Kaliforniyaning dengiz tarixi - Maritime history of California
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| Tarixi Kaliforniya |
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 Kaliforniya portali |
In Kaliforniya qirg'oq, kemalar va Tinch okeanidan foydalanish tarixiy ravishda suv kemalarini o'z ichiga olgan (masalan kanallar, kanoatlar, suzib yuruvchi kemalar va paroxodlar ), baliqchilik, kemasozlik, Gold Rush yuk tashish, portlar, kema halokatlari, dengiz kemalari va qurilmalari va dengiz chiroqlari. The Kaliforniyaning dengiz tarixi bir necha davrlarga ajratish mumkin: tub Amerika davri; Evropaning 1542 yildan 1769 yilgacha bo'lgan qidiruv davri; Ispaniyaning mustamlaka davri, 1769 yildan 1821 yilgacha; Meksika davri, 1821 yildan 1847 yilgacha; va hozirgi kungacha davom etayotgan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari davlatchilik davri.
Mahalliy Kaliforniya dengiz xalqlari
Dugout kanolari
Kaliforniyaning shimoli-g'arbiy sohilida qizil daraxt bir qancha hind qabilalari o'rmonlari katta rivojlangan kanalizatsiya baliq ovi, savdo va urush uchun foydalangan kanoatlar. Ushbu kanoetlar katta daraxtni olib, uni qo'l asboblari va olov bilan qayiqqa mos ravishda shakllantirish orqali qurilgan. Uzunligi 4 metr (13 fut) va diametri 240 santimetr (94 dyuym) bo'lgan redwood logining og'irligi taxminan 2000 kilogramm (4400 funt). Ushbu katta og'irlik shuni anglatadiki, eng kam harakatlanishni talab qiladigan jurnallar tanlangan - odatda shamol o'tqazib yuborgan daraxtlar yoki o'lik kuz daraxtlari. Ba'zan loglar kesilib, tanlangan ish joyiga suzib o'tish mumkin bo'lgan suvga o'ralgan. Kundaliklar odatda olov va tosh asri qo'l asboblari bilan uzunlikka kesilgan va kanoe ichki qismi odatda kichik yong'inlar bilan yonib ketgan. Asosiy protsedura daraxtga shakl berish kerak bo'lgan joyda kichik olovni yoqish, so'ngra qisqa muddatli kuyishdan keyin uni o'chirish edi. Bu yong'in qurilgan joyda olib tashlanishi osonroq bo'lgan bir yoki bir necha santimetr maydalangan yog'ochni qoldiradi. Ishlash kerak bo'lgan maydonlarni charxlash uchun ketma-ket kichik yong'inlardan foydalanib, jurnallar xom qirg'ichlar va tosh, qisqichbaqasimonlar va shoxga asoslangan vositalar yordamida shakllantirilishi mumkin. 4 santimetr uzunlikdagi (5 fut) nominal qalinligi 5 santimetr (2,0 dyuym) bo'lgan, uzunligi 100 kilogramm (220 funt) dan ortiq bo'lgan kanopedagi kanoeda tayyorlandi. Ko'pgina yirik dubajlarning og'irligi osongina harakatlanish uchun juda og'ir edi va odatda ularni dengiz bo'yidan ko'tarish uchun etarli darajada plyajda tortib olishgan. Ushbu turdagi kanopilarni qurish tosh davri asboblari va olov bilan ko'p vaqt va mahorat talab qildi. Dugout kanolari odatda bir necha yil davom etdi.
Tule qayiqlari (kanoatlar)
Tule (Schoenoplectus acutus balandligi 1 metrdan 3 metrgacha o'sadigan ingichka (~ 1 sm yoki 0,5 dyuym) diametrli, yumaloq yashil jarohatlaydi. Ular botqoqlarda, botqoqli joylarda yoki suv havzalarining chekkalarida yaxshi o'sadi. Tula poyasi havo xujayralari bilan o'ralgan shimgichli to'qima bilan to'ldirilgan ichki ichki qismga ega, bu uni suvda yaxshi suzuvchi va yaxshi izolyator qiladi. Mahalliy amerikaliklar kulbalarni yasash va quritish uchun tuladan foydalangan,[1] savat, paspaslar,[2] qayiqlar, aldovchilar, bosh kiyimlar, kiyim-kechak va poyabzal. Tule odatda kiyik yordamida kesilgan skapula kesilgan qirralar singari qo'pol arra bo'lgan "arra".[3] Tule poyasini sindirib tashlamaslik va qisman quritilganida kuchga ega bo'lish uchun yashil rang bilan ehtiyotkorlik bilan ishlash kerak.
Tule qayig'ini yasash uchun yashil tulilar kesilib, keyin bir necha kun quritish uchun quyoshga yoyildi. Tule kanolari qo'shimcha kuch uchun tolning "yadrosi" atrofida birlashtirilgan tul o'simliklarining kesilgan poyalaridan qurilgan. Tullar to'plami oldindan egilgan bo'lishi mumkin, chunki ular ko'tarilgan shox va shafqatsizni hosil qilish uchun to'plangan edi. Har bir to'plamning uzunligi, odatda, taxminan 10 futdan (3,0 m) 15 futgacha (4,6 m) bo'lgan qayiqning o'lchamiga bog'liq. Qayiqchi yoki qayiqchilar o'tirgan, tiz cho'kkan yoki turgan kanoetning pastki qismini tashkil etuvchi to'plam boshqalarga qaraganda ancha kattaroq edi. Tul kanoeti qirralarini ikki-oltitagacha torayish uchun pastki uzumga uzum uzumlari yoki boshqa tabiiy materiallar bilan dumg'azada keng bog'lab qo'yilgan va barcha tullar to'plamlarini torayib, ko'tarilgan kamon va orqa tomonga bog'lab qo'yish kerak. Tule kanoeleri odatda birdan to'rt kishiga qadar bo'lgan. Tule qayiqlari quritilgan tuladan, tajribali kanoe quruvchilar tomonidan bir kundan kam vaqt ichida tezda qurilishi mumkin.[4] Tule qayiqlari chirishi va / yoki ajralib chiqishidan oldin ularning ishlash muddati cheklangan - odatda atigi bir necha hafta davom etadi.
Va atrofida bir necha qabilalar San-Fransisko ko'rfazi Kaliforniya shtatining shimoliy qismida tul qilingan va ishlatilgan kanoatlar (shuningdek, deyiladi balsalar ). Bay Miwok, Miwok qirg'og'i, Ohlone (Kostanoan), Pomo, Klamat, Modoc va boshqa bir qancha mahalliy aholi tulporadan kanoeler tayyorlash uchun foydalangan.[5] Tule kanolari okean lagunalarida ishlatilgan Tomales ko'rfazi va Point Reyes milliy dengiz qirg'og'i janubdan ehtimolgacha Monterey ko'rfazi. Tule-qamishli qayiqlar Shimoliy Kaliforniyaning aksariyat qismida ko'llar, koylar va sekin harakatlanadigan daryolarda ishlatilgan. Ular ichida yashovchi Pomo tomonidan ishlatilgan Laguna de Santa Rosa va Toza ko'l, Tule ko'li va boshqa sohalar. Ular San-Frantsisko ko'rfazida va keng tarqalgan Sakramento – San-Xoakin daryosi deltasi va uning irmoq daryolari.
Ushbu tule kanolari ov qilish yoki o'rim-yig'im uchun sevimli joylariga olib borish va qaytarish uchun ishlatilgan go'shti Qizil baliq, Acorns, urug'lar, mevalar, qisqichbaqalar yoki istiridye va boshqa baliqlar yoki ovqatlar. Keng to'shak va istiridye shoals (Ostrea lurida ) va boshqalar qisqichbaqalar keyin San-Frantsisko ko'rfazi va Tomales ko'rfazi qirg'oqlari yaqinidagi sayoz suvda yotar va asrlar davomida ishlatilgan oziq-ovqat manbai bo'lgan. Tule kanolari ko'proq tulalar qamishlarini yig'ish va ov qilish uchun ishlatilgan o'rdak yoki g'ozlar keyinchalik ko'pincha botqoqli joylarda va h.k.larda bo'lgan. Tule kanolari suvda oziqlanadigan o'simliklar va o'rdak va g'oz tuxumlarini yig'ishda ishlatilgan. O'rdaklar va g'ozlar tez-tez o'qlar yoki to'rlar bilan tul kanoeleridan ovlangan. Tule kanolari daryolar, okean va koylarda mavjud bo'lgan yoki ular bo'ylab ko'chib yuradigan bir nechta mahalliy baliq turlari uchun to'rlar, nayzalar yoki suyak baliqlari ilgaklar bilan baliq ovlashda ishlatilgan.
Qayiqchi odatda qayiqda o'tiradi, tiz cho'kadi yoki turadi va moyil holatda yotganda uni ikki pichoqli eshkak bilan yoki qo'llarini bitta odam kanoeda eshkak eshadi. Agar qayiq etarlicha mahkam to'qilmagan bo'lsa, unda qayiqchi o'zini bir necha dyuym suvda o'tirgan, turgan yoki tiz cho'kkan holda topar edi. Tule kanolari ko'pincha transport uchun ishlatilgan ustritsa mollyuska va boshqalar qisqichbaqalar past oqimda yig'ib olinadigan ko'rpa-to'shaklar. The Emeryvill Shellmound yoki midden Taxminan tulli qayiqlardan foydalangan holda hosil qilingan har xil turdagi qisqichbaqasimon baliqlarning yeyilmaydigan chig'anoqlaridan tashkil topgan bo'lib, San-Frantsisko ko'rfazida ma'lum bo'lgan 400 dan ortiq chig'anoq tepaliklarining namunasidir. Ushbu ko'pincha massiv qobiqlar (Emeryville Shellmound dastlab balandligi 150 fut (110 m) balandligi 60 metr (18 m) deb xabar qilingan), ko'pincha qobiq tashlangan asrlar davomida qurilgan va osongina olinadigan qisqichbaqasimonlar barqaror manbasini ko'rsatgan. ko'p yuz yillar davomida.[6] Qisqichbaqasimon baliqlar ko'plab tub amerikaliklar uchun asosiy oziq-ovqat manbai bo'lgan deb hisoblashadi.
Tule kanoelerining rasmlarini ko'rish uchun rasm Google, Bing va boshqalarning opsiyasi va "Tule canoe va qidirish - odatda qo'shimcha ma'lumot olish uchun chertish mumkin bo'lgan bir nechta rasm topiladi. Mahalliy tabiatni muhofaza qilish guruhlari ko'pincha tule kanoelerini qurish bo'yicha kurslarga ega.[7]
Tikilgan taxta (Tomol) qayiqlari
Taxminan 8000 yillik tarixga ega qadimiy dengiz madaniyati, ehtimol undan ham ilgari, so'nggi tanishishlar tomonidan hujjatlashtirilgan middens kuni San-Klemente oroli, dengizdan 60 mil uzoqlikda joylashgan Kaliforniya janubiy. Mahalliy Kaliforniya xalqlari Tinch okeanining qirg'oq bo'yidagi yirik aholi punktlarida va Kanal orollari Kaliforniya Evropa aloqalaridan oldin ming yillar davomida.
Ba'zi sohalarda, masalan, bo'ylab Santa Barbara kanali Kanal orollarini Kaliforniya sohillaridan ajratib turadi Chumash va Tongva xalqi ushbu qishloqlarda juda rivojlangan kanoatlar. Ushbu qayiqlar baliq ovlashda va Kaliforniyaning Kanal orollari va undan tashqaridagi turli qishloqlar o'rtasida keng savdo-sotiqda ishlatilgan. Qayiq qurilishi Kaliforniyada Chumash va Tongva aholisi orasida eng yuqori rivojlanishga erishdi. "" Deb nomlangan ularning tikilgan taxta kanolaritomol ", Kaliforniya qirg'og'ining dastlabki kashfiyotchilariga ko'p qirrali, dengizga chiqish qobiliyati va kattaligi bilan hayratga tushdi.[8][9]
Kanoeler odatda tashqarida ishlab chiqarilgan taxtalar qizil daraxtdan ajratilgan (Sequoioideae ) yoki qarag'ay tomoq qirg'oqda yuvilib ketgan. Ushbu driftwood odatda tanlangan, chunki u mavjud edi va odatda tugunsiz va u bilan ishlash oson. Ushbu driftwood jurnallaridan ba'zilari tanlangan, uzunligi kesilgan, bo'linib, shakllangan va keyin ikkiga bo'lingan taxtalar "tikilgan" birgalikda qayiq hosil qilish uchun. Yon taxtalar va kanoe osti tekis tugunsiz loglardan foydalanib bo'linib ketgan kit suyagi va shox Takozlar tosh tomonidan boshqariladi mollar. Keyinchalik, taxtalar shakllangan, qirqilgan va tekislangan dengiz qobig'i vositalari va nahang zımpara qog'ozini yashirish. Teshiklarni bog'lash kerak bo'lgan joylarda, taxta teshiklari suyak yoki suyak bilan ishlangan yog'och matkaplar yordamida zerikib ketgan. Ushbu burg'ulash taxtalar keyinchalik ulangan "tikish" zarur uzunlikni olish uchun ikkiga bo'linadigan va shaklli tugunsiz taxtalarni uchlarida birlashtiring. Ular odatda qizil bilan birlashtirildi sutli o't (tok) tolali kordonlar. Taxtalar shakllantirilib, uzunlik bilan tikilgandan so'ng, ular ehtiyotkorlik bilan shakllantirilib, egilib, vertikal ravishda oltidan sakkiztagacha taxtalarga o'rnatilib, kanoe Kanoetning pastki qismini tashkil etgan katta bo'linib ketgan pastki taxtaning yon tomonlari. Oddiy tomolni tayyorlash uchun 20 dan ortiq shakldagi yog'ochdan foydalaniladi. Bir marta taxtalar egilib, o'rnatilib, quruq yurakni bir-biriga bog'lab qo'ydi tule shoshilinch ravishda kanoet korpusining tashqi tomonidagi taxtalar orasidagi yoriqlarga suv quyish vazifasini bajarishga majbur bo'ldi. So'ngra taxtalar, taxta uchlari va arqonlar yoki paychalar uchun teshiklar "yop" bilan tiqilib, qattiq smola va qarag'ay qatroni aralashmasi eritilib, keyin qaynatildi. Ko'p jihatdan ularning qayiq qurish texnikasi butun dunyo bo'ylab kichik yog'och qayiqlarni tayyorlash uchun ishlatilgan. Metall asboblar va mahkamlagichlarning etishmasligi ularni tosh davri asboblari va materiallaridan foydalanishga majbur qildi.
Ushbu kanoeda 3 kishidan 10 kishigacha yuk tashish uchun qurilgan bo'lib, ulardan biri odatda garov puli sifatida tayinlangan, qolganlari qo'pol eshkaklar yordamida kanoeda suzib yurishgan. Oddiy tomol 12 futdan (3,7 m) 24 fut (7,3 m) uzunlikda, 3 fut (0,91 m) dan 5 futgacha (1,5 m) uzunlikda bo'lgan. Ushbu kemada 130 mildan (210 km) ko'proq dengiz sayohatlari qayd etilgan. Ular dengizni ovladilar baliq ovlash tarmoqlari, harpunlar, nayzalar va suyak baliq kancalari. Ularning umumiy to'rlaridan biri edi sardalye va kattaroq sardalyalar pilchards deb nomlangan, keyin keng tarqalgan maktablar Kaliforniya sohillari yaqinida. Chumash Kaliforniyaning asosiy sohilida va Kaliforniyaning shimoliy Kanal orollarida aholi punktlariga ega edi. Tongva (Gabrielino-Tongva qabilasi) janubiy Kanal orollarida, shuningdek Kaliforniyaning janubi-g'arbiy sohilidagi qishloqlarda bir nechta kichik aholi punktlariga ega edi.
Materik va Kanal orollari o'rtasidagi Chumash va Tongva savdo ekspeditsiyalari keng tarqalgan. Ko'pchilik olishlari kerak edi steatit sovunli kosalar va effigy uchun haykalchalar. Ushbu tarixdan oldingi dengizchilikning qoldiqlari suv osti arxeologlari tomonidan tekshirilmoqda. Orasida kamida 25 ta alohida sayt haqida xabar berilgan Ventura, Kaliforniya Plyaj va Nuqta tushunchasi.
