida majburiy o'zgarishlarni" boshladilar.[3] Olimlar Jon Ditler, Xizer Gibson va Benjamin Vargas ta'kidlaganidek, "katolik korxonalari prozelitizatsiya Vaziyatni konvertatsiya qiluvchi sifatida qabul qilish, nazariy jihatdan, an'anaviy hayot yo'llaridan ko'pchiligidan voz kechishni talab qildi. "Nazoratni saqlab qolish uchun turli xil strategiyalar amalga oshirildi, masalan, zo'ravonlik, yosh va jinsga qarab ajratish va yangi konvertatsiya qilinganlardan foydalanish. boshqalar ustidan nazorat qilish vositasi sifatida.[3] Masalan, San-Gabriel missiyasining otasi Zalvidea gumon qilinayotgan shamanlarni "tez-tez kaltaklash bilan va an'anaviy diniy amaliyotchilarni juft-juft qilib zanjirband qilish va ularni yog'och zavodida og'ir mehnatga mahkum etish bilan jazolagan".[3] Ushbu davrda bir missioner to'rt yoshdan uchtasi San-Gabriel missiyasida 2 yoshga to'lmasdan vafot etganligini xabar qildi.[8] San-Gabriel missiyasi hududida 6000 ga yaqin Tongva dafn etilgan.[36] Keri Makvilliams buni quyidagicha tavsifladi: "fransiskalik padreslar hindularni fashistlarning kontsentratsion lagerlari faoliyati bilan yo'q qildi ...".[37]

Hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, missiya davridan boshlab San-Gabriel missiyasi hududida 6000 ga yaqin Tongva dafn etilgan.

Missiya tizimiga Tongva qarshilik ko'rsatadigan ko'plab dalillar mavjud.[3][10] Ko'p odamlar o'lim paytida o'z qishloqlariga qaytib kelishdi. Ko'p dinni qabul qilganlar, ota-onalar va missionerlar tomonidan ularni boshqarishga urinishlariga qaramay, o'zlarining an'anaviy odatlarini ichki va ma'naviy sharoitlarda saqlab qolishdi. An'anaviy ovqatlar missiya parheziga kiritilgan bo'lib, litik va qobiqli boncuklar ishlab chiqarish va ulardan foydalanish davom etmoqda. Tizimga kirishni rad etish, ishning sekinlashishi, zo'rlash natijasida abort qilish va bolalarni bolani o'ldirish va qochqinlik kabi qarshilikning yanada ochiq strategiyalari keng tarqalgan. Birgina San-Gabriel missiyasida beshta yirik g'alayon qayd etilgan.[3] O'n sakkizinchi asrning ikkita missiya tizimiga qarshi qo'zg'olonlariga Nikolos Xose boshchilik qildi, u ikki ijtimoiy o'ziga xos xususiyatga ega bo'lgan, "katoliklarning muqaddas marosimlarida ommaviy ravishda qatnashgan, ammo an'anaviy raqslar, tantanalar va marosimlarga alohida sodiq bo'lgan".[3] U 1779 yilda missiyaning ruhoniylarini o'ldirish uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishda qatnashdi va 1785 yil oktyabrda qo'zg'olonda sakkizta tog 'oldi qishloqlarini uyushtirdi. Toypurina, qishloqlarni kim tashkil qilgan,[38] bu "missiya doirasida ham, undan tashqarida ham mintaqaviy siyosiy birlashishning ilgari hujjatsiz bo'lgan darajasini namoyish etdi."[3] Biroq, mahalliy aholi o'rtasida bo'linib ketgan sadoqat, 1785 yilgi urinishning muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishiga yordam berdi, shuningdek, missiya askarlari konvertatsiya qilganlar yoki neofitlar tomonidan qilingan urinish haqida ogohlantirildi.[3]

Toypurina, Xose va isyonning yana ikki rahbari, Juvit qishlog'ining boshlig'i Tomasajakichi va Jajamovit yaqinidagi qishloqdan Alijivit ismli kishi 1785 yilgi isyon uchun sudga tortildi.[39] O'zining sudida Xose o'zining ishtirok etganligini aytdi, chunki missionerlar tomonidan tashkil etilgan va 1782 yilda Kaliforniya gubernatori tomonidan ijro etilgan raqslar va marosimlarga qo'yilgan taqiq toqat qilolmadi, chunki ular motam marosimlarini o'tkazishga xalaqit berishdi.[3] Hujum haqida so'roq qilinganida, Toypurina o'zining qo'zg'olonda qatnashganligi haqida mashhur so'zlarini keltiradi: "u (bu) mening ota-bobolarimning yurtiga tajovuz qilgani va talon-taroj qilgani uchun bu yerlarni va hammangizni yomon ko'rar edi". bizning qabila domenlarimiz. . . . Men [topshiriqqa] iflos qo'rqoqlarni jang qilish uchun ilhom berish uchun, olov va o'limga tupuradigan ispan tayoqchalarini ko'rib bedana bosish uchun emas, qurol tutunining yomon hidiga qaytish uchun ham keldim. ! "[39] Tomas Vakmen Temple II ning "To'ypurina jodugari va hindlarning San-Gabrieldagi qo'zg'oloni" maqolasidan olingan ushbu taklif, shubhasiz, uning haqiqiy guvohligining noto'g'ri tarjimasi va bezakidir. Uning so'zlarini yozib olgan askarning so'zlariga ko'ra, u shunchaki o'zini "" Padres va boshqa missiya a'zolaridan g'azablangan, chunki ular o'z erlarida yashash va o'rnashish uchun kelganlar ".[39] 1788 yil iyun oyida, taxminan uch yil o'tgach, ularning hukmlari keldi Mexiko: Nikolas Xose San-Gabrielda taqiqlangan va mintaqadagi eng uzoq muddatli jazoni ijro etish muassasasida olti yillik og'ir mehnatga mahkum etilgan.[40] Toypurina San-Gabriel missiyasidan quvilgan va eng uzoq Ispaniya missiyasiga yuborilgan.