Dastlabki Evropa tadqiqotchilari
1539 yilda, Fransisko de Ulloa ning topshirig'iga binoan Yangi Ispaniyaning vitse-qirolligi va Yangi Ispaniya (Meksika) g'olibi, Ernan Kortes, o'rganib chiqdi Kaliforniya ko'rfazi uchun Kolorado daryosi - tashkil etish Quyi Kaliforniya yarimorol sifatida. Keyin Ulloa janubdan pastga qarab 800 mil (1300 km) pastga ketdi Quyi Kaliforniya yarim oroli ichida Kaliforniya ko'rfazi yarim orolning uchini aylantirib, shimolga burilib, Badja yarim orolining g'arbiy qirg'og'ini - ehtimol 28-gacha parallel (yaqin Isla Natividad ).[10] Ulloaning suzib yuruvchi kemalar salbiy shamollar tomonidan urilib, uning odamlari g'azablandi shilliqqurt, yana o'rganmasdan Nyu-Ispaniyaga (Meksika) qaytib keldi.
Kaliforniyaning yuqori sohillarini o'rgangan birinchi Evropa ekspeditsiyasi kashfiyotchi tomonidan boshqarilgan va konkistador Xuan Rodriges Kabrillo (taxminan 1499-1543). Cabrillo jo'natildi Gavana yosh yigit sifatida va kuchlarni birlashtirdi Ernan Kortes taxminan 1520 yilda yangi Ispaniyada konkististador sifatida kamar kishi. Fathida Azteklar poytaxti Tenochtitlan (Mexiko Siti) 1521 yilda Kortez Kabrilloga Tenochitlan markazida, ko'lda jang qilish uchun 12 metrlik o'n uchta qayiq qurishni buyurdi. U zabt etishda qatnashgan Kortesning ko'rsatmasi bilan tezda ilgarilab bordi Salvador va Gvatemala va keng ko'lamli mukofot bilan taqdirlandi Encomienda Gvatemaladagi ulkan erlarni va tub amerikaliklarning boyliklarini nazorat qiluvchi (yerdagi feodal granti, undagi yer egalari). Mahalliy amerikaliklarni unga yo'naltirishdagi muvaffaqiyati Encomienda Gvatemalada oltin qazib olishda uni Meksika va Gvatemaladagi konkistadorlarning eng boylaridan biriga aylantirdi.[11] Homiylik qilingan Pedro de Alvarado, Gvatemala gubernatori, Kabrillo Gvatemalada bir nechta kichik suzib yuruvchi kemalar qurilishiga rahbarlik qildi - bu Tinch okean sohilidagi birinchi. Alvarado vafotidan keyin 1541 yilda Yangi Ispaniyaning yangi noibi, Antonio de Mendoza kemasozlik boshqaruvini o'z qo'liga oldi va Kabrilloga uchta kema qurishga va Tinch okean sohiliga ekspeditsiyani olib borishga yo'naltirdi. Azteklar va Incalar. Shuningdek, ular Xitoyga afsonaviyroq yo'l bor-yo'qligini bilishlari kerak edi Anian bo'g'ozi (yoki Shimoli-g'arbiy o'tish yo'li ) Tinch okeanini Atlantika okeani bilan bog'lash.
Kemalarni qurish uchun Ispaniyadan langar, yelkan, kemasozlik asboblari va metall armaturalar olib kelingan, so'ngra xachir va mahalliy amerikalik yukchilar tomonidan Meksika bo'ylab, keyin janubda Gvatemalaga ko'chirilgan. Ilgari kema ishlab chiqaruvchi Kabrillo, ispaniyalik yordamchilari va mahalliy amerikalik ishchilar bilan kerakli narsalar mavjud edi yog'och Amerikaning Tinch okeanining qirg'og'ida - Gvatemalada qurilgan birinchi suzib yuradigan kemalarni yasash uchun yig'ib oldi. Kemalar yog'ochni tugatdi va yog'ochlarni bir necha ispaniyalik kemasozlarning rahbarligi ostida mahalliy amerikalik ishchilar boshqaradigan "yangi" po'lat arra bilan arralashdi. Tinch okeanini o'rganish uchun qurilgan kemalar kichik ochiq edi karavallar va bergantina mahalliy amerikaliklar va ispaniyalik dengizchilar va konkistadorlar aralashmasi tomonidan qurilgan va boshqarilgan.
Kabrillo rahbarligida qurilgan so'nggi suzib yuruvchi kemalar Kaliforniyaning qidiruv floti edi: karavellar, San-Salvador (uzunligi taxminan 30 fut) va undan kichikroq Viktoriyava bergantina (kichik yelkanli qayiq yoki uchirish), San-Migel. Kabrillo kapitan San-Salvador va Bartolome Ferrer The Viktoriya. Ushbu kemalar kelajakdagi Kaliforniya shtatiga tashrif buyurgan birinchi Evropaning suzib yuruvchi kemalari bo'lgan.[12]
Kaliforniyadagi kashfiyot kemalari qurilgandan so'ng, Kabrillo va uning konkistadorlardan iborat ekipaji, ispan va o'qimagan mahalliy amerikalik dengizchilar, jami 200 kishi, ehtiyotkorlik bilan shimol tomon yo'l olishdi. Navidad, 1542 yil 17-iyundan boshlab Meksika Tinch okeanining qirg'og'ida yuqoriga ko'tarildi. Ular taxminan ikki yilga xizmat qilish uchun etarli miqdorda zaxiralarni olishdi. Oqayotgan janubning kombinatsiyasi Kaliforniya oqimi va tez-tez qarama-qarshi shamollar shimol tomon qirg'oqqa alamli darajada sekinlashdi. Faqatgina qisman o'qitilgan ekipajlari bo'lgan kichik, qo'pol ravishda yasalgan ochiq qayiqlar ekipajni yo'lda duch kelgan bo'ronlarda azob chekishiga olib keldi. Suv, o'tin va boshqa kerakli narsalarni qidirib topish uchun Kaliforniya shtatining Quyi qirg'og'iga bir necha bor tushganlaridan so'ng, ular bir yuz uch kunlik yo'ldan keyin kirib kelishdi. San-Diego ko'rfazi 1542 yil 28 sentyabrda. Ular Kaliforniya qirg'og'idan shimolga qarab, mahalliy amerikaliklardan foydalangan holda ko'plab hind qishloqlariga duch kelishdi.tomollar "(okean bo'ylab tikilgan qayiqlar). Shimoliy sohil bo'ylab davom etishi mumkin Reys Kaliforniya.[13]
1542 yil 23-noyabrda kichik avtoulov "San-Salvador" (bugungi deb nomlangan) tomon qirg'oq bo'ylab orqaga qaytdi Santa-Katalina oroli, Kaliforniya yoki Santa-Roza oroli ) qishlash va ta'mirlashni amalga oshirish uchun. U erda, 1542 yil Rojdestvo arafasida, Kabrillo qayiqdan chiqib, jag'ning toshiga qoqilib tushganida suyagini sindirib tashladi. Jarohat rivojlandi gangrena va u 1543 yil 3-yanvarda vafot etdi va noma'lum joyda dafn qilindi. Uning ikkinchi qo'mondoni, Bartolome Ferrer, partiyaning qolgan qismini qaytarib olib keldi Barra de Navidad, 1543 yil 14 aprelda Meksika. Ular oltin yoki kumush boylik, rivojlangan hind tsivilizatsiyasi, qishloq xo'jaligi va shimoli-g'arbiy o'tish yo'llarini topmadilar. Natijada, Kaliforniya, asosan, 220 yildan ko'proq vaqt davomida uni e'tiborsiz qoldiradigan ispanlarga qiziq emas edi.
1565 yilda Ispanlar rivojlangan a Manila galleoni savdo yo'li ("nao de la China" deb ham yuritiladi) bu erda zarb qilingan kumushni olib ketishgan Potosi maydoni Peru yoki Meksikada uni oltin, shoyi, chinni, Xitoy va boshqa Osiyo mintaqalaridan ziravorlar va boshqa mahsulotlar, shu jumladan Ziravorlar orollari. Xitoyda kumushga talab katta edi. Shuningdek, ular ushbu davrda Xitoyda olinishi mumkin bo'lgan oltin buyumlar bilan kumushda savdo qildilar: oltinning kursi taxminan 5: 1, Evropada esa bu ko'rsatkich 16: 1 edi. Ispaniyaliklar o'z savdosini markazlashgan Filippinlar dastlab atrofida Sebu, ular yaqinda zabt etgan va keyinchalik Manila ular uni bosib olganlaridan keyin. Filippinlar va Meksika o'rtasidagi savdo-sotiq bir yoki bir nechta Manila galleonlarining yillik sayohat o'tishidan foydalanishni o'z ichiga oladi. Bu yomon himoyalangan galleonlar ketishdi Akapulko Meksika kumush yuklangan va hozirgi shimoliy ekvatorial oqim deb nomlanganidan keyin 90 kun ichida Filippin tomon suzib ketgan savdo shamollari.
Yuqori kenglik G'arbliklar taxminan 30-40 daraja kenglikda sharqdan g'arbga yo'naltirilgan shamol va oqim, Tinch okeanidan o'tib ketadigan yo'l sifatida ma'lum emas edi Andres de Urdaneta 40 tonnalik safar San-Lukas 1565 yilda.[14] Filippindan Meksikaga qaytib kelgan Manila Galleonlari shimolga 40 graduslik kenglikgacha borishdi va keyin Sharqqa burilish orqali G'arbliklar savdo shamollari va sharqqa boradigan oqimlar. Ularga Filippinda to'plangan sharqiy savdo mollari yuklangan. Ushbu galleonlar, Tinch okeanining katta qismini kesib o'tgandan so'ng, Kaliforniya sohillari yaqinida to'rt oydan etti oygacha yaqin atrofga etib kelishadi. Mendosino burni (San-Frantsisko shimolidan 300 milya (480 km) shimolda) N. kengligining 40 darajasida. Keyin ular shamolni va janubdan oqib o'tib (o'ngdan burilib, soatiga 1,6 km / soat) foydalanib, Kaliforniya sohillari bo'ylab o'ng tomonga burilib, suzib o'tishlari mumkin edi. Kaliforniya oqimi. Xaritalar va jadvallar yomon edi va Kaliforniya qirg'oqlari ko'pincha tuman bilan o'ralgan edi, shuning uchun aksariyat sayohatlar qirg'oqdan uzoqlashish uchun Farallon va Kaliforniya Kanal orollari. Janubdan 1400 km (2400 km) suzib o'tgandan so'ng va Baja yarimoroli uchi va kesib o'tish Kaliforniya ko'rfazi ular Meksikaning g'arbiy qirg'og'iga qarab borishdi Akapulko, Meksika. Akapulko ajoyib port imkoniyatlari va shaharga osonlikcha kirish imkoniyati tufayli uy porti sifatida tanlangan Verakruz, Karib dengizidagi Meksika.
Ushbu galleonlar 16-17 asrlarda qurilgan eng yirik ispaniyaliklar bo'lgan. Kema soni cheklanganligi va yuqori rentabellikga ega bo'lgan yuk tufayli ular kema hajmini 1700 dan 2000 tonnagacha oshirdilar va etti yuzdan mingdan oshiq odam ushbu kemalarda Akapulkoga qaytib boradilar. Manila galleon savdosi (Qarang: Ispaniyaning xazina parki ) Evropa mustamlakasi tarixidagi eng doimiy, xavfli va foydali tijorat korxonalaridan biri bo'lgan. Ushbu juda foydali savdo (foyda 200-300% ga etishi mumkin) deyarli har yili Filippinga va Kaliforniya sohiliga qaytib boradigan bir-ikki kema safari bilan 200 yildan ortiq davom etdi. Kemalar soni cheklangan edi Ispaniya toji bu barcha daromadlarning 20 foizini oldi. Yuqori daromad va qirollik soliqlari tufayli ushbu kemalarda kontrabanda avj olgan. Qattiq sayohat va katta daromad tufayli ko'pgina ofitserlar va ekipajlar boshqa ish topishdan oldin faqat bitta sayohatni amalga oshirdilar. Kemalar asosan Filippinda qurilgan Filippin xitoylik usta va temirchilar bilan yog'ochni ko'rish, yelkanlarni to'qish va hokazolarni ishchilar Ispaniya kemasozlari rahbarligida kema yig'ilishini amalga oshirmoqdalar.[15]
Ingliz sayohatchisi va xususiy Frensis Dreyk 1579 yilda Tinch okeanida Filippin tomon yo'l olgan ikkita Ispaniya xazina kemalarini qo'lga kiritgandan so'ng Kaliforniya sohillari bo'ylab suzib ketdi. Taxminlarga ko'ra, u Kaliforniya sohilidagi biron joyga tushib qolgan. U erda omon qolgan yagona kemasi Oltin xind, mahalliy hindular bilan do'stona aloqalar o'rnatdi va uning korpusini katta miqdordagi ta'mirlash va tozalash ishlarini olib bordi. Savdo va Tinch okeani bo'ylab sayohat qilish uchun kerakli oziq-ovqat, suv va o'tin zaxiralari to'plangan. Kaliforniyadan chiqib u ergashdi Ferdinand Magellan ikkinchisida yozilgan aylanib o'tish 1577 yildan 1580 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda dunyodagi va dunyodagi birinchi ingliz aylanishi. U bir necha tonna kumush va oltin bilan qaytib keldi. Dreykning qo'nish joyi Yangi Albion yilda Drakes ko'rfazi Drakes ko'rfazi milliy tarixiy va arxeologik okrugi tomonidan tan olingan Milliy tarixiy yo'nalish. U Angliya uchun yerni talab qilib, uni chaqirdi Yangi Albion. "Yangi Albion" atamasi ko'pincha Evropaning ko'plab xaritalarida Ispaniyaning Tinch okeanining qirg'oq punktlaridan shimoliy hududni belgilash uchun ishlatilgan. Ispaniyaning xaritalari, kashfiyotlari va shu kabilar va undan keyingi davrlar odatda nashr etilmadi va Ispaniya monarxiyasi tomonidan davlat sirlari sifatida qabul qilindi. Ushbu davrda odatdagidek, xuddi shu hududga qarama-qarshi da'volar bo'lgan va u erda yashagan hindular hech qachon maslahatlashmagan.
Keyin Tomas Kavendish Manila galleoniga muvaffaqiyatli hujum qildi Santa-Ana uchidan Quyi Kaliforniya 1587 yilda Kaliforniyani to'ldirish va himoya qilish uchun mumkin bo'lgan shaharcha uchun qirg'oqni o'rganishga urinish qilingan Manila galleonlari. Ushbu Manila galleonlari tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar Manila galleoni paytida falokatga duch keldi San-Agustin ga juda yaqinlashdi Point Reyes, Kaliforniya 1595 yildagi bo'ronda qirg'oq va kemalar halokatga uchragan. Keyinchalik, Ispaniya toji Kaliforniyada Manila galleonlari bilan boshqa kashfiyot yoki mustamlaka tashabbusi qilinmasligi to'g'risida qaror chiqardi; Filippindan olingan bir yillik foyda tavakkal qilib bo'lmadi. G'arbiy qirg'oqdagi eng buyuk koylardan biri -San-Fransisko ko'rfazi - 1769 yil 4-noyabrga qadar maydon tashqarisidagi bilimlardan qochib qutuldi.
1602 yilda, Kabrilyodan 60 yil o'tgach, ispaniyalik Sebastian Vizcaíno kim edi Santa-Ana uni Tomas Kavendish qo'lga kiritganida San-Lukas burni 1587 yilda Baja yarim orolida, Kaliforniya shtatining San-Diego shahridan shimolgacha qirg'oqlarini o'rganib chiqdi Monterey ko'rfazi. U Manila Galleonning yillik sayohatini to'ldirish va himoya qilish uchun mumkin bo'lgan shaharni qidirib topdi. Vitskaino nomlangan San-Diego ko'rfazi va Kaliforniyada San-Diego ko'rfazida joylashgan birinchi xristian cherkovi marosimini o'tkazdi. U shuningdek qirg'oqqa qo'ydi Monterey, Kaliforniya va Monterey ko'rfazi hududi haqida ekinlarni etishtirishga yaroqli erlari bo'lgan kemalar uchun mumkin bo'lgan langar sifatida yorqin xabarlarni tayyorladilar - Kaliforniya sohilidagi hindularda qishloq xo'jaligi yo'q edi. Shuningdek, u Ispanlar tomonidan qariyb 200 yil davomida ishlatilgan qirg'oq suvlarining ibtidoiy xaritalarini taqdim etdi.
Ispaniyaning Kaliforniya dengiz faoliyati
Manfaatdor potentsial mustamlakachi kuch Alta Kaliforniya edi Rossiya, allaqachon Tinch okeanida tashkil etilgan Alyaska. Ularning Dengiz mo'yna savdosi dastlab yo'naltirilgan Alyaska o'rim-yig'im uchun Kaliforniyaga ekspeditsiyalarni boshladi dengiz samurlari va mo'ynali muhrlar. Ushbu mo'ynalar Xitoyda katta foyda olish uchun sotilishi mumkin edi. Xulosasidan keyin Etti yillik urush Angliya va Frantsiya va ularning ittifoqchilari o'rtasida (AQShda Frantsiya va Hindiston urushi ) (1754–1763) Frantsiya Shimoliy Amerikadan siqib chiqarildi, Ispaniya, Rossiya va Buyuk Britaniya Shimoliy Amerikada qolgan mustamlakachilar edi.
1769 yilda Rossiyada yoki Buyuk Britaniyada Kaliforniyada aholi punktlarini tashkil etishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun Ispaniyaning umumiy mehmonlari, Xose de Galvez ko'rsatmalariga binoan Ispaniya toji, a rejalashtirishga kirishdi besh qismli ekspeditsiya joylashmoq Alta Kaliforniya. Olta Kaliforniyada joylashishni boshlash uchun etkazib beriladigan uchta kema dengiz va ikkita ekspeditsiya quruqlik bilan ketishi kerak edi. Gaspar de Portola ekspeditsiyani boshqarish uchun ixtiyoriy ravishda. Katolik cherkovi tomonidan vakili bo'lgan Frantsiskan friar Junipero Serra va uning hamkasblari. Harbiylar, friarslar va mustamlakachilarning beshta otryadlari joylashgan joyda uchrashishlari kerak edi San-Diego ko'rfazi. Birinchi yelkanli kema, San-Karlos, suzib ketdi La Paz 1769 yil 10-yanvarda va kema San-Antonio 15 fevralda suzib ketdi. Boshchiligidagi birinchi er partiyasi Fernando Rivera va Monkada, Frantsiskandan qolgan San Fernando Velicata missiyasi 1769 yil 24 martda. Uchinchi kema, yelkanli kema San-Xose, chap Yangi Ispaniya keyinchalik o'sha bahorda, ammo omon qolmasdan dengizda yo'qolgan. Rivera bilan Ota edi Xuan Krespi,[16] butun ekspeditsiyaning mashhur diaristi. Portola boshchiligidagi ekspeditsiya, uning tarkibiga Otam ham kirgan Junipero Serra, Missiyalar prezidenti, shuningdek, missionerlar, ko'chmanchilar va charm kurtka (bir nechta teridan qilingan charm kurtkalar hind o'qlarining ko'pini to'xtatishi mumkin) askarlar, shu jumladan Xose Raymundo Karrillo, 1769 yil 15-mayda Velicata shahridan 46 ga yaqin xachir, 200 ta sigir va 140 ta ot hamrohlik qildi - bularning hammasini kambag'al Baja Missiyalari qutqarishi mumkin edi. Fernando Rivera quruqlik yo'lini qidirib topadigan va San-Diegoga olib boradigan yo'lni yoqib yuboradigan etakchi partiyaga buyruq berishga tayinlandi.[17] Oziq-ovqat qisqa edi va ularga hamroh bo'lgan hindular kerakli narsalarning ko'pini em-xashak bilan kutishlari kerak edi. Ko'plab hindistonlik neofitlar bu yo'lda halok bo'lishdi, hatto undan ham tashlandiq bo'lishdi. 1769 yil 15-mayda, Rivera va Krespi San-Diego Portolaga etib kelgan kunning ertasi va Serra yo'lga chiqqan Velicata. Quyi Kaliforniyadan piyoda sayohat qilgan ikki guruh 480 km masofani juda quruq va qo'pol yo'ldan o'tishlari kerak edi. Quyi Kaliforniya yarim oroli. Ekspeditsiyaning quruqlikdagi qismi San-Diegoga taxminan 40-51 kun davom etdi. Barcha beshta otryad San-Diego ko'rfazida uchrashishi kerak edi.
Dengiz orqali kelayotgan kontingent janub tomon oqayotganini uchratdi Kaliforniya oqimi Kuchli bosh shamollari va suzib ketganlaridan keyin uch oy ichida hali ham adashmaydilar. Ularning mashaqqatli sayohatlaridan so'ng, kemalardagi odamlarning aksariyati, asosan, kasal bo'lganlar shilliqqurt va ko'plari vafot etdi. Quyi Kaliforniyani tark etgan jami 219 nafar erkakning 100 nafardan ortig'i omon qoldi. Alta Kaliforniyadagi Ispaniyaning aholi punktlari Shimoliy Amerikada Ispaniyaning juda kengaygan imperiyasining so'nggi kengayishi edi va ular buni eng kam xarajat va qo'llab-quvvatlash bilan qilishga harakat qildilar.
Bir nechta charm kurtka askarlari va Frantsiskan qurbongohlar katolik cherkovi va Ispaniya toji tomonidan moliyalashtirilishi rejalashtirilgan aholi punktining asosini tashkil etadi Alta Kaliforniya. Oxir-oqibat, aholi punktlari tarkibiga kirdi: yigirma bitta tirik qoldi Missiyalar - odatdagidek ikki-uchta qurbongoh va beshdan o'ntagacha askar boshqariladi; to'rt harbiy Presidios qurilgan - 10 dan 100 gacha askarlar tomonidan boshqarilgan va Presidios uchun oziq-ovqat etishtirish uchun to'rtta kichik aholi punktlari (Pueblos) tashkil etilgan.
1769 yil 14-iyulda portni topish uchun ekspeditsiya yuborildi Monterey, Kaliforniya. Ni tanimayapman Monterey ko'rfazi tomonidan yozilgan tavsifdan Sebastian Vizcaíno qariyb 200 yil oldin ekspeditsiya undan tashqariga chiqib, San-Frantsisko hududi deb atalgan. The razvedka partiyasi Don boshchiligida Gaspar de Portola 1769 yil 2-noyabrda keldi San-Fransisko ko'rfazi.[18] Amerikaning g'arbiy qirg'og'idagi eng buyuk portlardan biri nihoyat mahalliy bo'lmaganlarga ma'lum bo'ldi. Ekspeditsiya nihoyat 1770 yil 24 yanvarda ochlikdan va azobdan zaif bo'lib San-Diegoga qaytib keldi shilliqqurt.
Qishloq xo'jaligi ekinlari yoki hindular yashaydigan ovqatni iste'mol qilish tajribasiz (er shoxlari), oziq-ovqat etishmovchiligi San-Diego 1770 yilning birinchi oylarida o'ta muhim bo'lib qoldi. Ular ba'zi mollari bilan kun kechirdilar (Texas Longhorns ),[19] yovvoyi g'ozlar, baliqlar va boshqa oziq-ovqatlar hindular bilan kiyim-kechak bilan almashtirildi, ammo qoraqarag'ay vayronagarchilik davom etdi, chunki cheklangan miqdordagi oziq-ovqat bor edi va uning sababi yoki davosi haqida tushuncha yo'q edi. shilliqqurt keyin. Ular ekkan oz miqdordagi makkajo'xori yaxshi o'sdi - faqat qushlar uni eydi. Portola kapitan Riverani va taxminan 40 kishidan iborat kichik bir otryadni ko'proq mol va ashyo to'plami olish uchun fevral oyida Quyi Kaliforniya missiyalariga jo'natdi. Bu vaqtincha San-Diyegoning ozgina mablag'larini yo'qotdi, ammo bir necha hafta ichida o'tkir ochlik va kasallik kuchayib, portni majburan tark etish bilan tahdid qildi. Portola, agar 1770 yil 19 martga qadar biron bir yordam kemasi kelmasa, ular ertasi kuni ertalab "uzoqroq kutish uchun etarli miqdordagi mablag 'bo'lmaganligi va erkaklar ochlikdan halok bo'lish uchun kelmaganliklari sababli" jo'nab ketishga qaror qildilar. 1770 yil 19-mart kuni tushdan keyin soat uchlarda, xuddi mo''jizaga o'xshab, suzib yurganlar yelkanli kema San-Antonio yordam materiallari ortilganligi ufqda sezilib turardi. Ning joylashuvi Alta Kaliforniya davom etadi.
1775 yil oxirida Xuan Bautista de Anza Meksikaning Sonora shahridan 240 askar, ko'chmanchi va friarlardan iborat kontingentni boshqargan Gila daryosi Ustidan yurish Kolorado daryosi da Yuma o'tish joyi va Alta Kaliforniyadan 800 km gacha (800 km) San-Fransisko ko'rfazi 1776 yil 28 martda kelgan hudud. Ispanlar u erda qurdilar San-Fransisko-de-Asis missiyasi, (yoki Missiya Dolores), the San-Fransisko prezidenti va Yerba Buena, Kaliforniya (San-Fransisko). Ular 200 ga yaqin charm kurtka askarlari va ko'chmanchilar oilalari va ikkita fransiskan friarlari bilan kelishdi. Ular o'zlari bilan 600 ga yaqin ot va xachirlarni, 300tasini olib kelishdi Texas Longhorn buqalar va sigirlar. Bu hayvonlar va ularning avlodlari keyingi qoramol va ot podalarining asosiy qismi bo'lgan Kalifornio Ranchos. Bu askarlar, friaxlar, ko'chmanchilar va chorva mollari o'tib ketishdi Anza Trail dan Sonora, Meksika, izdan to'rt yil oldin Yangi Ispaniya tomonidan 40 yil davomida Kaliforniyaga yopiq edi Kvexan odamlar (Yumas) - aksariyat yangi emigrantlar kemada kelishlari kerak edi.
1780 yilda ispaniyaliklar ikkita kombinatsion missiya va pueblos tashkil etishdi Yuma o'tish joyi ning Kolorado daryosi: Missiya San Pedro va San Pablo de Bikuner va Missiya Puerto-de-Purisima Concepción. 1781 yil iyul oyida hindular Yuma (Kvexan) bilan ispaniyaliklar bilan kelishmovchilikda ikkala missiya ham, pueblos ham yo'q qilindi - 103 askar, kolonist va fransiskalik friarlarni o'ldirdi va 80 ga yaqin ayolni va bolalarni asir oldi. Ispaniyaning boshqaruvini qayta tiklash uchun to'rt ekspeditsiyaga qaramay Yuma o'tish joyi Keyingi 40 yil davomida Quechans nazorati ostida qoldi - Kaliforniyaga eng oson quruqlik yo'li yopildi. Ushbu cheklov Alta Kaliforniyadagi aksariyat ko'chmanchilar trafigi va ta'minotining 30-60 kun ichida bo'lishiga olib keldi yelkanli kema sayohat shakli Yangi Ispaniya Tinch okeanidagi shaharlar. Faqat bir necha ko'chmanchilar bor edi va ular asosan eksport qilish yoki savdo qilish uchun hech narsaga ega emas edilar, shuning uchun Alta Kaliforniyaga bir nechta kemalar bor edi. 1770 yildan 1821 yilgacha Olta Kaliforniyaga boradigan kemalarning o'rtacha soni ispanlarga tegishli bo'lmagan yuklarni taqiqlovchi Ispaniya cheklovi bilan birgalikda yiliga 2,5 kema bo'lib, 13 yil davomida qayd qilinmagan kemalar mavjud emas.[20]
1818 yil 20-noyabrda Hippolit de Buchard reyd qildi Montereyning Prezidiosi yilda Monterey, Kaliforniya. Buchard, frantsuz inqilobiy keyinchalik fuqarosi bo'lgan Argentina, ba'zan Kaliforniyaning yagona qaroqchisi deb ham nomlanadi, garchi ba'zi argentinaliklar bu atamadan foydalanishni afzal ko'rishadi korsar.
Uning ekipajining ko'p qismi qoraqarag'ay kasalligidan vafot etganligi sababli, Buchard yangi ekipaj a'zolarini izlashga kirishdi Sandviç orollari (hozirgi Gavayi), so'ngra yaqin sohilga suzib ketdi Santa Barbara missiyasi va yaqin atrofdagi shaharga tahdid qildi. Buchard va uning ekipaji ba'zi askarlarning ortidan hujum qilmasdan jo'nab ketishdi Santa Barbara Presidiosi ularga duch keldi va mahbuslarni almashtirishni tashkil qildi.
1818 yil 14-dekabrda Buchard hujum qildi San-Xuan Kapistranoning missiyasi va u va uning ekipaji bir nechta binolarga, shu jumladan Gubernatorning uyiga, Qirolning do'konlariga va kazarmalarga zarar etkazdi.
Alta Kaliforniya dengiz faoliyati 1821–1846
Meksika mustaqillik va boshqaruvni qo'lga kiritmasdan oldin ham Alta Kaliforniya 1821 yilda Ispaniyaning chet elliklar bilan savdosiga qarshi og'ir qoidalari buzila boshladi, chunki kamayib borayotgan Ispaniya floti tashqi savdo taqiqini amalga oshirishga qodir emas. Kaliforniya shtatining Alta aholisi, aslida sanoat va ishlab chiqarish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lmagan holda, yangi tovar, shisha, ilmoq, tirnoq, tayyor buyumlar, hashamatli mahsulotlar va boshqa tovarlarni sotib olishni istashgan. Meksika hukumati xorijiy kemalar bilan savdo qilmaslik siyosatini bekor qildi va tez orada doimiy savdo safarlari amalga oshirildi. Alta Kaliforniyaning eksport mahsulotlari yirik chorvachilik fermer xo'jaliklarida ishlab chiqarilgan ranchos; birinchi navbatda sigir terisi (Kaliforniya shtatlari deb nomlangan), sariyog ' (sham va sovun tayyorlash uchun yog ') va Kaliforniya / Texas uzun bo'yli qoramol shoxlar.[21] Bular tayyor mahsulotlar va tovarlarga sotilgan. Yashil teri bilan savdo-sotiq asosan Bostonda joylashgan, taxminan 200 kun yurgan kemalar tomonidan olib borilgan suzib yuruvchi kemalar atrofida 17000 milya (27000 km) dan 18000 milya (29000 km) atrofida Burun burni Californio Ranchos bilan terilari, yog 'va shoxlari uchun savdo qilish uchun tayyor mahsulotlar va tovarlarni olib kelish. Teri, shoxli va shoxli mollarni etkazib beradigan mollar va otlar, asosan, rancholarning ochiq yaylovlarida yovvoyi bo'lib o'sgan. Teri, yog 'va shoxlar o'zaro manfaatli savdo uchun zarur bo'lgan savdo buyumlarini taqdim etdi. Birinchi AQSh, ingliz va rus savdo kemalari Kaliforniyaga 18ooga qadar etib kelgan. Klassik kitob Magistrdan ikki yil oldin tomonidan Richard Genri Dana, kichik 1834-36 yillar haqida yozilgan bo'lib, ushbu savdo-sotiqning dastlabki ma'lumotlarini taqdim etadi.[22]
1825 yildan 1848 yilgacha Kaliforniyaga sayohat qilayotgan kemalarning o'rtacha soni yiliga taxminan 25 ta kemaga o'sdi - bu 1769 yildan 1824 yilgacha o'rtacha 2,5 kemadan katta o'sish.[23] Savdo maqsadida kirish porti Alta California Capital edi, Monterey, Kaliforniya, qaerda bojxona to'lovlari (tariflar ) taxminan 100% qo'llanildi. Ushbu yuqori bojlar ko'plab poraxo'rlik va kontrabandalarni keltirib chiqardi, chunki tariflardan qochish kema egalari uchun ko'proq pul ishladi va tovarlarni xaridorlarga arzonlashtirdi. Kaliforniya hukumatining barcha xarajatlari (unchalik katta bo'lmagan narsalar) ushbu tariflar (bojxona to'lovlari) hisobidan to'langan. Bunda ular 1850 yildagi Qo'shma Shtatlarga juda o'xshash edilar, bu erda federal hukumat daromadlarining 89% import bojlari (shuningdek, bojxona yoki ad valorem soliqlari ), o'rtacha 20% ga teng bo'lsa-da.[24]
1846 yilga kelib, Alta Kaliforniya provintsiyasida mahalliy bo'lmagan aholi soni 1500 ga yaqin kattalar erkaklari va 6500 ga yaqin ayollar va bolalar bo'lib, ular asosan ispanlar tomonidan dastlab qirg'oq yaqinida tashkil etilgan aholi punktlarida yoki uning yonida yashaganlar. Immigrantlarning hisob-kitoblari 600 dan 2000 gacha 1846 gacha o'zgarib turadi, chunki har yili ko'proq keladi.