Ispaniya hukmronligiga qarshilik Ispaniya tojining Kaliforniyaga bo'lgan da'volari qanday qilib ishonchsiz va bahsli ekanligini namoyish etdi.[10] 1800-yillarga kelib, San-Gabriel butun kolonial missiya tizimida eng boy bo'lib, u erda ko'chmanchilar va aholi punktlari uchun qoramol, qo'y, echki, cho'chqa, ot, xachir va boshqa mollarni etkazib berdi. Alta Kaliforniya. Missiya qullar plantatsiyasi sifatida ishladi. 1810 yilda missiyada "Gabrieleño" mehnat aholisi 1,201 kishini tashkil etgan. U 1820 yilda 1636 ga sakrab, keyin 1830 yilda 1320 ga kamaydi.[36] Ushbu majburiy mehnat tizimiga qarshilik 19-asrning boshlarida davom etdi. 1817 yilda San-Gabriel missiyasi "473 hind qochqinlari" borligini qayd etdi.[8] 1828 yilda nemis muhojiri Yang-Na qishlog'i turgan erni sotib olib, Meksika rasmiylari yordamida butun jamoani quvib chiqargan.[41]

Meksikaning sekulyarizatsiyasi va bosib olinishi (1834-1848)

San-Fernando missiyasida ikki Tongva ayol, taxminan 1890 yil.

Missiya davri 1834 yilda Meksika hukmronligi ostida sekulyarizatsiya bilan yakunlandi.[3] Ba'zi "Gabrieleño" neofitlarni ozod qilgan sekulyarizatsiya natijasida Meksika jamiyatiga singib ketdi.[36] Tongva va Kaliforniyaning boshqa mahalliy aholisi asosan ishchilarga aylandilar, Ispaniyaning sobiq elitalariga ulkan er grantlari berildi.[36] Tomonidan Kaliforniyaning tub aholisiga yer muntazam ravishda rad etildi Kalifornio er egalari. Los-Anjeles havzasida San-Gabriel missiyasidan atigi 20 nafar sobiq neofitlar dunyoviylashtirishdan har qanday erni olishdi. Ular olgan narsalar nisbatan kichik er uchastkalari edi. Prospero Elias Dominges ismli "Gabrieleño" ga missiya yaqinida 22 sotixlik uchastka berildi, Meksika ma'murlari esa missiyaning qolgan qismini, taxminan 1,5 million akrni bir necha mustamlakachilar oilalariga berishdi. 1846 yilda tadqiqotchi Kelli Layt Ernandes tomonidan 140 Gabrieleños missiya erlariga kirishni talab qilgan petitsiyani imzolaganligi va Kalifornio rasmiylar ularning iltimosnomasini rad etishdi.[10]

Tongvaning aksariyati o'z erlarida taqiqlangan missiyalarda qullikdan ozod qilindi ersiz bu davrda qochqinlar. Butun qishloqlar bosqinchilardan qochish va vayronagarchilikni davom ettirish uchun quruqlikka qochib ketishdi. Boshqalari Los-Anjelesga ko'chib o'tdilar, bu shaharda mahalliy aholi soni 1820 yilda 200 kishidan 1836 yilda 553 kishiga (jami 1088 kishidan) ko'paygan.[10] Olim Ralf Armbruster-Sandoval ta'kidlaganidek, "ular egalari bo'lishi kerak bo'lganida, Tongva ishchilarga aylandi, xuddi Janubiy Kaliforniyada ko'chmanchi mustamlakachilik paydo bo'lganidan beri bo'lgani kabi qattiq va orqaga qaytish ishlarini bajarishdi".[37] Tadqiqotchi Xezer Valdez Singleton ta'riflaganidek, Los-Anjeles mahalliy mehnatga juda bog'liq edi va "Gabrieleño mardikorlari orqasida sekin o'sdi".[8] Ba'zi odamlar bo'ldi vaqueros chorvalarda, yuqori malakali chavandozlar yoki kovboylar, mol boqish va parvarish qilish. Tongva uchun chorvachilikdan tashqarida oziq-ovqat uchun ozgina er mavjud edi. Makkajo'xori va loviya kabi ba'zi ekinlar ishchilarni ta'minlash uchun ranchosga ekilgan.[42]

Bir nechta Gabrieleño oilalari bu erda qolishdi San-Gabriel shaharchasi bu "Gabrieleño jamoasining madaniy-geografik markazi" ga aylandi.[8] Yaanga, shuningdek, dunyoviylashuvdan ko'p o'tmay, turli xil mahalliy kelib chiqishi bo'lgan odamlar birgalikda yashashga kelganligi sababli, xilma-xil bo'lib, kattalashib bordi.[10] Biroq, hukumat mahalliy mehnat va servitutga bog'liq bo'lgan tizimni o'rnatdi va Los-Anjeles hududidagi har qanday alternativani tobora yo'q qildi. Kelli Layt Ernandes tushuntirganidek, "Meksikaning Los-Anjeles shahrida yashaydigan, lekin ishlamaydigan mahalliy aholi uchun joy yo'q edi. O'z navbatida, ayuntamiunto (shahar kengashi) mahalliy aholini ishlashga yoki hibsga olishga majbur qilish uchun yangi qonunlar qabul qildi. "[10] 1836 yil yanvar oyida kengash rahbarlik qildi Californios "barcha mast hindlarni" hibsga olish uchun Los-Anjeles bo'ylab supurish.[10] Ernandes qayd etganidek, "Tongva erkaklar va ayollar o'zlarining mahalliy qo'shnilarining tobora ko'payib borishi bilan qamoqxonani to'ldirishdi va Meksikaning Los-Anjelesdagi mehnat brigadalarini mahkum qilishdi".[10] 1844 yilga kelib, Los-Anjelesdagi aksariyat mahalliy aholi abadiy qullik tizimida xizmatchilar bo'lib ishladilar, erni boqishdi va ko'chmanchilar, bosqinchilar va mustamlakachilarga xizmat qilishdi.[10]

The ayuntamiunto Yaanga mahalliy aholi punktini shahardan uzoqlashishga majbur qildi. 1840-yillarning o'rtalariga kelib, aholi punkti majburiy ravishda sharq tomonga ko'chirildi Los-Anjeles daryosi, Meksikaning Los-Anjeles va eng yaqin mahalliy jamoalari o'rtasida bo'linish. Biroq, "mahalliy erkaklar, ayollar va bolalar shaharda yashashni davom ettirdilar (nafaqat ishda). Shanba kuni kechalari ular hatto olib tashlangan Yaanga qishlog'ida va shuningdek shahar markazidagi plazada partiyalar, raqslar va qimor o'ynashdi. . " Bunga javoban Californios Kaliforniya shtatining Alta gubernatorini chiqarib, mahalliy aholini boshqarishga urinishni davom ettirdi Pio Piko 1846 yildagi ariza: "Biz hindularni qattiq politsiya nazorati ostiga olishni yoki hindular ishlayotgan shaxslarni ish beruvchining ranchosida [hindularga] chorak berishini so'raymiz".[10] 1847 yilda Gabrielenosning shaharga ish joyini tasdiqlovchi hujjatsiz kirishini taqiqlovchi qonun qabul qilindi.[41] E'lonning bir qismida shunday deyilgan:[8]

Xo'jayinlari bo'lmagan, lekin o'zini o'zi ta'minlaydigan hindular shahar chegaralaridan tashqarida, keng ajratilgan joylarda joylashtiriladi ... To'rt kun ichida vaziyatni ta'minlashga harakat qilmagan va ishsiz deb topilgan har ikki jinsdagi hindlarning har biri. jamoat ishlariga ishga joylashtirilgan yoki axloq tuzatish uyiga yuborilgan.

1848 yilda Los-Anjeles rasmiy ravishda Qo'shma Shtatlarning shaharchasiga aylandi Meksika-Amerika urushi.[10]

Amerika istilosi va bo'ysunishni davom ettirish (1848-)

Gabrieleño Missuriya San-Gabriel (Kaliforniya) yaqinidagi Acurag-na rancheria-dagi uylar (1877-1880)

Ersiz va tan olinmagan odamlar davomli zo'ravonlik, bo'ysunish va qullikka duch kelishdi sudlanganlik ) Amerika istilosi ostida. Ba'zi odamlar Meksikadagi va mahalliy mahalliy jamoalarga ko'chirilgan Eagle Rock va Tog'lar bog'i Los-Anjeles tumanlari, shuningdek Pauma, Pala, Temekula, Pechanga va San-Jasinto.[43] Los-Anjelesda mahalliy aholining qamoqqa olinishi yangi "qonun ustuvorligi" ni o'rnatish ramzi edi. Shaharning hushyor jamoatchiligi muntazam ravishda qamoqxonaga "bostirib kirib", ayblanuvchilarni ko'chalarga osib qo'yishadi. 1850 yilda Kongress Kaliforniyaga davlatchilikni taqdim etgandan so'ng, ko'plab birinchi qonunlar hibsga olish, qamoqqa olish va mahkumlarni mehnatga jalb qilish uchun mahalliy aholini nishonga oldi. 1850 yildagi hindularni hukumat va himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonuni "mahalliy aholini" har qanday aqlli fuqaroning shikoyati asosida "behuda yurish ayblovi bilan hibsga olinishi sharti bilan osonlikcha hibsga olishga qaratilgan edi".[10] va Gabrieleños ushbu siyosatning og'ir yukiga duch keldi. Dalolatnomaning 14-qismida:[8]

Hindiston tinchlik sudyasi oldida jarimaga tortilishi mumkin bo'lgan har qanday huquqbuzarlikda aybdor deb topilganida, har qanday oq tanli shaxs, Adliya roziligi bilan, ushbu hindistonga ushbu jarima va xarajatlarni to'lash sharti bilan zayom berishi mumkin va bunday holatda Hindiston garov evaziga garovga qo'yilgan shaxs unga nisbatan belgilangan jarimani bekor qilmaguncha yoki bekor qilmaguncha ishlashga majbur.

Mahalliy erkaklar nomutanosib edi jinoiy javobgarlikka tortilgan va ushbu qonuniylashtirilgan tizimga kirib ketdi indentured servitut.[8] Angliya-amerikalik ko'chmanchilar tomonidan qayd etilganidek, "" Marshal hibsga olish uchun juda aqlli bo'lgan oq tanli odamlar "... shaharning ko'plab salonlari, ko'chalari va fohishaxonalaridan to'kilgan, ammo davlat va mahalliy avj olishning tajovuzkor va maqsadli ijrosi. va mast kodlar Los-Anjeles okrugi qamoqxonasini mahalliy aholi bilan to'ldirdi, ularning aksariyati erkaklar edi. " Ko'pchilik kunlarini okrugda ishlash bilan o'tkazdi zanjir to'dasi 1850 va 1860 yillarda shahar ko'chalarini toza saqlash bilan shug'ullangan, ammo yo'l qurilishi loyihalarini tobora ko'paytirmoqda.[10]

Federal rasmiylar San-Gabrielning missiyasida taxminan 16930 nafar Kaliforniyalik hindular va 1050 kishi borligini aytgan bo'lsalar-da, "federal agentlar ularni va Los-Anjelesda yashovchilarni e'tiborsiz qoldirishdi", chunki ular shaxsiy kundaliklarda aniqlanganidek, "oqlarga do'stona" munosabatda bo'lishdi. Komissar Geroge W. Barbour. 1852 yilda Hindiston ishlarini boshqaruvchisi Edvard Fitsjerald Beal "bu hindular nasroniy bo'lganligi sababli, ko'pchilik fermer xo'jaliklarida ishlagan va oq tanlilar bilan aloqada bo'lganligi sababli", "ular qo'rqinchli emas", deb xabar berishdi.[8] Kaliforniya Senatining 2008 yildagi qonun loyihasida ta'kidlanishicha, AQSh hukumati Gabrieleño bilan shartnomalar imzolagan va 8,5 million akr (3400000 ga) er va'da qilgan. rezervasyonlar va ushbu shartnomalar hech qachon ratifikatsiya qilinmaganligini,[11] tomonidan 1972 yilda chop etilgan qog'oz Robert Xayzer ning Berkli shahridagi Kaliforniya universiteti, 1851 yil 29 apreldan 1852 yil 22 avgustgacha bo'lgan o'n sakkizta shartnoma Tongva xalqining vakili bo'lmagan shaxslar bilan muzokaralar olib borilganligini va bu shaxslarning birortasi odamlarga tegishli erlarni berish huquqiga ega emasligini ko'rsatadi.[12]

1852 yilda tahririyat Los-Anjeles yulduzi Gabrieleño tomonidan tan olinishi va suverenitetini amalga oshirish ehtimoliga nisbatan jamoatchilikning g'azabini ochib berdi:[8]

Bizning eng serhosil tuproqqa Shimoliy Amerika qit'asida eng tanazzulga uchragan aborigenlar irqini joylashtirish, ularni suverenitet huquqlari bilan investitsiya qilish va ularga qudratli va mustaqil davlatlar sifatida qarash kerakligini o'rgatish kelajakning urug'ini ekmoqda. falokat va vayronagarchilik ... Umid qilamizki, umumiy hukumat bizni tinch qo'yadi - biz janubda yashovchilar orasida hindularni boqish, joylashtirish yoki olib tashlashni o'z zimmasiga olmaydi va ular hamma narsani hozirgidek tark etishadi, bundan tashqari bizga ikki yoki uchta otliq rota beradigan himoya berib.