Oldin Amerika inqilobi (1775–1783) Qo'shma Shtatlarga aylanadigan mustamlakalar kelajakda allaqachon mustahkam dengizchilik an'analariga ega edi. Yangi Angliya va O'rta Atlantika shtatlari. Britaniyaning kemasozlik tajribasi va texnologiyasiga yaxshi kirish imkoniga ega bo'lgan va Atlantika okeaniga va keng o'rmonlarga ega bo'lgan koloniyalar mustaqillikka erishmasdan oldin ham rivojlangan kemasozlik sanoatini rivojlantirgan edilar. Ular allaqachon Britaniyaning keng mustamlakachilik savdosida ishlatiladigan ko'plab kemalarni, shuningdek kitlar va baliq ovlash kemalarini qurishgan. Kit ovlash dan ko'p o'tmay tiklandi Amerika inqilobiy urushi 1783 yilda tugadi va Qo'shma Shtatlardagi kit ovlash rivojlana boshladi. Baliqchilar asosan bazalardan foydalanganlar Nantucket orol va Nyu-Bedford, Massachusets. Ikki yildan ortiq davom etishi mumkin bo'lgan o'n mingga yaqin AQSh dengizchilari kitlarni ov qilish uchun kitlarni boshqargan. 1830 yillarga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlar dunyodagi eng mashhur kit ovlash davlatiga aylandi. 1835 yildan 1860 yilgacha Amerika baliq ovi floti har yili o'rtacha 19000 tonnani tashkil etadigan yuk tashish hajmi bilan taxminan 620 ta kemani tashkil etdi. Bu davrda kit ovchilarning aksariyati Tinch okeanida baliq ovlashgan. 1835 yildan 1860 yilgacha yillik AQSh kit yog'i foydalanish o'rtacha 118,000 barrel sperma yog'i, 216,000 barrel boshqa kit yog'i va 2,323,000 funt kit suyagi (balin ) - o'rtacha qiymati yiliga 8.000.000 AQSh dollaridan ortiq bo'lgan 1830 dollar.[25] Kit yog'i asosan kitda ishlatilgan yog 'lampalari tunda yoritish uchun va ba'zi moylash uchun. Balin uchun ishlatilgan korsetlar, brushes, whips, and other uses that required a strong flexible material—plastic hadn't been invented yet. Kerosene, when it was introduced in the early 1850s, was much cheaper and easily made by fractional distillation of petroleum. Kerosene started to rapidly replace whale oil for lighting in the 1850s—saving many more whales than any conservation movement. The Pacific Ocean whaling ships started getting fresh supplies, water and wood from California and the Sandviç orollari (Hawaii). Many whaling vessels preferred stopping in the San Francisco Bay Area before stopping to pay the high custom duties (also called tariflar va ad valorem soliqlari ) da Monterey, Kaliforniya, wanted by the Kalifornio government—avoiding taxes has a long history. By 1846 several hundred whaling ships per year were using Hawaii (then called the Sandwich Islands) as a temporary base.
Shortly after the United States gained independence in 1783 trade was instituted from East Coast ports with the West Coast to gather furs in the Dengiz mo'yna savdosi to trade with China for chinni, silk, spices etc.. British Qirollik floti qo'mondon Jorj Vankuver sailed up the west coast past the mouth of the Kolumbiya daryosi and in April 1792 and observed a change in the water's color, which implied there may be a major river emptying into the Pacific.[26] Later that month, Vancouver encountered the American captain Robert Grey da Greys Harbor —later named that in his honor. Gray also reported that he had seen the possible entrance to the Columbia a few years earlier and had spent nine days trying but failing to enter the river over its extensive sand bars and turbulent waves; but bad weather forced him to give up.[27] Gray returned to the river mouth a second time in May 1792. This time he ordered a small sailboat launched to attempt to find a safe passage across the qum barlari and turbulent waves by yangraydi (measuring the depth with a weight attached to a line of known length) the water depth to find a kanal deep enough for his ship. Finally in the evening of 11 May 1792, Gray's men found a safe channel and he and his crew sailed their ship Kolumbiya into the estuary of what he named the Kolumbiya daryosi uning kemasidan keyin.[28]Once across the sand bars and turbulent water at the entrance to the river (later called the Kolumbiya Bar ) they sailed up the Columbia River several miles while exploring the river. Gray's find was a significant claim (besides the Lyuis va Klark ekspeditsiyasi ) put forth by the United States to claim possession of the Oregon hududi.
Beginning about 1790 United States ships often sailed along the West Coast to gather furs for trading with China. They traded steel knives, hatchets, blankets, kettles, whiskey, guns, powder, lead and other trade goods for furs collected by the natives. An attempt was made by the Spanish in Spanish California to severely restrict trade from San Diego to San Francisco. The land above San Francisco had no Spanish presence. The Rossiya-Amerika kompaniyasi was created in 1799 as a joint venture between Russian fur traders and United States ship merchants who agreed to purchase fur seal va dengiz otasi furs obtained by the Russians. Rus Tsar was to get 20% of all profits. American ships brought food and other supplies to the Russian settlements, assisted in fur hunts, and took furs away. The company constructed settlements in what are today Alaska, Hawaii and California.
The Russian traders after visiting California in 1806 built Fort Ross, Kaliforniya in 1812 on the California coast in Sonoma okrugi, Kaliforniya —just north of San Francisco. This was the southernmost outpost of the Russian-American Company. To keep unwanted Spanish intrusion away the Russians built a palisaded qal'a equipped with several zambaraklar. Their objective in setting up Ft. Ross was to harvest fur seals and sea otters and grow grain and vegetables for the use of other Russian trading centers in Rossiya Alyaska. The fur company at Fort Ross typically had a few score Russians with up to 75 Aleut who harvested (usually under some duress) the fur seals and sea otters from their baydarkalar on or near the Farallon orollari, Kanal orollari Kaliforniya and in the ports and bays around San Francisco Bay. The Aleuts of Russian Alaska probably had the largest effect on the Channel islands and its people. These otter-hunters from the Aleut orollari set up camps on the surrounding Channel Islands and traded with the native peoples in exchange for permission to hunt otters and seals around the island.
American fur trader Jon Jeykob Astor qurilgan Astoriya Fort on the Columbia River in 1811. Under pressure brought by the 1812 yilgi urush Astor sold the fort in 1813 to what would become The British Hudson's Bay kompaniyasi. In 1830 Hudson Bay Co. built a new Vankuver Fort slightly up the Columbia River in the future Vashington shtati. This fort was the main supply depot for Hudson Bay forts in all the Pacific Northwest. Within a few years they were growing quantities of wheat, constructed saw and flour mills, and yearly shipped lumber to the Gavayi orollari and flour to Sitka, Alyaska. They were resupplied every year by two to three ships that brought trading supplies around Burun burni Angliyadan.
Sea otters and fur seals were severely depleted on the California coast and islands by the 1820s. Hudson's Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away. This was accomplished by about 1840 just as the fur trade industry started dying due to lack of supply and a style change in his qildim hats—felt was made from fur and the main fur market. In its late period the maritime fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudson's Bay Company and the Rossiya-Amerika kompaniyasi. The depleted supply of sea otters and the easy trade with the British in Fort Vancouver for food stuffs led the Russians to abandon Fort Ross in 1841 and sell the cannon and other supplies to Jon Satter who was building up Satter qal'asi yaqin Sakramento, Kaliforniya. The Hudson Bay Company departed from their trading post they had set up in Yerba Buena (San Francisco) in 1845 because of the declining fur trade and the death of their agent there.
The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ekspeditsiyasi (1838–1842) was an exploring and surveying expedition of the Pacific Ocean ("the Southern Seas") conducted by the United States Navy to learn more about the Pacific Ocean and its ports. The expedition with five ships was authorized by Kongress in 1836. It is sometimes called the "Ex. Ex." for short, or "the Wilkes Expedition" in honor of its next appointed commanding officer, U.S. Navy Lt. Charlz Uilks (1798-1877). The expedition was of major importance to the growth of okeanografiya va kartografiya Tinch okeanining Two of these ships were lost from accidents—one on the Columbia River in 1841. From the area of modern-day Portlend, Oregon, an overland party headed by Jorj F. Emmons was directed to proceed via an inland route to San Francisco Bay. This Emmons party traveled south along the Siskiyou izi shu jumladan Sakramento daryosi, making the first official recorded visit by Americans to and scientific note of Shasta tog'i, Kaliforniyaning shimoliy qismida. The Emmons party rejoined the ships, which had sailed south, in San Francisco Bay. After their return Wilkes published the major scientific works Western America, including California and Oregon (1849) va Theory of the Winds (1856).[29]
The Tinch okeani eskadrilyasi, established 1821, was part of the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari dengiz kuchlari squadron stationed in the Pacific Ocean in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Initially with no United States ports in the Pacific, they operated out of Naval storeships which provided naval supplies like powder and ammunition and purchased fresh supplies of food, wood and water from local ports of call in California, Hawaiian Islands (called the Sandviç orollari then) and ports and harbors on the Pacific Coast. The Pacific Squadron was instrumental in the capture of Alta Kaliforniya ichida Meksika-Amerika urushi 1846 yildan 1848 yilgacha.
The five American navy sailing ships initially stationed in the Pacific had a force of 350-400 AQSh dengiz piyodalari and bluejacket AQSh dengiz kuchlari sailors on board available for deployment and were essentially the only significant United States military force on the Pacific coast in the early months of the Mexican–American War. The Marines were stationed aboard each warship to assist in close in ship to ship combat for either samolyotga chiqish or repelling boarders and could be detached for use on land. In addition there were some sailors on each ship that could be detached from each vessel for shore duty and still leave the ship functional though short handed. Naval gunnery officers typically handled the small cannons deployed as artilleriya with the sailors and marines.
Hostilities between U.S. and Mexican troops commenced on 25 April 1846 with Mexican troops killing and capturing a number of U.S. Army ajdarholar in the future state of Texas. The Palo Alto jangi, the first major battle of the Mexican–American War, was fought on 8 May 1846, a few miles from the modern-day city of Braunsvill, Texas. A force of some 3,400 Mexican troops (a portion of the Army of The North) led by Mexican General Mariano Arista engaged a force of 2,400 United States troops under General Zakari Teylor. Taylor's forces drove the Mexicans from the field. The United States Congress responded to these hostilities by issuing a declaration of war against Mexico on 13 May 1846 – the Mexican–American War had begun.
Speculating that war with Mexico over Texas and other land was very possible, the U.S. Navy had sent several additional naval vessels to the Pacific in 1845 to protect U.S. interests there. It took about 200 days, on average, for sailing ships to travel the greater than 17,000 miles (27,000 km) trip from the East coast around Burun burni Kaliforniyaga. Initially as the war with Mexico started there were five vessels in the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron near California. In 1846 and 1847, after war was declared, this force was increased to 13 Navy suzib yuruvchi kemalar —over half the U.S. Navy's available ships. This would be the last conflict the U.S. Navy fought with only sailing vessels as they rapidly converted to bug 'kemalari shortly after this conflict.
The former fleet surgeon William M. Wood and John Parrot, the American Consul of Mazatlan, kirib keldi Gvadalaxara Mexico on 10 May 1846. There they heard word of the ongoing hostilities between the U.S. and Mexico forces and sent a message by special courier back to Commodore Sloat then visiting Mazatlán. On 17 May 1846 this courier's messages informed Commodore Sloat that hostilities between the U.S. and Mexico had commenced.[30] Komodor (kontr-admiral) Jon D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron and his fleet of four vessels were then at anchor in the harbor of Mazatlán.[31] On hearing the news Commodore Sloat dispatched his flagship, the frigate Savana (1842), va Sloop Levant (1837) ga Monterey harbor where they arrived on 2 July 1846. They joined the sloop Siyan (1837) allaqachon bor edi.[32] Britaniyaliklar ingliz kreditorlarini qondirish uchun Kaliforniyani anneksiya qilishga urinib ko'rishi mumkin degan AQShda qo'rquv bor edi.[33] Inglizlar Tinch okeani stantsiyasi Kaliforniyadan tashqarida bo'lgan kemalar kemalarda, qurollarda va odamlarda kuchliroq edi.[31]
Hearing rumors of possible Kalifornio military action against the newly arrived settlers in California (this had already happened in 1840),[34] some settlers decided to neutralize the small Kalifornio garnizon Sonoma, Kaliforniya. On 15 June 1846, some thirty settlers, mostly former American citizens, staged a revolt and seized the small Californio garrison in Sonoma without firing a shot. Initially there was little resistance from anyone in California as they replaced the dysfunctional and ineffective Mexican California government—which already had 40 Prezidentlar in the first 24 years of its existence. Most settlers and Californios were neutral or actively supported the revolt. Jon A. Satter and his men and supplies at Satter qal'asi joined the revolt[iqtibos kerak ]They raised the "Bayroq " ning Kaliforniya Respublikasi over Sonoma. The republic was in existence scarcely more than a week before the U.S. Army's Jon C. Front returned and took over on 23 June 1846 from Uilyam B. Ide ning rahbari Bear Flag qo'zg'oloni. The Kaliforniya shtati bayrog'i of today is based on this original Bear Flag and still contains the words "California Republic".
In 1846 the U.S. Navy was under orders to take over all California ports in the event of war. There were about 400–500 AQSh dengiz piyodalari and U.S. Navy bluejacket sailors available for possible land action on the Tinch okeani eskadrilyasi 's ships. Hearing word of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma and the arrival of the large British 2,600 ton, 600-man, man-of-war HMSKollingvud, flagship under Sir George S. Seymour, outside Monterey Harbor, Commodore Sloat was finally stirred to action. On 7 July 1846—seven weeks after war had been declared, Commodore Jon D. Sloat instructed the Captains of the ships USSSavana va sloops USSSiyan va USSLevant of the Pacific Squadron in Monterey ko'rfazi egallamoq Monterey, Kaliforniya —the Alta California capital. Fifty American marines and about 100 bluejacket sailors landed and captured the city without incident—the few Californio troops formerly there having already evacuated the city. They raised the flag of the United States without firing a shot. The only shots fired were a 21 gun salute to the new 28 star U.S. flag fired by each of the U.S. Navy ships in the harbor.[35] The British ships observed but took no action—getting a message to and from Britain requesting new orders to interfere would have taken from one to two years.
Tashlandiq Presidio va San-Fransisko-de-Asis missiyasi (Mission Dolores) at San Francisco, (then called Yerba Buena ), was occupied without firing a shot on 9 July 1846 by U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy sailors from the sloop USSPortsmut. Militsiya kapitani Tomas Fallon led a small force of about 22 men from Santa-Kruz, Kaliforniya, and captured the small town of Pueblo de San Jose without bloodshed on 11 July 1846. Fallon received an American flag from Commodore John D. Sloat, and raised it over the pueblo on 14 July. On 15 July 1846, Commodore (Rear Admiral) Jon D. Sloat transferred his command of the Pacific Squadron to Commodore Robert F. Stokton when Stockton's ship, the frekat Kongress, arrived from Hawaii. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader, asked Fremont to form a joint force of Fremont's soldiers, scouts, guides etc. and a volunteer militia—many former Bear Flag Revolters. This unit called the Kaliforniya batalyoni was mustered into U.S. service and were paid regular army wages. On 19 July, Frémont's newly formed "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 men. These men included Fremont's 30 topographical men and their 30 scouts and hunters, U.S. Marine Lieutenant Archibald H. Gillespie, a U.S. Navy officer to handle their two zambaraklar, a company of Indians trained by Sutter and many other doimiy California settlers from several different countries as well as American settlers. The California Battalion members were used mainly to garrison and keep order in the rapidly surrendering California towns. The Navy went down the coast from San Francisco, occupying ports without resistance as they went. The small pueblo (town) of San-Diego surrendered 29 July 1846 without a shot being fired. The small pueblo of Santa Barbara surrendered without a shot being fired in August 1846. On 13 August 1846 a joint force of U.S. Marines, bluejacket sailors and parts of Fremont's California Battalion carried by the USSSiyan kirdi Los-Anjeles, Kaliforniya with flags flying and band playing. Kapitan Archibald H. Gillespie, (Fremont's second in command), with an inadequate force of 40 to 50 men were left to occupy and keep order in the largest town (about 3,500) in Alta Kaliforniya —Los Angeles.
On 11 July the British Qirollik floti bema'ni HMSJuno enters San Francisco Bay causing Montgomery to man his defenses. The large British ship, 2,600 ton, urush odami HMSKollingvud, flagship under Sir George S. Seymour, also shows up about this time outside Monterey Harbor. Both British ships observe, but did not enter the conflict.[36]
Shortly after 9 July when it became clear the American Navy was taking action, the short-lived Bear Flag Republic was converted into a United States military conflict for possession of California and the Bayroq (the basis for today's Kaliforniya bayrog'i ) was replaced by the U.S. flag]. Fremont expeditionary forces joined forces with a volunteer force of California residents to form a small volunteer militia. Frigat USSKongress was the flagship of Commodore Robert F. Stokton when he took over as the senior United States military commander in California in late July 1846. Stockton asked Fremont to muster the troops and volunteers under his command into the Kaliforniya batalyoni to help garrison the towns rapidly being captured from the Californios. Most towns surrendered without a shot being fired. Fremont's California Battalion members were sworn in and the volunteers paid the regular United States Army salary of $25.00 a month for privates with higher pay for officers. The California Battalion varied in size with time from about 160 initially to over 450 by January 1847. Pacific Squadron war ships and storeships served as floating store houses keeping Fremont's volunteer force in the California Battalion supplied with qora kukun, o'q otish and supplies as well as transporting them to different California ports. The USSSiyan transported Fremont and about 160 of his men to the small port of San Diego which was captured on 29 July 1846 without a shot being fired.A minor Californio revolt broke out in Los Angeles and the United States force there of 40–50 men evacuated the city for a time. Later, U.S.forces fought minor scrimmages in the San-Pasqual jangi, Dominguez Rancho jangi, va Rio-San-Gabrielning jangi. After the Los Angeles revolt started the California Battalion was expanded to a force of about 400 men. In early January 1847 a 600-man joint force of U.S. Marine, U.S. Navy bluejacket sailors, General Stiven V. Kearni 's 80 U.S. Army dragoons (cavalrymen) and about two companies of Fremont's California Battalion re-occupied Los Angeles after some minor skirmishes—after four months the same U.S. fag again flew over Los Angeles. The minor armed resistance in California ceased when the Californios imzolagan Cahuenga shartnomasi on 13 January 1847. The Californios who had wrested control of California from Mexico in 1845 now had a new government.[37]
After the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed, the Pacific Squadron then went on to capture all Quyi Kaliforniya cities and harbors and sink or capture all the Mexican Pacific Navy they could find. Baja California was returned to Mexico in subsequent Guadalupe Hidalgo shartnomasi muzokaralar. More reinforcements of about 320 soldiers (and a few women) of the Mormon batalyoni arrived at San Diego, California on 28 January 1847—after hostilities had ceased. They had been recruited from the Mormon camps on the Missuri daryosi —about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away. These troops were recruited with the understanding they would be discharged in California with their weapons. Most were discharged before July 1847. More reinforcements in the form of Colonel Jonathan D. Stivenson "s Nyu-York ko'ngillilarining 1-polki of about 648 men showed up in March–April 1847—again after hostilities had ceased. Uchta xususiy savdo kemalari, Tomas X Perkins, Loo Choova Syuzan Dryu, charter qilingan va sloop USSPreble konvoy detallari tayinlandi. On 26 September the four ships left New York for California. Fifty men who had been left behind for various reasons sailed on 13 November 1846 on the small storeship USSBrutus. The Syuzan Dryu va Loo Choo yetdi Valparaiso, Chile by 20 January 1847 and after getting fresh supplies, water and wood were on their way again by 23 January. The Perkins did not stop until San Francisco, reaching port on 6 March 1847. The Syuzan Dryu arrived on 20 March 1847 and the Loo Choo arrived on 26 March 1847, 183 days after leaving New York. The Brutus finally arrived on 17 April 1847. After desertions and deaths in transit, four ships brought Stevenson's 648 men to California. Initially they took over all of the Pacific Squadron's on-shore military and garrison duties and the Mormon Battalion and California Battalion's garrison duties. The New York Volunteer companies were deployed from San Francisco in Alta California to La-Pas, Meksika yilda Quyi Kaliforniya. Kema Izabella sailed from Philadelphia on 16 August 1847, with a detachment of one hundred soldiers, and arrived in California on 18 February 1848, the following year, at about the same time that the ship Shvetsiya arrived with another detachment of soldiers. These soldiers were added to the existing companies of Stevenson's Nyu-York ko'ngillilarining 1-polki. These troops were recruited with the understanding they would discharged in California. When gold was discovered in late January 1848, many of Stevenson's troops deserted.
California Gold Rush shipping
The first to hear confirmed information of the Kaliforniya Gold Rush were the people in Oregon, Sandviç orollari (Hawaii), Mexico, Peru va Chili and they were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848. By the end of 1848, some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California.[38] Prezident Jeyms K. Polk made the "official" announcement of the discovery of gold in California during his State of the Union Address on 5 December 1848 and displayed about 300 ounces of California gold at the War Department. Excitement grew as rumors, reports of officers and soldiers in California, newspaper accounts all seemed to confirm that there was a tremendous amount of gold in California—just waiting to be picked up. Sam Brannan, publisher of the newspaper the Kaliforniya yulduzi at San Francisco, is regarded as starting the "Gold Rush" with stories about the large amount of gold found throughout late 1848 and 1849.
These "forty-niners" left behind families and jobs in the hope of instant wealth. A few succeeded handsomely, but the gold fields destroyed some and disappointed many more. The gold fields were very lucrative with up to $50,000,000 in gold being found every year for several years; but the gold finds were spread very unevenly. As the easily mined placer gold deposits were worked out the much more capital intensive hard rock mining took over. Americans and foreigners of many different countries, statuses, classes, and races rushed to California for gold. Almost all (~96%) were young men under age 40.[39] Kaliforniyadagi oltin shoshilinch ayollar were initially less than 4% of the population in 1850 and had many opportunities to do new things and take on new tasks in women poor California. Argonavtlar, as they were often called, walked over the Kaliforniya izi or came by sea. About 80,000 Argonauts arrived in 1849 alone—about 40,000 over the California trail and 40,000 by sea. In April 1850, a harbor master's estimate counted 62,000 people from across the globe arriving in San Francisco by ship in the preceding 12 months. Hundreds of ships lay abandoned, anchored in San-Fransisko ko'rfazi, their passengers and crews abandoning the ships to search for gold.
A popular concept of the California Gold Rush portrays the overland migration coming by wagon, yet according to the evidence, more people journeyed by sea. A typical wagon journey took about 140 days while a voyage by paddle wheel steamer, a short land trip and another paddle wheel steamer could be done in as short as 40 days over the Isthmus of Panama or Nicaragua route once the shipping lines were established in about 1850. Before farms could be set up, cities and industries built, etc. an early maritime traffic in passengers, food, lumber and building supplies were established with Pacific rim countries like Chile, Mexico, Hawaii and the future state of Oregon. Tools, clothing, and everything needed for an 1850 standard of living for miners and an expanding population would in most cases have to initially be imported from the East coast of the United States or Europe. Sea transport was about the only way cargo of any kind could be delivered to California. High value cargo like gold and passengers usually went by the Panama or Nicaragua route. Bulkier, lower value cargo, usually went by sailing ship around Burun burni. A standard sailing ship took an average of about 200 days to go this route while the faster Clipper kemalari averaged about 140 days. Carrying any significant amount of goods cross country by wagon over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of bad road was a slow, costly process that was seldom done. Gacha emas Birinchi transkontinental temir yo'l was completed in 1869 was there any easy way to move cargo across land to California. Even today, bulky or heavy cargo is usually sent by ship because it is cheap and efficient, though slower than other methods.(Note: Paddle wheel steamers did not reach California by sea until long after the gold "rush" had ended. See later in this article for the date which was long after the "rush")
Some enterprising Argonavtlar set up businesses to furnish, feed, and entertain the region's growing population. Some merchants, gamblers, saloon keepers, ko'ngil ochuvchilar, hotel owners, restaurant owners etc. were as likely to prosper as the successful prospectors. The lack of money (specie) often meant that transactions and wages were paid in several different currencies or in gold dust. The population of San Francisco boomed as it was the main entry point for sea born travelers and goods of all kinds. San Francisco by 1850 was declared the main Kirish porti in California for all imported goods. The federal government's got 91% of its income in 1850 from tariflar or custom duties of about 23% on foreign imports. By 1850 San Francisco had a population of about 20,000 (the largest city in California then) that had swelled to over 36,000 by the 1852 California Census. The population of California grew from 8,000 in 1846 to about 120,000 in 1850.[39]
The vast majority of the California Argonavtlar (as they were frequently called) were young Anglo men from the United States. Those on the East Coast who could afford the trip usually traveled on eshkakli paroxodlar va vaqti-vaqti bilan suzib yuruvchi kemalar to Panama, Nicaragua or Mexico; they then traveled by land to the Pacific and caught another ship to California. Those who lived in the Mid West usually went by wagon, as many already had a wagon and team and were familiar with wagon travel and often already had or could quickly purchase any additional wagons, animals, supplies and equipment needed for a long wagon trip.(A great many Chinese men came to California, very early in the Gold Rush, having only to cross the Pacific by boat, rather than sail all the way around The Horn or cross the treacherous Isthmus of Panama as many of the Anglo men had to do.)
The traffic to California was so heavy that in two years these settlers, combined with those coming by wagon from Solt Leyk-Siti (Salt Lake was not yet a city, by any means; it was a "new" settlement, where the Mormon leaders had taken their people with the hope of living in peace, free from outsiders), Utah to Los Angeles in winter, the travelers down the Gila daryosi iz Arizona. (See Notes:) to make it the 31st state. All land routes were restricted to the seasons where travel was feasible. The trip by wagon was a four- to six-month ordeal across over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of land from a Missuri daryosi town to California or across the deserts of Arizona yoki Nevada Kaliforniyaga. Those going by wagon train could not leave until the snow melted and the trails were dry and enough grass had started to feed their livestock—usually early May. Most of those traveling by wagon already lived in the mid-west and many already had a wagon. The Solt Leyk-Siti, Utah to Los Angeles trail was usually restricted by lack of water to winter. [The vast majority of the early travelers came from the settlements near the Missouri River who left the river in the Spring when dangers of snow had passed, and traveling by wagon, cart, or mule (more durable than horses) they moved westward.]
There were four major routes by sea: eshkakli paroxod (or occasionally sailing ship) to the future countries of Panama, Nicaragua or Mexico, a trip across land to the Pacific and then a trip by paddle steamer to California. These routes were used by travelers who could afford them being the fastest—about 40–60 days. The other major sea route was by sea around Burun burni yoki Magellan Boğazı and on to California—this trip typically took over 200 days and was the main shipping route for merchandise. Most of those traveling by ship lived on the Eastern seaboard and were acquainted with sea borne commerce and travel.
Those traveling by land and sea to California had enough residents in California by 1850 (about 120,000 by corrected 1850 U.S. Census data)[40] (See Notes:) for California in 1850 to become the 31st state.
The paddlewheel steamer
1849 yilga kelib, dengiz sanoati suzib yuradigan qayiqlardan bug 'bilan ishlaydigan qayiqlarga va yog'och qurilishidan tobora ko'payib borayotgan metall konstruktsiyasiga o'tdi. Odatda uchta turli xil kemalar ishlatilgan: standart suzib yuruvchi kemalar bir nechta turli xil turlari.[41] Klippers va eshkakli paroxodlar yon tomonga yoki orqaga o'rnatilgan belkuraklar bilan. Daryo bug 'qayiqlari, odatda, orqa tomondan o'rnatiladigan eshkaklardan foydalangan va tubi tekis va tanasi sayoz bo'lgan, odatda silliq va vaqti-vaqti bilan sayoz daryolarda katta yuklarni ko'tarish uchun mo'ljallangan. Okeanga chiqadigan yelkanli paroxodlar odatda yon g'ildirakli eshkaklar va dengizda uchraydigan tez-tez bo'ronli ob-havo sharoitida sayohat qilish uchun mo'ljallangan torroq chuqurroq korpuslardan foydalanilgan. Kema korpus dizayn ko'pincha qayiq g'ildiraklari qo'pol suvga duch kelganda yuklarni va zo'riqishlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun qo'shimcha mustahkamlovchi qo'shimchali kema dizayniga asoslangan edi.
Uzoq ummonda sayohat qilgan birinchi belkurak-paroxod uzunligi 320 tonna, uzunligi 98 fut (30 m) bo'lgan. SSSavana, 1819 yilda aniq qurilgan paketli kema pochta va yo'lovchilarga xizmat ko'rsatish "Liverpul", Angliya. 1819 yil 22-may kuni soat Savana 23 kun dengizda bo'lganidan keyin Irlandiyani ko'rdi. The Allaire temir ishlari etkazib beriladigan Nyu-York Savannaga tegishli"s dvigatel tsilindri,[42] qolgan dvigatel qismlari va yurish moslamalari Speedwell temir zavodi ning Nyu-Jersi. 90 ot kuchiga ega past bosimli dvigatel moyil to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ishlaydigan turdagi bo'lib, uning diametri 40 dyuym (100 sm) bo'lgan bitta silindr va 5 fut (1,5 m) zarbasi bo'lgan. SavanaDvigatel va mexanizmlar o'z vaqtlari uchun juda katta edi. Kema temir belkuraklar diametri 16 fut bo'lgan, har bir g'ildirak uchun sakkizta chelak bo'lgan. Yoqilg'i uchun kema 75 tonna ko'mir va 25 ta tashiydi simlar (91 m3 ) yog'och.[43]
SS Savana juda yoqilg'ini tashish uchun juda kichik edi va dvigatel faqat tinch ob-havo sharoitida foydalanish va portlardan chiqish va chiqish uchun mo'ljallangan edi. Faqatgina yelkanlar qulay shamol ostida kamida to'rtta tugun tezligini ta'minlay olishdi. The Savana tijorat muvaffaqiyati emas deb baholandi va uning dvigateli olib tashlandi va yana oddiy suzib yuradigan kemaga aylantirildi. 1848 yilga kelib, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Britaniyaning kema quruvchilari tomonidan qurilgan paroxodlar allaqachon Atlantika okeanida pochta va yo'lovchilarga xizmat ko'rsatish uchun ishlatilgan edi - bu 4800 km masofani bosib o'tdi.
Dvigatellarning ishlashini ta'minlash uchun eshkakli paroxodlar odatda kuniga 5 dan 16 tonnagacha ko'mir talab qilar ekan, ularni ishlatish ancha qimmatga tushdi. Dastlab deyarli barcha dengiz paroxodlari ustunni to'ldirish uchun ustun va yelkan bilan jihozlangan bug 'dvigateli bug 'dvigatelini ta'mirlash yoki texnik xizmat ko'rsatishga muhtoj bo'lgan holatlarda quvvat va quvvatni ta'minlang. Ushbu paroxodlar odatda qimmatbaho yuklar, pochta va yo'lovchilarga e'tiborni qaratgan va kerakli miqdordagi ko'mir tufayli faqatgina o'rtacha yuk tashish imkoniyatlariga ega bo'lgan. Odatda g'ildirakli g'ildirakli bug 'kemasi ko'mir yoqadigan dvigatel bilan ta'minlangan bo'lib, o't o'chiruvchilarni ko'mirni burnerlarga belkurak bilan haydashni talab qiladi.[44][45]
1849 yilga kelib vida pervanel ixtiro qilingan va asta-sekin joriy etila boshlangan edi, chunki temir kema qurilishida tobora ko'proq foydalanilmoqda va pervanellar tomonidan etkazilgan stressni qoplash mumkin edi. 1800-yillarda yog'och kemalarni tayyorlash uchun zarur bo'lgan yog'och va yog'ochlar tobora qimmatlashdi va temir kema qurish uchun zarur bo'lgan temir plastinka ancha arzonlashdi, chunki katta temir ishlaydi. Merthyr Tydfil Masalan, Uels, yanada samarali bo'ldi. Pervanel kemalarning orqa tomoniga katta stressni keltirib chiqardi va 1860 yilga kelib, yog'och qayiqlardan temir qayiqlarga o'tish oxirigacha keng tarqalishni ko'rmadi. 1840 yillarga kelib okean paroxodlari sanoati yaxshi rivojlangan edi. sifatida Cunard Line va boshqalar namoyish qildilar.
1846 yilda Oregon shtatidagi chegara bo'yicha nizo Buyuk Britaniya bilan hisob-kitob qilingan va Kaliforniya 1847 yilda bosib olingan va 1848 yilda qo'shib olingan. Qo'shma Shtatlar endi Tinch okeanining davlati edi. 1848 yil Kongressda, Kaliforniya qo'shilgandan keyin, ammo undan oldin Kaliforniya Gold Rush u erda tasdiqlangan, subsidiyalashgan Tinch okeani pochta orqali paroxodlik kompaniyasi $ 199,999 bilan muntazam ravishda o'rnatiladi paketli kema, Tinch okeanida pochta, yo'lovchi va yuk tashish yo'nalishlari. Bu muntazam ravishda rejalashtirilgan yo'nalish bo'lishi kerak edi Panama shahri, Nikaragua va Meksika va dan San-Fransisko va Oregon. Panama Siti Tinch okeanining terminusi edi Panama Istmusi Panama bo'ylab yurish. Atlantika okeanining pochta shartnomasi Sharqiy sohil shaharlaridan va Yangi Orlean ga va dan Chagres daryosi Panamada Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining pochta orqali paroxodlik kompaniyasi kimning birinchi belkurak g'ildiragi paroxod, SS Falcon (1848) 1848 yil 1 dekabrda Karib dengizi (Atlantika) terminaliga jo'natildi. Panama Istmusi iz - the Chagres daryosi.