Missiya yo'li San-Gabriel (1880). San-Gabriel shaharchasi 20-asrda Gabrieleño hayotining markazi bo'lib qoldi.

1852 yilda, Ugo Rid uchun qator xatlar yozgan Los-Anjeles yulduzi Gabrieleño hayoti va madaniyatini tavsiflovchi San Gabriel shahridagi Gabrieleño jamoasining markazidan. Ridning o'zi Bartolomea Cumicrabit ismli Gabrieleño ayoliga uylangan va uni "Viktoriya" deb o'zgartirgan. Reyd quyidagilarni yozgan: "Ularning boshliqlari hanuzgacha mavjud. San-Jabroilda faqat to'rt kishi qoladi va ular o'sha yoshlar ... Ular bayramlarni o'tkazish va cherkov bilan bog'liq ishlarni tartibga solish uchun vaqt tayinlashdan boshqa yurisdiktsiyaga ega emaslar. ] "Deb nomlangan. Reyd Janubiy Kaliforniyada hind agenti lavozimini egallash uchun saylov kampaniyasini o'tkazgan, ammo tayinlanishidan oldin vafot etgan degan taxminlar bor. Buning o'rniga, 1852 yilda Benjamin D. Uilson maqomini saqlab qolgan tayinlandi.[8]

1855 yilda Gabrieleño haqida Hindiston ishlari boshqaruvchisi xabar berdi Tomas J. Xenli "baxtsiz va tanazzulga uchragan holatda" bo'lish. Biroq, Xenli ularni Sebastyan qo'riqxonasida potentsial rezervatsiyaga ko'chirganini tan oldi Tejon dovoni, fuqarolar tomonidan qarshilik ko'rsatilishi mumkin edi, chunki "uzumzorlarda, ayniqsa, uzum mavsumida ularning mehnati foydali bo'lib, arzon narxlarda olinadi". Bir nechta Gabrieleño aslida Sebastian qo'riqxonasida bo'lgan va shu vaqt ichida San-Gabrielda yashovchilar bilan aloqani saqlab qolgan.[8]

1859 yilda ortib bormoqda jinoyatchilik va shaharning o'sib borayotgan rivojiga singib ketish sudlanganlik tizim, tuman katta sud hay'ati "qattiq qaqshatqich qonunlar qabul qilinishi va majburan bajarilishi kerak [" hindular "] halol pul topishga yoki tog'lardan eski uylarini qidirishga majbur qilishadi." Ushbu deklaratsiya Reidning tadqiqotlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirdi, unda aksariyat Tongva qishloqlari, shu jumladan Yaanga, "cho'llardan dengizgacha cho'zilgan havzada, daryolar bo'yida va qirg'oq bo'yida joylashgan edi." Boshchiligidagi bir nechta qishloqlargina tomyaars (boshliqlar) "tog'larda edi, qaerda Chengiichngech tarixchi Kelli Layt Ernandes ta'riflaganidek, qasoskorlar, ilonlar va ayiqlar yashagan ". Ammo," katta hakamlar hay'ati mintaqadagi hayotga, erga va suverenitetga bo'lgan da'volarning chuqurligini rad etdi va buning o'rniga mahalliy xalqlarni ramkalashni tanladi. mast va beparvo sifatida bo'shashish Los-Anjelesda ... tubanliklarning uzoq yillik tarixidan voz kechish ".[10]

1848 yilda Los-Anjeles asosan meksikaliklar va mahalliy aholining kichik shaharchasi bo'lgan bo'lsa, 1880 yilga kelib u 1870 yillarda tugagan kundan boshlab oq migratsiya to'lqinlaridan so'ng ingliz-amerikalik ko'pchilikning uyi bo'lgan. transkontinental temir yo'l. Tadqiqotchi Xezer Valdez Singleton ta'kidlaganidek, yangi kelganlar "bir necha avlodlar davomida bitta erni o'stirgan va u erda yashagan ko'plab Gabrieleño oilalari erga qonuniy egalik huquqiga ega emasliklari va qonunlardan foydalanganliklari ko'chirish Hind oilalari. "Gabrieleño bu haqda g'azablandi va hindlarning sobiq agenti J. Q. Stenliga xabar berdi. U ularni" yarim madaniyatli "deb atagan, ammo Gabrieleñoni" ular orasida yashovchi oqlarni "himoya qilish uchun lobbichilik qilgan va" ular bo'lishini "ta'kidlagan.vagabondlar "aks holda. Ammo, hindistonlik faol agent Avgustus P. Grinning tavsiyasi" janubiy Kaliforniyadagi missiya hindulari hindu bo'lmaganlar uchun mamlakatning ushbu qismini joylashtirishni sekinlashtirayotgani va hindularning to'liq assimilyatsiya qilinishini taklif qilgani "ni ilgari surdi. Singleton tomonidan.[8]

Mahalliy erkaklar bu davrda tobora ko'proq jinoiy javobgarlikni boshdan kechirdilar va mahkum qilingan mehnat sifatida ishlatildilar, ayniqsa, oq ko'chib ketish oqibatida ko'chirish natijasida. 1873 yilda zanjirli to'dalarga Los-Anjeles shahri tomonidan Fort Street (Broadway) ni kengaytirish uchun buyruq berildi. Angliya-Amerika Los-Anjelesni kengaytirish.[8] Layt Ernandesning ta'kidlashicha, "zanjir to'dasidagi mahalliy aholi deyarli aniq ish olib borgan va shu bilan ingliz-amerikalik aholi punkti shaharning tarixiy magistralidan tashqarida kengayib borishi mumkin. 1850 va 1860 yillarda qabul qilingan qonunlar mahalliy aholini kim oshdi savdosiga qo'yishga imkon berdi". - oq tanli ish beruvchini taklif qilish. "Los-Anjeles okrugi qamoqxonasida har dushanba kuni kim oshdi savdosi bo'lib o'tdi, bu shahar uchun jamoat tomoshasiga aylandi:" Ertalab qamoqxona hibsxonasi qamoqdagi mahalliy aholini qamoqxona oldida yog'och chiroqqa bog'lab qo'ydi. oq ish beruvchilarni tekshirish va ularni mahkum ishchilar sifatida taklif qilish uchun. "Mahalliy mehnat shahar qishloq xo'jaligi iqtisodiyotini kuchaytirish va oq ish beruvchilar uchun boylik yaratish uchun ishlatilgan. Mahalliy aholi" ish haqi "olgan aguardiente (likyor), bu "shaharning tanadagi g'ildiragini moylangan va aylantirib turadigan".[10]