The SS Kaliforniya (1848), birinchi Tinch okeani pochta orqali paroxodlik kompaniyasi belkurak g'ildiragi paroxod, chapda Nyu-York shahri 1848 yil 6-oktabrda uning faqat qisman yuki 60 ga yaqin salon (taxminan 300 dollar) va 150 ta boshqarish (150 dollar atrofida) yo'lovchilarga mo'ljallangan. Faqat bir nechtasi Kaliforniyaga qadar borar edi.[46] Uning ekipaji taxminan 36 kishidan iborat edi. Bu so'zlar tasdiqlanmasdan oldin u Nyu-Yorkni tark etdi Kaliforniya Gold Rush Sharqiy sohilga etib borgan. Bir marta Kaliforniya Gold Rush Prezident tomonidan tasdiqlangan Jeyms Polk uning ichida Ittifoq manzili 1848 yil 5-dekabrda odamlar SS Kaliforniya shtatini egallash uchun Panama shahriga shoshilishdi. The SSKaliforniya ko'proq yo'lovchilarni olib kelishdi Valparaiso Chili va Panama shahri Panama va San-Frantsiskoga kelib, 1849 yil 28 fevralda 400 ga yaqin yo'lovchilarni, ya'ni yo'lovchilarga mo'ljallanganidan ikki barobar ko'proq yuklangan. U Panama shahridan o'tishni qidirayotgan yana 400-600 nafar potentsial yo'lovchini qoldirdi. The SS Kaliforniya Panama va Meksikadan bug'langandan keyin safarga chiqqan edi Burun burni Nyu-Yorkdan - qarang SS Kaliforniya (1848).
Nyu-York, Filadelfiya, Boston, Nyu-Orlean va Gavana orqali belkurakli paroxod bilan Panama va Nikaraguaga sayohatlar taxminan 2600 mil (4200 km) uzoq va ikki hafta davom etdi. Bo'ylab sayohatlar Panama Istmusi yoki Nikaragua odatda mahalliy tomonidan bir hafta davom etgan kanoe va xachir orqaga. San-Frantsiskodan Panama-Siti shahriga yoki undan 4000 mil (6400 km) masofani bosib o'tish mumkin edi belkurak g'ildiragi taxminan uch hafta ichida paroxod. Panama marshruti orqali ushbu sayohat vaqtidan tashqari, odatda kemani topish uchun ikki-to'rt haftalik kutish davri bo'lgan Panama shahri, Panama, 1850 yilgacha San-Frantsiskoga. Atlantika va Tinch okeani yo'nalishlarida muntazam ravishda qatnovlarni amalga oshirish uchun yetarli g'ildirakli g'ildiraklar mavjud bo'lganidan 1850 yil oldin edi.
Tez orada boshqa paroxodlar ergashdi va 1849 yil oxiriga kelib SSga o'xshash g'ildirakli paroxodlar Mckim (1848)[47] San-Frantsiskodan 125 mil (201 km) uzoqlikda sayohatchilar va ularning ta'minot materiallarini olib ketishgan Sakramento – San-Xoakin daryosi deltasi ga Stokton, Kaliforniya, Merisvill, Kaliforniya, Sakramento va boshqalarni oltin konlariga taxminan 201 mil (201 km) yaqinlashtirish. Bug 'ishlaydi tortish kemalari va qayiqchalar San-Frantsisko ko'rfazida ushbu ko'rfazda va tashqarida yuk tashishni tezlashtirish uchun ko'p o'tmay ish boshladi.
Yo'lovchilar, pochta va Kaliforniyadagi yuk tashish biznesida tobora rivojlanib borar ekan, ko'proq eshkakli paroxodlar ishga tushirildi - o'n bitta Tinch okeanining pochta bug'lik kompaniyasining o'zi. Panama va belkurakli g'ildirakli paroxodlar orqali Kaliforniyaga qaytib kelish va qaytish, agar yuk tashishni kutish bo'lmasa, taxminan 40 kun ichida amalga oshirilishi mumkin edi - vagonga qaraganda 100 kundan kam yoki sayohatdan 160 kunga kamroq. Burun burni. Kaliforniyalik argonavtlarning taxminan 20-30% o'z uylariga, asosan AQShning Sharqiy sohilida Panama orqali - uyga eng tez yo'l bilan qaytgan deb o'ylashadi. Ko'pchilik xotin-qizlari, oilalari va / yoki sevgililari bilan Sharqda o'z bizneslarini joylashtirgandan keyin Kaliforniyaga qaytib kelishdi. Panama yoki Nikaragua yo'nalishidan 1855 yilgacha foydalanilgan Panama temir yo'li Panama marshrutini ancha oson, tezkor va ishonchli qildi. 1849 va 1869 yillar orasida Birinchi transkontinental temir yo'l Qo'shma Shtatlar bo'ylab 800 mingga yaqin sayohatchilar Panama marshrutidan foydalanganlar.[48] Har yili Kaliforniyada topilgan taxminan 50,000,000 dollarlik oltinning aksariyati Panama yo'nalishi bo'yicha parrakli paroxodlar, xachir poyezdlari va kanolarda va keyinchalik Panama temir yo'li Panama bo'ylab. Panama temir yo'li qurib bo'lingandan so'ng 1855 yildan so'ng Panama yo'li AQSh yoki Evropaning Sharqiy qirg'og'idan Kaliforniyaga yoki undan qaytishning eng tezkor va eng oson yo'li edi. Kaliforniyadagi tovarlarning aksariyati hali ham sekinroq, ammo arzonroq ishlatilgan Burun burni yelkanli kema marshrut. Ning cho'kishi eshkakli paroxod SSMarkaziy Amerika (the Oltin kema1857 yil 12 sentyabrda bo'lgan bo'ronda va Kaliforniyadagi oltinning taxminan 2 million dollar yo'qotilishi bilvosita 1857 yilgi vahima.
Yelkanli kemalar
Muntazam suzib yuruvchi kemalar Asrlar davomida ishlab chiqarilgan va takomillashtirilgan transport vositalari eng arzon va eng sekin transport vositalaridir. Bir nechta bor edi yelkanli kemalarning turlari. Ular, odatda, 20 kishidan iborat kichik ekipaj yordamida katta miqdordagi yuklarni tashish uchun optimallashtirilgan va suzib yurgan kemalar birgalikda old va orqadagi taktikalar va kvadrat arma. Yuklar vaqtni sezgir bo'lmaganda, ular deyarli barcha shaharlararo transport va yo'lovchilarga xizmat ko'rsatish uchun ishlatilgan. Yelkanli davr oxirida shamol shamollari katta miqdordagi arzon yuklarni uzoq masofalarga tashish uchun ishlab chiqilgan. Eng mashhur kemalardan ba'zilari to'rtta ustunli barkalar edi, chunki to'rtta ustunli barka eng qulay burg'ulash moslamasi hisoblanadi, chunki uni boshqarish qulayligi, ishchi kuchiga kichik ehtiyoj, yaxshi ishlash qobiliyati va shamolga ko'tarilish qobiliyati.
Bir marta San-Frantsiskoda ekipajlar ko'pincha kemalarni tark etishdi. Kema egalari Kaliforniyadan Sharqiy sohilga qaytib ketish uchun ozgina yukni topdilar va kemalar ko'pincha qaytib kelishdi balast foydasiz toshlarning yuklari bilan. Ko'pgina kemalar eskirgan va qimmat texnik xizmat ko'rsatishni talab qilganligi sababli va ekipajni topish juda qiyin bo'lgan va / yoki juda qimmat bo'lgan yuzlab kemalar tashlab yuborilgan yoki juda arzon narxlarda sotilgan. Yerba Buena koyi. Boshqalari do'kon kemalariga yoki suzuvchi omborlarga, do'konlarga, mehmonxonalarga, qamoqxonalarga va hokazolarga aylantirildi. Ba'zi tashlab ketilgan kemalar arzonga sotib olindi, balast bilan to'ldirildi va mavjud bo'lganlarni kattalashtirish uchun baland to'lqinda loyli uylarga cho'ktirildi. iskala va docklar. San-Frantsiskoning ko'plab dengiz qutqarish firmalaridan biri tomonidan Gold Rush davridagi kemalar odatda uning yuqori ishlaridan va barcha foydalanish mumkin bo'lgan armaturalaridan mahrum qilingan, so'ngra chiquvchilar ko'rfazdagi loy tekisliklarini to'ldirib, suvni chuqurroqqa olib chiqish uchun qurilgan suv toshqini qurganligi sababli qoldiqlar va qum bilan qoplangan. o'rnatish kemalarini joylashtirish uchun. 1857 yilga kelib Yerba Buena koyida qayta ishlatilmay qolgan deyarli tashlab yuborilgan dengiz kemalari dengiz qutqaruviga yuborilgan yoki kema buzilishi barcha yaroqli dastgohlar, ankrajlar va boshqalar olib tashlangan firmalar, misning pastki qismi (taxminan 3000 funt (3600 kg) mis) qutqarildi va yog'ochlar olib tashlandi va boshqa foydalanish uchun ajratildi. Tez sur'atlar bilan kengayib borayotgan San-Frantsisko shahriga barcha kirib kelayotgan tovarlarni saqlash uchun joy kerak edi va dengiz bo'yidagi ancha katta inshootlar - Kaliforniya ilova qilinganida u erda yo'q edi. Dastlab suv omborida kerakli omborlar, iskala, dock qurish uchun vaqt yo'q edi. 2001 yil sentyabr oyining boshlarida General Harrison, qurilish paytida Batareya va Kley ko'chalarining shimoli-g'arbiy qismida topilgan. U 1840 yilda qurilgan Nyuberport, Massachusets va 1850 yilgacha bir muddat tashlab qo'yilgan va do'kon kemasiga (omborga) aylangan. Uning uzunligi 126,1 fut (38,4 m), kengligi 26,5 fut (8,1 m), chuqurligi 13,25 fut (4,04 m) va 409 tonnani ko'chirgan. U San-Frantsiskoning dastlabki yong'inlaridan birida suv o'tkazgichiga yoqib yuborilgan. Qoldiqlar, shu jumladan bortdagi ba'zi do'konlar, qum bilan to'ldirilgan va qurilgan.[49]
Oddiy suzib yuruvchi kemaning o'rtacha amalga oshirilgan tezligi soatiga 3,5 milya (5,6 km) ni tashkil etdi, qayiqchilar tez-tez soatiga 16 milya (16 km) tezlikka erishishlari mumkin, bug'li kemalar soatiga o'rtacha 8 mil (13 km) .
Qaychi
The qaychi, taxminan 1840-1860 yillarda ishlab chiqilgan va asosan ishlatilgan, bu ixtiro qilingan so'nggi va "eng yaxshi" tijorat suzib yuruvchi kemalaridir. Klipperlar ko'proq suzib yurishgan va tezroq korpuslarga ega edilar va hozirgi kungacha ishlab chiqilgan eng tez suzib yuradigan kemalar edilar. Klipperlar katta suzib yuradigan sayohatchilarni jalb qilish uchun ko'proq ekipajni talab qildilar va odatda yo'lovchilar uchun joy kam bo'lgan qimmatbaho yuklarni tashishdi. Ideal sharoitda qaychi 20 milya (17 kn; 32 km / soat) tezlikda qayd etilgan - bir kunda 450 milya (720 km) masofani bosib o'tgan. Uzoq safar davomida o'rtacha tezlik taxminan 8 milya (7,0 kn; soatiga 13 km) edi. Oddiy qaychi yuqori qiymatga ega, katta hajmli yuklarni tashiydi va odatda atigi olti nafar yo'lovchini tashiydi. Ular bilan raqobatlashdi eshkakli paroxodlar Panama, Nikaragua va Meksika yo'nalishlarida. Qisqa muddatlarda harakat qilganligi sababli, bu eshkakli paroxodlar tezroq, ammo yurish ancha qimmatga tushar edi va odatda yo'lovchilar, pochta va oltin etkazib berish kabi qimmatbaho yuklarni qabul qilar edi. Clippers Sharqiy sohil shaharlari va San-Frantsisko o'rtasida 27000 km (27000 km) masofani bosib o'tishda o'rtacha 120 kunlik yo'lni bosib o'tgan - bu odatdagidan taxminan 80 kun tezroq sayohat. suzib yuruvchi kemalar.
1845 yilda Kamalak, 757 tonna OM, birinchi haddan tashqari qaychi Nyu-Yorkda ishga tushirildi. Ushbu Amerika qaychi tezligi uchun yuk tashish imkoniyatlarini qurbon qilishga mo'ljallangan katta kemalar edi. Ular suv ustida cho'zilgan kamonga ega edilar, oldinga siljib, charxlab oldilar va eng katta kenglik orqada edi. Ekstremal qaychi 1845 yildan 1855 yilgacha qurilgan.
Clippers ba'zan Tinch okeani orqali Shanxayga yoki Xitoyning boshqa bir portiga choy, shoyi, chinni va boshqalar o'zlarining portiga foydali qaytib kelish uchun. Shu bilan bir qatorda, qaytib kelish kerak edi balast toshlarning foydasiz yuklari bilan. Ba'zi Klipperslar Gavayidagi Kaliforniya yo'nalishlarida ishlatilgan, chunki ular asosan oziq-ovqat zaxiralarini Kaliforniyaga etkazib berishgan.
1853 yilda qaychi Bulutli uchish Nyu-York shahridan suzib, San-Frantsisko atrofida aylanib chiqdi Burun burni 89 kun ichida 8 soat; 1989 yilga qadar 136 yil davom etgan rekord, yelkanli qayiq Payshanba kuni bola[50] o'tishni 80 kun va 20 soat ichida yakunladi BOC Challenge 1986–87. Rekord yana bir bor 2008 yilda maxsus qurilgan frantsuz poyga yaxtasi tomonidan yangilandi Gitana 13, 43 kun va 38 daqiqa vaqt bilan.
Panama orqali Kaliforniyaga
1849 yil o'rtalariga kelib odamlarni og'zidan tushirib yuboradigan paroxod liniyalari mavjud edi Chagres daryosi ning Karib dengizi tomonida Panama. O'shanda Chagres daryosining og'zida hech qanday aloqa moslamalari bo'lmagan va yo'lovchilar kichik qayiqlarda qirg'oqqa kelishlari kerak edi - bu yomon ob-havo sharoitida oson ish emas. Sharqdan g'arbga tranzit Panama Istmusi mahalliy tomonidan 48 km uzoqlikda bo'lgan bug'doy qayiqlari (keyinchalik o'zgartirilgan qutqaruv kemalari ishlatilgan) tez-tez yovvoyi va xavfli Chagres daryosiga, so'ngra xachir orqaga qaytib, so'nggi Ispaniya yo'llari bo'ylab 32 km masofaga qaytishgan. Taxminan apreldan dekabrgacha bo'lgan yomg'irli mavsumda yo'llar deyarli 50 yildan ortiq vaqt davomida parvarish qilinmaganligi yoki umuman yo'qligi va har yili 3 metrgacha yomg'ir yog'ishidan so'ng jiddiy buzilib ketgan. Asosiy muammolardan biri Panama Istmusi orqali yuklarni va yuklarni ishonchli tashish edi. Barcha kelishuvlar amalga oshirilgandan va to'lovlar amalga oshirilgandan keyin ham, sizning yukingiz kelishi uchun Panamada bir necha hafta kutish g'ayrioddiy emas edi. Atlantika okeanidan Tinch okeaniga (yoki Tinch okeanidan Atlantika tomon) tranzit odatda to'rtdan sakkiz kungacha kanop va xachirdan orqaga qaytish yo'li bilan amalga oshiriladi. Tranzit xavfli va kasalliklarga to'la edi. Kirishdan keyin Panama shahri sayohatchiga issiq, iflos, gavjum, kasallikka chalingan shaharda yuklari kelguncha kutish kerak edi, keyin esa eshkakli paroxod yoki yelkanli kema Kaliforniyaga yo'l oldi. Dastlab duch kelgan asosiy muammolardan biri - kemaga Kaliforniyaga o'tish - Panama-Siti shahrida qurilgan yo'lovchilar va yuklarni tashish uchun kemalar etarli emas edi. 1849 yil oxiriga kelib, Panama shahri va Nikaragua va Meksikaning boshqa portlariga San-Frantsiskoga qaytib boradigan eshkakli paroxod marshrutlari o'rnatildi. Panama-Siti kambag'al portga ega edi va yana kemalar qirg'oqqa langar tashladilar va ularga chiqish uchun kichik qayiq kerak edi.