1882 yilda, Xelen Xant Jekson federal hukumat tomonidan Kaliforniyaning janubidagi Missiya hindulari holatini hujjatlashtirish uchun yuborilgan. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, "San-Gabriel vodiysidagi koloniyalarda, ular cho'tka kulbalarida lo'lilar singari yashaydigan joyda, bugun, ertaga ketib, kunlik ish bilan ayanchli mavjudotni chiqarib tashlaydilar". Biroq, Jeksonning ma'ruzasi 1891 yildagi Hindistonga yordam berish to'g'risidagi qonuni uchun turtki bo'lishiga qaramay,[8] Gabrieleño "Missiya hindulari uchun erlarni ajratish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan komissiya tomonidan e'tibordan chetda qolgan".[44] Taxminlarga ko'ra, bunga ularning hukumatga muvofiqligi deb qaraladigan narsa sabab bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin, bu esa ularni e'tiborsiz qoldirgan, deb hind agenti J.Q.Stenli ilgari ta'kidlagan edi.[8]

Yo'qolib ketish haqidagi afsona (1900-)

Sherman hind maktabi yilda Daryo bo'yida (1910). 1890-1920 yillarda federal agentlarning tavsiyasiga binoan ushbu maktabga kamida 50 gabeleleno bola o'qishga qabul qilingan.

Yigirmanchi asrning boshlarida Gabrieleño kimligi Amerika bosqini ostida juda ko'p azob chekdi. Ko'pchilik Gabrieleño omma oldida meksikalik, ispan tilini o'rgangan va katoliklikni o'zlarining sirlarini yashirgan holda qabul qilgan.[41] Maktablarda o'quvchilar o'zlarini "hindu" ekanliklari va ko'pchilik odamlar singib ketganligi haqida eslatib o'tishlari uchun jazolashgan Meksikalik-amerikalik yoki Chikano madaniyat.[45] 1907 yilda Gabrieleño uchun rezervatsiya o'rnatishga urinishlar muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi.[8] Ko'p o'tmay, mahalliy matbuotda Gabrieleño yo'q bo'lib ketganligi haqida ma'lumot berila boshlandi. 1921 yil fevralda Los Anjeles Tayms San-Gabriel missiyasida yashagan va o'tayotganda 106 yoshda bo'lgan mahalliy odam Xose de los Santos Junkosning o'limi "yo'qolgan poyga o'tishini belgilab berdi".[13] 1925 yilda, Alfred Kroeber Gabrieleño madaniyati yo'q bo'lib ketganligini e'lon qilib, "ular shunchalik erib ketishganki, biz qo'pol qabilalar madaniyatining yanada nozik faktlarini ko'proq bilamiz".[8] Olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, yo'q bo'lib ketgan bu afsona "ajoyib darajada chidamli" ekanligi isbotlangan, ammo bu haqiqat emas.[13]

Yo'qolib ketgan deb e'lon qilinganiga qaramay, Gabrieleño bolalari ro'yxatdan o'tishni rag'batlantirgan federal agentlar tomonidan o'zlashtirildi Sherman hind maktabi yilda Riversayd, Kaliforniya. 1890-1920 yillarda maktabda kamida 50 nafar gabeleleno bolalar ro'yxatga olingan. 1910-1920 yillarda Gabrieleño qo'shilgan Hindiston Missiyasi Federatsiyasining tashkil etilishi 1928 yilda Kaliforniyadagi hindularning yurisdiktsiya qonuniga asoslanib, 1852 yilda ushbu shtatda yashovchi Kaliforniyalik hindulardan kelib chiqishini isbotlay oladiganlar uchun rasmiy ro'yxatga olish yozuvlarini yaratdi. Ushbu to'plamda 150 dan ortiq kishi o'zini Gabrieleño deb tanishtirdi. Tejon qo'riqxonasida yashovchi Gabrieleño ayol San-Gabrielda yashovchi bir nechta Gabrieleñoning ismlari va manzillarini aytib berdi, bu Tejon rezervatsiyasidagi guruh va San-Gabriel shahridagi guruh o'rtasida bir-biridan 70 mildan ko'proq masofada bo'lgan aloqa 1920-yillarda saqlanib kelayotganligini ko'rsatdi. va 30-yillar.[8]

Maktablar va muzeylar singari ingliz-amerika institutlari tomonidan davom ettirilgan Gabrieleño shaxsini rad etish va rad etish XX va XXI asrlarda odamlar uchun ko'plab to'siqlarni keltirib chiqardi. Zamonaviy a'zolar, ularning shaxsiyatining qonuniyligi rad etilganligini ta'kidladilar. Qabilalarning identifikatsiyasiga, shuningdek, federal tan olinmaslik va er bazasi yo'qligi katta to'sqinlik qilmoqda.[13]

Madaniyat

Tongva Kaliforniyaning janubidagi eng serhosil pasttekislikning asosiy qismida, shu jumladan yoqimli iqlimi va mo'l-ko'l oziq-ovqat resurslari bilan himoyalangan qirg'oq qismida yashagan,[46] va Santa-Barbara orollari orasida eng yashash uchun qulay joy. Ular janubning eng madaniy "rivojlangan" guruhi deb nomlangan Tehachapi, va eng boy Uto-Aztekan Kaliforniyadagi ma'ruzachilar, boshqa mahalliy guruhlarda madaniy jihatdan aloqalar bo'lgan joyda hukmronlik qilishadi. Atrofdagi janubiy xalqlarning ko'plab madaniy rivojlanishlari o'zlarining kelib chiqishlarini Gabrieleño bilan boshlashgan.[47] Tongva hududi rivojlangan savdo tarmog'ining markazi bo'lgan Kanal orollari g'arbda Kolorado daryosi in the east, allowing the people to maintain trade relations with the Kaxuilla, Serrano, Luiseño, Chumash va Mohave.[48]