Panama, Nikaragua yoki Meksikadan o'tib Kaliforniyaga boradiganlar sayohat qilishdan ko'ra tezroq sayohat qilishgan Burun burni yoki olib Kaliforniya izi Kaliforniyaga. Yuk tashish va tranzit aloqalarini o'rnatishni nazarda tutgan holda odatiy sayohat taxminan 30-90 kun ichida amalga oshirilishi mumkin. Panama, Nikaragua yoki Meksika yo'llarining eng katta nogironligi 1849 yil oxirida ularni Kaliforniyaga etkazish uchun rejalashtirilgan Tinch okeanida yuk tashish tashkil etilguncha kutish edi. Ushbu marshrutlar o'limga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan kasallikka duchor bo'lish va qaroqchilar hujumiga tahdid solishi mumkin. Afsuski, 1849 yil o'rtalaridan oxirigacha Tinch okeanidagi Panama, Nikaragua yoki Meksikadan Kaliforniyaga yuklarni etkazib berish juda muammoli edi. Pochta orqali qaytib kelgan oltin qazib oluvchilar va oltin etkazib berish deyarli barchasi Panama yo'lidan foydalanilgan. 1849 va 1850 yillarda Panama marshrutidan foydalangan yo'lovchilar soni noma'lum, ammo o'n minglab odamlar bilan raqamlangan bo'lishi kerak. 1851 yilda Panama yo'lidan 29,600 yo'lovchi foydalangan. Bu 1852 yilda 33000 yo'lovchiga ko'paygan va 1853 yilda 27200 yo'lovchiga tushgan.[51] vaqtga kelib Birinchi transkontinental temir yo'l 1869 yilda Qo'shma Shtatlarda qurib bitkazilgan, 800000 sayohatchilar Panama yo'lidan Kaliforniyaga kelish va kelish uchun foydalangan deb ishoniladi.[52] Uning taxmin qilishicha, asl argonavtlarning 20% uyga qaytish uchun ketgan, aksariyati Panama yo'li orqali. Ko'pchilik xotinlari va oilalari bilan Kaliforniyaga qaytib kelishdi.
Sifatida paroxodlar mavjud bo'lib, muntazam parrakli parvoz xizmati Qo'shma Shtatlarning ikki qirg'og'i o'rtasida katta pochta aloqasi, yo'lovchi va yuk tashuvchi yuk aloqasini ochdi. Birinchi transkontinental temir yo'l Panama temir yo'li, 1855 yilda 5000 ga yaqin hayot va 8.000.000 AQSh dollari miqdorida qurib bitkazildi va Sharqiy sohil va G'arbiy sohil bilan tezroq aloqani ta'minladi. Dastlab konchilar Kaliforniyaga qanday etib kelishganiga qaramay, deyarli barchasi Sharqqa Panama orqali qaytishgan - bu eng oson va tezkor yo'l. Qaytgan konchilar va qaytib kelayotgan oltinlarni Sharqda kutib olishdi va tez orada pochta va gazetalar o'rtasida sharq va g'arbiy aloqalar o'rnatildi. 1855 yilda qurib bo'lingandan so'ng, Panama temir yo'lidan foydalanish qulayligi, Panama marshrutining katta qiymatini, vaqtni sezgir bo'lgan yuklarning ko'pini Kaliforniyaga olib borishini anglatadi. Ayollarning ko'p harakatlanishi Sharqdan G'arbga Panama yo'li bo'ylab o'tdi, bu taxminan 1852 yildan keyin eng oson va tezkor yo'l edi. Kaliforniyadagi oltin shoshilinch ayollar kam edi, ammo Kaliforniyani joylashtirishda katta rol o'ynadi. Panama orqali Kaliforniyaga xotinlar va sevgililarning o'tishi odatda Kaliforniyada qolishga qaror qilgan konchilar yoki ishbilarmonlar tomonidan to'langan. Panamadan deyarli har bir kemaga kelgan bu ayollar tez orada kamdan-kam uchraydigan Kaliforniyalik ayollarning fe'l-atvorini o'zgartirib yuborishdi, chunki ular dastlab u erga oqishgan fohishalardan tezroq oshib ketishdi.
Kaliforniyada pul kam edi, chunki juda ozchilik o'zlari bilan ko'p narsalarni olib kelgan va qimmatbaho yashash xarajatlari ko'p vaqtni tugatdi. Jo'natmalari qandolat bir nechta turli mamlakatlardan olib kelingan, ammo ular hech qachon etarlicha tuyulmagan va ishchilar bir nechta turli mamlakatlardagi bir nechta turli xil tanga birlashmasida ish haqi to'lashdan mamnun edilar. Bo'sh oltin kukunlari troy unsiyasi uchun 16,00 dollarga baholanar edi va deyarli barcha savdogarlar, barlar, qimor uyalari, fohishaxonalar va boshqalarda konchilarga oltindan sotib olishlari uchun pul to'lashga imkon beradigan tarozilar mavjud edi. Kaliforniyadagi oltindan ko'plab qo'llardan o'tganidan so'ng, oxir-oqibat, g'arbiy tomondan sotib olingan va Sharqdan olib kelingan tovarlarni to'lash uchun Sharqqa yo'l oldi. Oltinni asosiy jo'natish yo'li yaxshi himoyalangan eshkakli paroxodlar orqali Panamaga borgan. Chagres daryosining og'ziga va ulardan eshkakli paroxod bilan Nyu-Yorkka va hokazolarga yaxshi qo'riqlanadigan xachir va kanoeda sayohat. Derienni, dastlab, ko'pincha ko'plab banditlar qo'lga olinib, osib qo'yilgunga qadar ushbu jo'natmalarga tez-tez hujum uyushtirgan - bu zo'ravonlik avj olishining ko'p qismini to'xtatgan.[53] Panama eshkakli paroxodlarida oltindan jo'natmalar ko'pincha har bir sayohat uchun 1 000 000 dollardan oshadi va 1853 yilgacha jami jami 64 000 000 dollardan oltinga teng.[52]
Meksika orqali Kaliforniyaga
Meksika marshruti odatda a eshkakli paroxod ga Verakruz Meksika, siz Meksika bo'ylab 800 milya yo'l bosib o'tasiz Akapulko Meksikaning Tinch okean sohilida. Bu ko'pchilikning bosib o'tgan yo'lini qaytarib berdi Manila galleonlari "yuk Manila Akapulkoda tushirilib, Ispaniyaga jo'natish uchun Verakruzga ko'chirildi. Manila galleonlari Ispaniyaning ziravorlar bilan bog'laydigan asosiy bo'g'ini edi Ziravorlar orollari Xitoydan ipak va boshqalar. 1849 yilga kelib, avariya kemasi ishlab chiqarildi va ko'p o'tmay Verakruz ko'pchilik uchun rejalashtirilgan to'xtash joyiga aylandi eshkakli paroxodlar. Ushbu marshrutning asosiy xavf-xatarlaridan biri qaroqchilar tomonidan sodir etilgan va bu qism 50 yoki undan ortiq kishilik guruhlarda amalga oshirilishi tavsiya qilingan.[54] Keyin Panama temir yo'li taxminan 5000 kishining hayoti bilan 1855 yilda qurib bitkazilgan va 8.000.000 dollarlik Meksika yo'li deyarli yopilgan.
Boshqa uzunroq marshrutlar odatda qo'nish bilan bog'liq Tampiko, Meksika va keyin kemani olish uchun mamlakat bo'ylab yurish Mazatlan, Meksika. Ushbu yo'nalishlardan asosan biznesi bo'lganlar foydalanganlar Mexiko yoki boshqa bir Meksika shahri. Barcha Meksika sayohatlari paroxod xizmatining nisbatan etishmasligidan aziyat chekishgan va ular bilan solishtirganda talonchilik xavfi bo'lgan Nikaragua va Panama marshrut.
Nikaragua orqali Kaliforniyaga
Panamadan kengroq, Nikaragua yo'li osonlikcha harakatlanadigan yo'lning afzalliklariga ega edi San-Xuan daryosi va Nikaragua ko'li faqat Tinch okeaniga qisqa ekskursiya bilan. 1851 yilgacha paroxod bilan sayohat Panama va Nikaragua Nyu-Yorkdan, Filadelfiya, Boston va Yangi Orlean uzunligi 4200 km bo'lgan va taxminan ikki hafta davom etgan paroxod. Commodore Kornelius Vanderbilt 1850 yilda Nikaragua orqali Nyu-York va San-Frantsisko o'rtasidagi suv masofasini qariyb 500 milya (800 km) qisqartiradigan yo'lni tashkil etdi. Marshrut yon tomonda edi eshkakli paroxod Nikaraguadagi San-Xuan daryosiga, so'ngra kichik paroxod yoki o'z qo'llari bilan daryo bo'yiga Nikaragua ko'liga ko'tariladi. Kichik qayiqda ko'ldan o'tgandan so'ng, sayohatchilar chiqishlari va stagecoach yoki xachir minib olishlari mumkin edi San-Xuan del Sur yoki Nikaraguaning Tinch okean tomonidagi boshqa shahar. Paroxod liniyalari tashkil etilgandan so'ng u erdan San-Frantsiskoga paroxod bilan qisqa muddatli sayohat qilgan. 1852 yil boshiga kelib Vanderbilt ettita paroxodni ish bilan ta'minlagan va Panama yo'nalishi uchun jiddiy raqobatni taklif qilgan.
Taxminan 1851 yilgacha bo'lgan sayohatchilar, eshkakli paroxodning qachon kelishini va qachon bo'lishini bilishda qiynalishgan. Vanderbilt o'z xizmatini paroxod bilan boshladi Mustaqillik 1851 yil iyulda va ko'p o'tmay paroxod unga qo'shildi Prometey va Tinch okeani. Ushbu yo'nalish rivojlanib, raqobatdoshlarga jiddiy raqobatni taklif qilmoqda Tinch okeani pochta orqali paroxodlik kompaniyasi. 1852 yilga kelib, Panamadan 29600 ta o'tish bilan solishtirganda, 17.400 Nikaragua yo'lovchisi qayd etilgan. Ushbu raqamlar 1852 yilda 24000 Nikaragua o'tish joylari bilan 1853 yilda Panamadagi 27200 ta o'tish joylari uchun yopilgan.[51] Sifatida Panama temir yo'li Panama Istmusidan o'tib, ko'proq va ko'proq transportni olib ketishdi va 1855 yilda temir yo'l qurilishi tugagandan so'ng taxminan 5000 kishi hayoti va 8 000 000 dollar mablag 'sarflandi va Nikaraguada ichki nizolar bilan birgalikda Nikaragua yo'li deyarli yopildi.
Keyp Xorn orqali Kaliforniyaga
Qachon yangiliklar Kaliforniya Gold Rush 1848 yil oxirida tasdiqlandi, Sharqiy sohilda ko'pchilik Kaliforniyaga yo'l olishga tayyor edi. Yo'l ko'pligi sababli yaxshi ma'lum edi kit ovlash allaqachon o'tgan kemalar Burun burni Gavayi va Kaliforniyadagi Tinch okeanidagi kit ovlash joylariga yoki qo'ng'iroq portlariga borishda. Sharqiy sohilning aksariyat shaharlarida Keyp Horn yo'lini yaxshi bilgan va Kaliforniyaga sayohatga qanday tayyorlanishni aniq bilgan dengizchilar bo'lgan. Keyp Xorn yo'nalishining asosiy afzalliklaridan biri shundaki, ular yilning istalgan vaqtida kemani topa olishlari mumkin edi.[tushuntirish kerak ] "Laqabli sayohatchilar ham bor ediArgonavtlar ", Tinch okean sohilidagi tog'-kon markazining keng ehtiyojlari va talablarini oldindan bilgan va yaxshi daromad olishga umid qilgan ignalardan tortib tushirilgan bug 'qayiqlariga qadar har xil tavsif va o'lchamdagi tovarlarni olib kelgan. tog'-kon qazishni amalga oshirish niyatidadir, ammo konchilarga tovar va xizmatlar ko'rsatish orqali o'zlarining boyliklariga erishish.
Aksariyat yo'lovchilar dastlab dengiz kasalligiga chalingan va dengiz oyoqlarini olishdan oldin juda qiynalgan. Ekvatorni ikki marta kesib o'tishni o'z ichiga olgan parchaning tabiati va o'rtacha sayohat uzunligi mil va vaqt (ko'pincha olti oydan ko'proq) davomida etkazib berish g'ayrioddiy qiyinchiliklarga olib keldi. Ba'zi kemalarda sayohat paytida bir oz vaqt yangi tuxum va go'sht etkazib berish uchun tovuqlar, cho'chqalar yoki echkilar bor edi. Ko'p miqdorda toza suv va oziq-ovqat (odatda tuzlangan go'sht va dengiz pechenesi yoki hardtack ) sayohat uchun zarur bo'lgan. Tuzli go'shtni (u holda go'shtni saqlab qolishning yagona usuli haqida) tuzni yuvib, uni yarim ovqatga aylantirish uchun bir kechada toza suvga botirish kerak edi. Ko'pgina kapitanlar sabablarini tushunib etishdi shilliqqurt va bir oz limon bilan ta'minlangan yoki Laym oldini olish uchun sharbat. Bir hil va tez-tez ta'mga ega bo'lmagan tarifga qaramay, ko'pchilik safarda og'irlik ortdi, chunki ular vaqti-vaqti bilan kir yuvish va cheksiz karta o'yinlaridan boshqa deyarli hech narsaga ega emas edilar. Dovullar o'zlarining kemalarini u yoqdan bu yoqqa uloqtirib, oxiridan oxirigacha silkitib yuborganliklari sababli, bo'ronlar juda xavotirli edi. O'chirilmagan mollar, chamadonlar va boshqalar tez orada dumalab siljiydi va pastki bo'ylab siljiydi. Kiyimlarni arqonga bog'lab, ularni kema orqasiga tortib qo'yish orqali tez-tez yuvib turardi. Ko'pchilik baliq ovlash uchun soatlab vaqt sarfladilar, ammo kamdan-kam narsalarni ushladilar. Baliq ovlanganda ular monotonli parhezga xush kelibsiz. Uxlash ko'pincha odamlar ko'p bo'lgan yo'lovchilar kvartalida yoki pastki qismida amalga oshiriladi - ob-havo sharoiti. Agar ob-havo yaxshi bo'lsa va ekipaj bunga ruxsat bergan bo'lsa, ko'pchilik arma arqonga bog'lab, tashqarida uxladilar. Odatda idishni narxini sotib olganlarning tor eshigi va karyolasi 5,5 fut (1,7 m) dan past bo'lgan (odamlar o'sha paytda qisqaroq edi) va eni taxminan 1,5 fut (0,46 m) bo'lgan idishni bilan tor idishni bor edi. Faqatgina qo'shimcha xona - bu shaxsiy buyumlar va yuklar uchun yotoq ostidagi joy. "Rulda" tariflarini to'laganlar (taxminan 50% kamroq) umumiy ikki qavatli xonalarda uxladilar.
Kamida ikkita portda to'xtash odatiy holdir yo'nalishida qo'shimcha oziq-ovqat, suv va o'tin zaxiralarini hamda kemalardan tushish imkoniyatini olish uchun. Rio-de-Janeyro yoki Santa Katarina, Braziliya (ko'pincha o'sha paytlarda Sent-Katarin deb atalgan) Janubiy Amerikaning Atlantika tomonida odatiy to'xtash joylari bo'lgan. Ba'zi yo'lovchilar yangi oziq-ovqat mahsulotlariga shunchalik intilishgan ediki, ular ko'pincha minglab apelsin yoki boshqa mevalarni pishirib olishgan va u erda davom etgandan keyin uni iste'mol qilishgan.
The Magellan bo'g'ozi zudlik bilan Janubiy Amerika materikidan janubda va shimolda suzib yuradigan dengiz yo'lini o'z ichiga oladi Tierra del Fuego. Suv yo'li Tinch okeani va Atlantika okeanlari orasidagi eng muhim tabiiy yo'ldir, ammo shamol va oqimlarning oldindan aytib bo'lmaydigan darajada o'tishi va o'tish joyining torligi sababli harakatlanish qiyin yo'l hisoblanadi.
Magellan bo'g'ozidan foydalanib, Horn burnini aylanib o'tib, sayohatni 800 milya (800 km) qisqartirish uchun saylangan kapitanlar atrofda uch haftadan olti haftagacha bo'lgan vaqtni boshdan kechirdilar, shuning uchun uni taqiqlash va monotonlik ko'pincha umidsizlikni keltirib chiqardi. Bo'g'ozlarning tor kanallari va oldindan aytib bo'lmaydigan oqimlari, to'lqinlari va shamollari, ayniqsa suzib yuruvchi kemalar uchun doimiy xavf tug'dirgan; bug 'bilan ishlaydigan kemalar osonroq o'tish imkoniyatiga ega edi.