Like all Indigenous peoples, they utilized and existed in an interconnected relationship with the flora va fauna of their familial territory. Villages were located throughout four major ecological zones, as noted by biologist Matthew Teutimez: 1) interior mountains and foothills, 2) grassland/oak woodland, 3) sheltered coastal canyons, and 4) the exposed coast. Therefore, resources such as plants, animals, and earth minerals were diverse and used for various purposes, including for food and materials. Prominent flora included oak (quercus agrifolia ) va tol (solix ) trees, chia (salvia columbariae ), cattail (tif ), datura or jimsonweed (datura metaloides ), white sage (salvia apiana ), birikma, Mexican Elderberry (sambucus ), wild tobacco (nikotiana ), and yucca (hesperoyucca whipplei ). Prominent fauna included xachir kiyik, pronghorn, qora ayiq, grizzly ayiq, qora dumli jabduq, paxta tolasi, kal burgut, qizil dumaloq qirg'iy, delfin va kulrang kit.[49]

Te'aat and the ocean

Te'aats, shuningdek, deb nomlanadi tomols (Chumash ), were widely used by the Tongva and were especially important for trade. A tomol pictured in 2015.
Asosiy maqola: Tomol

The Tongva had a concentrated population along the coast. They fished and hunted in the estuary of the Los Angeles River, and like the Chumash, their neighbors to the north and west along the Pacific coast, the Gabrieleño built seaworthy plank kanoatlar, deb nomlangan te'aat, from driftwood. To build them, they used planks of driftwood pine that were sewn together with vegetable fiber cord, edge to edge, and then glued with the tar that was available either from the La Brea smola chuqurlari yoki kabi asfalt that had washed up on shore from offshore oil seeps. The finished vessel was caulked with plant fibers and tar, stained with red oxra, and sealed with pine pitch. The te'aat, as noted by the Sebastian Vizcaíno expedition, could hold up to 20 people[50] as well as their gear and trade goods. These canoes allowed the development of trade between the mainland villages and the offshore islands, and were important to the region's economy and social organization,[51][52] with trade in food and manufactured goods being carried on between the people on the mainland coast and people in the interior as well. The Gabrieleño regularly paddled their canoes to Catalina Island, where they gathered oyoq osti,[53] which they pried off the rocks with implements made of fragments of whale ribs or other strong bones.[54]

Oziq-ovqat madaniyati

Chia (salvia columbariae ) seeds are integral to the Tongva diet.

In the Tongva economic system, food resources were managed by the village chief, who was given a portion of the yield of each day's hunting, fishing, or gathering to add to the communal food reserves. Individual families stored some food to be used in times of scarcity. Villages were located in places with accessible drinking water, protection from the elements, and productive areas where different ekologik uyalar on the land intersected. Situating their villages at these resource islands enabled the Tongva to gather the plant products of two or more zones in close proximity.[48]

Households consisted of a main house (kiiy) and temporary camp shelters used during food gathering excursions. In the summer, families who lived near grasslands collected roots, seeds, flowers, fruit, and leafy greens, and in the winter families who lived near chaparral shrubland collected nuts and acorns, yucca, and hunted deer. Some prairie communities moved to the coast in the winter to fish, hunt whales and fil muhrlari, and harvest shellfish. Those villages located on the coast during the summer went on food collecting trips inland during the winter rainy season to gather roots, tubers, corms, and bulbs of plants including cattails, lilies, and wild onions.[55][56]

The Tongva did not practice horticulture or agriculture, as their well-developed hunter-gatherer and trade economy provided adequate food resources.[57][58][59] Bread was made from the yellow pollen of cattail heads, and the underground rizomlar were dried and ground into a starchy meal.[55][56] The young shoots were eaten raw.[60] Ning urug'lari chia, a herbaceous plant of the sage family, were gathered in large quantities when they were ripe. The flower heads were beaten with a paddle over a tightly woven basket to collect the seeds. These were dried or roasted and ground into a flour called "pinole," which was often mixed with the flour of other ground seeds or grains. Water was added to make a cooling drink; mixing with less water yielded a kind of porridge that could be baked into cakes.[61][62]

Acorn mush was a staple food as it was of all the Indigenous peoples who were forcibly relocated to missions in Southern California. Acorns were gathered in October; this was a communal effort with the men climbing the trees and shaking them while the women and children collected the nuts.[62] The acorns were stored in large wicker omborxonalar supported by wooden stakes well above the ground. Preparing them for food took about a week. Acorns were placed, one at a time, on end in the slight hollow of a rock and their shells broken by a light blow from a small hammerstone; then the membrane, or skin, covering the acorn meat was removed. Following this process the acorn meats were dried for days,[63] after which the kernels were pounded into meal with a pestle. This was done in a stone mortar or in a mortar hole in a boulder. Katta bedrock outcroppings near oak stands often display evidence of the community mills where the women labored.[54]

The pounded acorn meal was put into baskets and the bitter tanin kislotasi it contained was leached out to make the meal more palatable and digestible.[62] The prepared meal was cooked by boiling in water in a watertight grass-woven basket or in a soapstone bowl into which heated stones were dropped. Soapstone casseroles were used directly over the fire. Various foods of meat, seeds, or roots were cooked by the same method.[54] The mush thus prepared was eaten cold or nearly so, as was all their food. Another favored Tongva food was the seed kernel of a species of plum (prunus ilicifolia ) they called islay, which was ground into meal and made into gruel.[61]

Men performed most of the heavy, short-duration labor; they hunted, fished, helped with some food-gathering, and carried on trade with other cultural groups. Large game animals were hunted with bow and arrows, and small game was taken with deadfall traps, snares, and bows made of bukri yog'och.[64] John P. Harrington recorded that rattlesnake venom was used as an arrow poison.[65] Burrowing animals were driven from their burrows with smoke and clubbed; communal rabbit drives were made during the seasonal controlled burning of chaparral on the prairie,[48] the rabbits being killed with nets, bow and arrows, and tayoq tashlash.[66]

Harpoons, spear-throwers, and clubs were used to hunt marine mammals. Fishing was done from shorelines or along rivers, streams, and creeks with hook and line, nets, basketry traps, spears, bow and arrows, and poisons made from plants. Reciprocity and sharing of resources were important values in Tongva culture. Hugo Reid reported that the hoarding of food supplies was so stigmatized by the Tongva moral code that hunters would give away large portions of coveted foods such as fresh meat, and under some circumstances, were prohibited from eating their own kill or fishermen from eating their own catch.[67][56]

Women collected and prepared plant and some animal food resources and made baskets, pots, and clothing. In their old age, they and the old men cared for the young and taught them Tongva lifeways.[66]

Moddiy madaniyat

Tongva basket or bowl created in the late 19th or early 20th century

Tongva moddiy madaniyat and technology reflected a sophisticated knowledge of the working properties of natural materials and a highly developed artisanship, shown in many articles of everyday utility decorated with shell inlay, carving, and painting.[68] Most of these items, including baskets, shell tools, and wooden weapons, were extremely perishable. Soapstone from quarries on Catalina Island was used to make cooking implements, animal carvings, pipes, ritual objects, and ornaments.[69]

Using the stems of rushes (Yunkus sp .), grass (Muhlenbergia qat'iylashadi ), and squawbush (Rhus trilobata ), women fabricated coiled and twined basketry in a three-color pattern for household use, seed collecting, and ceremonial containers to hold grave offerings.[69] They sealed some baskets, such as water bottles, with asphalt to make watertight containers for holding liquids.[70]

The Tongva used the leaves of tule reeds as well as those of mushukchalar to weave mats and thatch their shelters.[56] Living in the mild climate of southern California, the men and children usually went nude, and women wore only a two-piece skirt, the back part being made from the flexible inner bark of cottonwood or willow, or occasionally deerskin. The front apron was made of cords of twisted dog bane or milkweed. People went barefoot except in rough areas where they wore crude sandals made of yucca fiber.[71] In cold weather, they wore robes or capes made from twisted strips of rabbit fur, deer skins, or bird skins with the feathers still attached. Also used as blankets at night, these were made of sea otter skins along the coast and on the islands.[72]

Contemporary tribe

The earliest ethnological surveys of the Christianized population of the San Gabriel area, who were then known by the Spanish as Gabrielino, were conducted in the mid-19th century. By this time, their pre-Christian religious beliefs and mythology were already fading. The Gabrieleño language was on the brink of extinction by 1900, so only fragmentary records of the indigenous language and culture of the Gabrieleño have been preserved. Gabrieleño was one of the Cupan languages in the Takic language group, which is part of the Uto-Aztekan tillar oilasi. It may be considered a dialect with Fernandeño, but it has not been a language of everyday conversation since the 1940s. Gabrieleño xalqi endi ingliz tilida gaplashmoqda, ammo bir nechtasi o'zlarining tillarini kundalik suhbatlar va marosimlarda ishlatib jonlantirishga urinmoqdalar. Hozirgi vaqtda Gabrieleño tilni qayta tiklash darslarida va diniy va ekologik muammolar bo'yicha jamoat muhokamalarida ham foydalanilmoqda.[35]

Kutubxonasi Loyola Marymount universiteti, located in Los Angeles (Westchester), has an extensive collection of archival materials related to the Tongva and their history.

In the 21st century, an estimated 1,700 people self-identify as members of the Tongva or Gabrieleño tribe.[11] In 1994, the state of California recognized the Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe (Ispaniya: Tribu de Gabrieleño-Tongva)[73] va Fernandino-Tongva Tribe (Ispaniya: Tribu de Fernandeño-Tongva),[74] but neither has gained federal recognition. In 2013, it was reported that the four Tongva groups that have applied for federal recognition had over 3,900 members collectively.[20]

The Gabrieleño/Tongva people do not accept one organization or government as representing them. They have had strong internal disagreements about governance and their future, largely related to plans supported by some members to open a o'yin kazino on land that would be considered part of the Gabrieleño/Tongva's homeland. Gaming casinos have generated great revenues for many Native American tribes, but not all Tongva people believe the benefits outweigh negative aspects. The Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe (sometimes called the "slash" group) and Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe (sometimes called the "hyphen" group) are the two primary factions advocating a casino for the Tongva nation, with sharing of revenues by all the people. The Gabrielino Tribal Council of San Gabriel, now known as the Kizh Nation (Gabrieleño Band of Mission Indians), claims that it does not support gaming. The Gabrieleno Tongva San Gabriel Band of Mission Indians also does not support gambling and has been operating and meeting in the city of San Gabriel for over a hundred years. None of these organizations is recognized as a tribe by the federal government.[20]

History of organizations and casino dispute

In 1990, the Gabrielino/Tongva of San Gabriel filed for federal recognition. Other Gabrieleño groups have done the same. The Gabrielino/Tongva of California Tribal Council and the Coastal Gabrielino-Diegueno Band of Mission Indians filed federal petitions in 1997. These applications for federal recognition remain pending.

The San Gabriel group gained acknowledgement of its nonprofit status by the state of California in 1994. In 2001, the San Gabriel council divided over concessions given to the developers of Playa Vista and a proposal to build an Indian casino in Kompton, Kaliforniya. A Santa Monica faction formed that advocated gaming for the tribe, which the San Gabriel faction opposed.

The San Gabriel council and Santa Monica faction sued each other over allegations that the San Gabriel faction expelled some members in order to increase gaming shares for other members. There were allegations that the Santa Monica faction stole tribal records in order to support its case for federal recognition.[75]

In September 2006, the Santa Monica faction divided into the "slash" and "hyphen" groups: the Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe and Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe.[76] Tribal secretary Sam Dunlap and tribal attorney Jonathan Stein confronted each other over various alleged fiscal improprieties and derogatory comments made to each other.[77][78] Since that time, the slash group has hired former state senator Richard Polanco as its chief executive officer. The hyphen group has allied with Stein and issued warrants for the arrest of Polanco and members of the slash group.[79]

Stein's group (hyphen), the Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe, is based in Santa Monica. It has proposed a casino to be built in Garden Grove, Kaliforniya, taxminan ikki mil janubda Disneylend.[80] 2007 yil sentyabr oyida shahar kengashi of Garden Grove unanimously rejected the casino proposal, instead choosing to build a water park on the land.[81]

Yerdan foydalanish bilan bog'liq muammolar

Controversies have arisen in contemporary California related to land-use issues and Native American rights, including those of the Tongva. Since the late twentieth century, both the state and the United States governments have improved respect of indigenous rights and tribal sovereignty. The Tongva have challenged local development plans in the courts in order to protect and preserve some of their sacred grounds. Given the long indigenous history in the area, not all archeological sites have been identified.

Sometimes land developers have inadvertently disturbed Tongva burial grounds.[82] The tribe denounced arxeologlar breaking bones of ancestral remains found during an excavation of a site at Playa Vista.[83] An important resolution was finally honored at the Playa Vista project site against the 'Westchester Bluffs' near the Ballona botqoqli joylari mansub and by the historic natural course of Ballona Kriki.[iqtibos kerak ]

In the 1990s, the Gabrielino/Tongva Springs Foundation revived use of the Kuruvungna buloqlari for sacred ceremonies. The natural springs are located on the site of a former Tongva village, now developed as the campus of Universitet o'rta maktabi yilda G'arbiy Los-Anjeles. The Tongva consider the springs, which flow at 22,000 gallons per day, to be one of their last remaining sacred sites and they regularly make them the centerpiece of ceremonial events.[iqtibos kerak ]

The Tongva have another sacred area known as Puvungna. They have believed it is the birthplace of the Tongva prophet Chingishnish, and many believe it to be the place of creation. The site contains an active spring and the area was formerly inhabited by a Tongva village. It has been developed as part of the grounds of Kaliforniya shtati universiteti, Long-Bich. A portion of Puvungna, a Tongva burial ground on the western edge of the campus, is listed on the Tarixiy joylarning milliy reestri. Since 1992, developers have repeatedly tried to build a savdo markazi hududda. The Tongva petitioned the courts for relief, which blocked the development.[iqtibos kerak ]

An'anaviy rivoyatlar

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: An'anaviy rivoyatlar (Kaliforniya shtati)

Tongva/Gabrieleño/Fernandeño oral literature is relatively little known, due to their early Christianization in the 1770s by Ispaniyaning Kaliforniyadagi missiyalari. The available evidence suggests strong cultural links with the group's linguistic kin and neighbors to the south and east, the Luiseño va Kaxuilla.[84]

According to Kroeber (1925), the pre-Christian Tongva had a "mythic-ritual-social six-god pantheon". The principal deity was Chinigchinix, shuningdek, nomi bilan tanilgan Quaoar. Another important figure is Weywot, the god of the sky, who was created by Quaoar.[85] Weywot ruled over the Tongva, but he was very cruel, and he was finally killed by his own sons. When the Tongva assembled to decide what to do next, they had a vision of a ghostly being who called himself Quaoar, who said he had come to restore order and to give laws odamlarga. After he had given instructions as to which groups would have political and spiritual leadership, he began to dance and slowly ascended into heaven.[86]

Astronomers have used the name of Quaoar to name a large object in the Kuiper kamari, 50000 kvaar (2002), and named its satellite as Weywot (2009).[85]

Toponimika

Asosiy sahifa: Turkum: Tongva aholi punktlari
Eagle Rock adjacent to Kaliforniya shtati 134-yo'nalish (the Ventura Freeway)

From the Spanish colonial period, Tongva place names have been absorbed into general use in Southern California. Bunga misollar kiradi Pakoima, Tujunga, Topanga, Rancho Cucamonga, Azusa (Azucsagna ) va Cahuenga dovoni.

Sacred sites that have not been totally demolished, destroyed, or built over include Puvunga, Kuruvungna buloqlari va Eagle Rock. According to Kizh Nation chairman Andrew Salas, Eagle Rock was referred to as Ah-sowt-To-tah or "golden eagle rock" for the oltin burgutlar that frequented that area.[87]

In other cases, toponyms or places have been recently named to honor the indigenous peoples. The Gabrielino izi is a 28-mile path through the Anjeles milliy o'rmoni, created and named in 1970.[88]

A 2,656-foot summit in the Verdugo tog'lari, yilda Glendeyl, was named Tongva Peak in 2002, following a proposal by Richard Toyon.[89][90][91]

Tongva bog'i[92] is a 6.2-acre park in Santa-Monika, Kaliforniya. The park is located just south of Colorado Avenue, between Ocean Avenue and Main Street. The park includes an amphitheater, playground, garden, fountains, picnic areas, and restrooms. The park was dedicated on October 13, 2013.

Notable Tongva

  • Chief Red Blood Anthony Morales, chairman and tribal leader of the Gabrielino/Tongva Nation.[20] In 2008, he received the "Meros mukofoti " dan Tinch okeanining akvariumi yilda Long-Bich, Kaliforniya
  • Jimi Castillo, Gabrielino/Tongva Elder, Pipe Carrier, and member of the State-Wide Bear Clan. In 2016, Jimi received the Heritage Award from the Aquarium of the Pacific, and the Volunteer Lifetime Achievement Award from the Obama White House for his work in the Native Community. He is also known for his work in prisons.[93]
  • L. Frank, artist, author, indigenous language activist.
  • Nicolás José, led two late-eighteenth century revolts against the Spanish colonizers in 1779 and 1785 in collaboration with Toypurina.[3]
  • Reginald "Reggie" Rodriguez, (b. 15 October 1948–d. 17 February 1969) a Vietnam War hero.[94] Reggie Rodriguez Park in Montebello, Kaliforniya uning sharafiga nomlangan[95] and is an 11-acre (4.5 ha) area on which the Reggie Rodriguez Community Center is located, noted for its unique architecture and providing a central location for activities for the at-risk youth population in the city. Reginald was a direct descendant of the San Gabriel Mission Indians (Tongva) with family buried on mission grounds.
  • Toypurina (1760–1799) was a Gabrieliño medicine woman who opposed the rule of colonization by Spanish missionaries in California, and led an unsuccessful rebellion against them in 1785.
  • Charlz Sepulveda - professor va muallif[96]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

Izohlar
  1. ^ Alternate spellings include Gabrielino va Fernardino.
  2. ^ The Spanish did not always differentiate between communities or ethnic groups. For example, the Spanish referred to both the Tongva in the San-Fernando vodiysi va yaqin Tataviam xalqi, kim gapirdi a different language, as "Fernandeño," because they were covered by that mission.
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Asarlar keltirilgan
Qo'shimcha o'qish
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  • Makkoli, Uilyam. 1996 yil. Birinchi Angelinos: Los Anjelesdagi Gabrielino hindulari. Malki muzeyi matbuoti, Banning, Kaliforniya. ISBN  0-9651016-1-4
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