Janubiy Amerika bo'ylab boshqa asosiy yo'l bu bilan edi Drake Passage, Horn Cape janubida - Horn Cape-da Janubiy Amerikaning janubiy uchi orasidagi suv havzasi, Chili va Janubiy Shetland orollari Antarktida. Atlantika okeanining janubi-g'arbiy qismini birlashtiradi (Shotlandiya dengizi ) Tinch okeanining janubi-sharqiy qismi bilan va kengayib boradi Janubiy okean. Parcha XVI asr inglizlari nomi bilan atalgan xususiy, Frensis Dreyk 1578 yilda uni birinchi bo'lib kim kashf etgan edi. Ko'plab suzib yuruvchi kemalar kapitanlari juda og'ir sharoitlar va kuchli shamollar bilan ajralib turishiga qaramay, yuzlab kilometrlik ochiq suv bo'lgan Drake Passage-ni afzal ko'rishdi. Drake Passage-ning janubiy kengligining 55,6 dan 62,8 darajasida dunyo bo'ylab hech qanday muhim er yo'q. Bu to'siqsiz oqim uchun muhimdir Antarktika sirkumpolyar oqimi, bu suvning katta hajmini (oqimidan taxminan 600 baravar ko'p) olib yuradi Amazon daryosi ) o'tish yo'li orqali va Antarktida atrofida.
Tinch okeanida Xuan Fernandes orollari ning Talxuano, Valparaiso, Chili yoki Kallao, Peru Tinch okeanidagi sevimli sug'orish va qayta to'ldirish portlari orasida edi. Valparaiso, o'zining o'rtacha portiga qaramay, asosiysi edi kirish (trans-transport) Janubiy Amerikaning Tinch okean tomonidagi port. Janubiy Amerika qirg'og'idan chiqib ketgandan so'ng, kemalar Kaliforniya suvlariga etib borishdan oldin ekvatorial shamollar bo'ylab sayohat qilayotganda tez-tez hayratga soladigan va qarama-qarshi shamollar bilan shaffoflashdi. Qarama-qarshi shamollar ko'pincha kemalarni Tinch okeaniga - ba'zida 140 daraja g'arbiy (-140 °) uzunlikka qadar uzoqroq masofada, dengiz sohilidagi qulay shabada bilan uchrashishdan oldin va San-Fransisko ko'rfaziga qarab suzib ketishga majbur qilishardi. San-Frantsisko 122,5 daraja g'arbiy (-122,5 °) uzunlikda.
Kaliforniyadagi kemalarga so'nggi xavf - kirish va kirish San-Fransisko ko'rfazi. The Farallon orollari San-Frantsisko ko'rfazining og'zidan bir nechta kemalarning qabristoni bor edi va San-Frantsisko ko'rfaziga tor, tez-tez tuman bilan o'ralgan ochilish har doim xavfli edi. Kema qatnovi tugaganidan ko'p o'tmay, kema uchuvchilari ko'rfazidan xabardor bo'lganlar ish joyida keladigan (va chiqadigan) kemalarga chiqishgan va kemalarni ko'rfazdagi xavfsiz langarga olib borishgan. 1851 yilga kelib ko'rfazdagi kemalarning chalkashligi a yaratilishiga olib keldi harbormaster kemalar langarni qaerga tashlashi mumkinligini kim belgilagan. San-Frantsisko ko'rfaziga kirib, kemalar San-Frantsisko aholisiga 1849 yil sentyabr oyida o'rnatilgan minorada teleskop bilan xabar bergan va aniqlagan. Telegraph tepaligi, San-Frantsisko. Qo'riqchi telegraf ustunini ko'tarib, bitta semafor qo'lini shuner uchun, ikkitasini brigga, uchtasini kema uchun va ikkitasini 45 darajaga ko'targan eshkakli paroxod. Tez orada ushbu signallar aksariyat aholi tomonidan ma'lum bo'ldi.
Ko'rfazga kirib, langar tashlagach, keyingi mehmonlar odatda a'zolari bo'lishgan Daromadlarni kesuvchi xizmat (avvalgi AQSh sohil xavfsizligi ). 1790 yil 4-avgustda Aleksandr Xemilton tomonidan tashkil etilgan Daromadlarni kesish xizmati Qo'shma Shtatlarning eng qadimgi doimiy dengiz xizmati bo'lib, uni amalga oshirdi tarif qonunlar va bojxona to'lovlari orqali tariflarni yig'ish (tariflar yoki ad valorem soliqlari ) xorijiy import tovarlari bo'yicha. 1800-yillarda Federal hukumat tomonidan to'plangan va ishlatilgan pullarning taxminan 85-95% tarif yig'imlaridan edi. Bojxona kollektsiyalari 1847 yil oxirlarida San-Frantsiskoda tashkil etilgan - belgilangan kirish porti Kaliforniyaning aksariyat qismi uchun. Qabul qiluvchilar kelganidan ko'p o'tmay, kemalarga tez-tez keladigan mollardan birinchi tanlovni qidiradigan savdogarlar tashrif buyurishgan.
Standart yelkanli kemalar orqali Keyp Xorn atrofida Kaliforniyaga butun dengiz bo'ylab sayohat taxminan 200 kun davom etdi (taxminan 6,5 oy) va 16,000-18,000 mil (26,000-29,000 km) bosib o'tdi. Ba'zi sayohatlar deyarli bir yil davom etdi. Butun dengiz marshruti tashabbuskor emigrantlarga Kaliforniyada oltin chang uchun sotmoqchi bo'lgan yuklari va mollarini etkazib berishga imkon berdi. Keyp Horn yo'nalishi asosan past, o'rta yoki yuqori og'irlikdagi yoki katta hajmdagi tovarlarni arzon narxlarda jo'natish mumkin bo'lgan yagona yo'l edi. Odatda yuqori narxga ega bo'lgan, pochta, yo'lovchilar yoki oltin chang kabi og'irligi past bo'lgan tovarlarga ixtisoslashgan boshqa yo'nalishlar. Aslida hech narsadan boshlamagan Sharqiy qirg'oq yoki Buyuk Britaniyaning tovarlari ko'pincha juda zarur bo'lgan va odatda yuqori daromadga sotilgan.[tushuntirish kerak ] Bozorni ko'rish, tovarlarga buyurtma berish va mollarni jo'natish o'rtasidagi uzoq kechikish biznesni xavfli qildi. Odatda foydali bo'lgan ba'zi yuklar oziq-ovqat, suyuqlik, yog'och va qurilish materiallari. Boshqa turdagi tovarlarning kema yuklari ba'zan bozorni to'ydirdi va tovarlarni zarar bilan kim oshdi savdosiga qo'yishga majbur qildi. Aksariyat yuklar ushbu muammoni minimallashtirish uchun turli xil tovarlarni o'z ichiga olgan.
Qachon Markaziy Tinch okeani temir yo'li qurilishini boshladi Birinchi transkontinental temir yo'l 1863 yilda ularning barchasi lokomotivlar, vagonlar, relslar va temir yo'l ta'minotlari ushbu yo'nalish orqali jo'natildi. Bu juda sekin edi, lekin Keyp Xorn atrofida Kaliforniyaga ketayotgan kema og'ir va katta hajmdagi mahsulotlarni boshqa yo'nalishlarga qaraganda arzonroq tashiydi. San-Frantsisko ko'rfazida tashlab yuborilgan deyarli barcha kemalar Keyp Horn yo'li bilan kelgan. Sharqiy sohilga qaytish marshruti juda uzoq bo'lganligi va yuklarni qaytarish deyarli yo'qligi sababli, San-Frantsiskoga etib kelgan kemalar dastlab ekipaj va yo'lovchilar kemani oltin dalalariga tashlab ketishganda u erda qolishga intilishgan. San-Frantsiskoda va Kaliforniyaning qolgan qismida nimalar zarurligi aniq bo'lganligi sababli, yangi kemalarning bir qismi yuqori maoshli ekipajlar bilan xizmatga qaytarildi. Ba'zilar uyiga qaytib borishga arzon yo'l izlayotgan ko'ngli qolgan oltin izlovchilar tomonidan ekipajga aylantirildi. Ko'pgina kemalar Tinch okeanidagi portlarga oziq-ovqat yoki yog'och uchun qisqa muddatlarda yurish uchun ishlatilgan - asosan o'sha paytdagi barcha narsalar. 1849 yil oktyabr oyi davomida 63 ta kema San-Frantsiskodan jo'nab ketdi; 25, birinchi navbatda, Janubiy Amerikaga suzib ketdi Valparaiso yoki Kallao; 10 ta kemalar suzib ketishdi Gavayi orollari (Har tomonga 20-30 kun), 9 ketdi Oregon va 9 boshqa Tinch okeani bo'lmagan portlarga.[55][tushuntirish kerak ] Dastlab Panamaga suzib yuradigan paroxodli o'tish uchun olinadigan yuqori tariflar ba'zi kapitanlarga yo'lovchilarga arzon narxlarda qaytish uchun Sharqiy sohilga qaytib borishlari uchun ruxsat berishga majbur qildi. Bu ekipajni "oqilona" narxlarda birlashtirishga imkon berdi.
Xitoydan Kaliforniyaga
Kaliforniyadagi Oltin zarbalar haqidagi yangiliklar Xitoyga 1848 yil oxiriga kelib tushdi. 1849 yilda bir necha yuz xitoyliklar Kaliforniyaga sayohat qilishdi, ammo 1851 yilgacha va undan keyin sayohat tartiblari ishlab chiqilgani sababli bu barqaror toshqinga aylandi. The Taiping inqilobi Xitoyda va Xitoydagi qashshoqlik va zo'ravonlik ko'plab xitoyliklarni yaxshi pul topish yo'lini izlab Xitoyni tark etishga majbur qildi. Aksariyat xitoyliklar, xuddi Kaliforniya shtatidagi ko'plab sayohatchilar singari, Kaliforniyaga qaytib kelishganidan keyin tez orada pul to'lash va o'zlarining va oilalarining Xitoydagi holati va turmush tarzini yaxshilash uchun etarli pul ishlashni maqsad qilib kelishgan.[iqtibos kerak ]
Kaliforniyaga ko'chib kelgan deyarli barcha xitoyliklar deyarli hech qanday ayolsiz yosh yigitlar edi. Ularning xotinlari, oilalari va qarindoshlari Xitoyda qoldi. Xitoyliklar qaerga joylashishgan bo'lsalar ham, og'ir erkaklardagi kichik yarim izolyatsiya qilingan "Xitoy shaharlari" da to'planish tendentsiyasiga ega edilar. Kaliforniyada ular duch kelgan asosiy muammolardan biri xitoylik ayollarning etishmasligi edi - deyarli hech kim ko'chib kelmagan. Ishga qabul qiluvchilar xitoyliklarni sotib olish yoki "sotib olish" ni tugatgandan so'ng, bu "muammo" biroz yumshatildi fohishalar and shipping them to the United States. There they went to work in brothels or were "bought" by wealthy Chinese. Some of the more affluent Chinese in California could "buy" a Chinese mistress for about $300 to $500. The large population, the common condition of extreme poverty in China and the low status of women in China made recruiting or "buying" women for this "profession" fairly easy in China.[iqtibos kerak ]
Nearly all these Chinese men initially planned to return to China once they had made enough money. About half of the initial Chinese immigrants did return to China where their wives and families lived. Most of the Chinese immigrants booked their passages on ships with the Tinch okeani pochta orqali paroxodlik kompaniyasi (founded 1848) or on the American China qaychi which often left California empty and looking for a new cargo before returning home. Nearly all Chinese immigrants neither spoke and understood English nor were they familiar with g'arbiy madaniyat va hayot. While in the United States they had little incentive to assimilate into the dominant culture or learn anything more than rudimentary English language skills. They did nearly all their business with a few Chinese businessmen that established businesses in California "China Towns". The hostility they experienced from nearly all other cultures in America and their belief that they would return to China often discouraged them from attempting to assimilate.
San-Frantsisko porti
The port of San Francisco initially starting out as only a few ramshackle buildings with a population of about 180 in 1846 grew rapidly to several thousand residents only a few years later. San Francisco was the nearest seaport to the gold fields with full access to virtually all ongoing sea traffic and freight shipments. The port of San Francisco boomed and expanded very rapidly to a California state census population of about 32,000 in 1852 (San Francisco—the largest city in the state—U.S. California Census of 1850 was burned in one of the frequent fires in San Francisco[56]). In addition San Francisco had access to the Sakramento – San-Xoakin daryosi deltasi which gave access to ship traffic going to Sakramento, Stokton va Merisvill, Kaliforniya which were all about 120 miles (190 km) closer to the goldfields. Parrakli paroxodlar were put in service by late 1849 and provided "easy" transport of passengers and freight to Sacramento, banks, bar rooms, gambling establishments, wharfs, warehouses and other needed buildings were built as rapidly as possible.
There were many Argonauts and companies of Argonauts who foresaw the broad needs and demands of a rapidly increasing and hopefully wealthy population in California. Many Argonauts brought along goods of all descriptions and sizes, from needles to knocked-down steamboats, on which they hoped to sell or operate. Indeed, many immigrants had no intention of panning gold or of digging for it in the mines. They would rather sell goods and go into a business which the new mining community would support. After all, gold was the objective; what did it matter whether the means of attaining it were direct or indirect?
Ships provided almost the only link for new supplies—overland travel was too difficult and took too long. One downside that soon developed in California was the long delay in communication between the east and west coast. It took over 40 days to get a message back to the East Coast of the United States and often over 200–300 days to get new supplies shipped in by sailing ships. Only high priced and lighter and smaller items could take the shorter and quicker paddle steamer route over the Panama Istmusi, nearly everything else had to travel the approximate 17,000 miles (27,000 km) and over 200-day route all sailing ship route around Burun burni yoki Magellan bo'g'ozlari. Higher priced, time sensitive goods, were often shipped in the faster qaychi sailing ship which could make the trip from New York, Boston, etc. to San Francisco in about 120 days. Goods when they were shipped from the East coast (and Europe) were in shipload quantities when they arrived. This often suppressed the local market for that product and some goods would have to be auctioned off at low prices to pay for freight etc. with little or no profit. Very mixed cargo was typical of early shipments to minimize this problem. Food, liquors and building supplies nearly always be sold at a profit. Some business men thrived in this chaotic environment, many others lost their shirts.
One of the first and urgent products needed was building supplies, food and other consumables. Food supplies could be bought and shipped from local Pacific ports to San Francisco, Sacramento, etc. Soon ships were going to and from Oregon, Hawaii, Mexico, Valparaiso Chile, etc. to get food and building supplies that could be shipped back to San Francisco. Building supplies, including complete houses, bricks, etc. were shipped from many East Coast ports as well as Britain, etc.--these shipments were seldom time sensitive as to value. Fairly quickly arra zavodlari were operating in Northern California and Oregon to provide yog'och va boshqa yog'och buyumlar. San Francisco shipping boomed and wharves and piers had to be developed to handle the onslaught of cargo--Uzoq iskala was probably the most prominent. Farmers, laborers, business men, prospective miners, gamblers, 'entertainers' and fohishalar, etc. from around the world flocked to San Francisco.
Oz Kalifornio ranchers already living in California initially prospered as the sudden increase in the demand for meat drove up the price paid for livestock. Prices zoomed from the about $2.00 they received for a hide to about $30.00-$40.00 per cow when sold for meat. Initially most of the Californios prospered. Taxes, mortgages, squatters and the cost of proving ownership of their enormous land holdings they had got nearly free from the Indians combined with droughts that seriously decreased the size of their herds led many of the about 500 Californio ranch owners to lose some or all of their enormous land holdings within a few years.
Later, these food shipments from foreign sources changed mainly to shipments from Oregon and internal shipments in California as agriculture was developed in both states. Food like molasses, flour, oysters, hams, barrels of salted meat, rice, coffee, tea, eggs (from Mexico); cheese, sugar, coffee, potatoes, onions, limes, coconuts, raisins, almonds. Some of the goods that were imported by ship included liquor: absinthe, alcohol, ale, beer, whiskey, cognac, cider, champagne, wine, sherry, brandy, claret. Tools like shovels, picks and gold balances. Consumables like cigars, cards, candles; clothing: boots, shoes, underwear; pants, shirts, etc. Fruit like bananas, oranges, and lemons. Yog'och Oregon and other parts of the U.S. and England (500,000 board feet of lumber and 500,000 bricks from Bath, England in one ship's cargo). Building materials like nails, bricks, linseed oil, shingles, windows, stoves, lumber, etc.. Miscellaneous items like furniture, wagons, carts, fishing boats, steam engines, etc. Coal that was needed to power the steam ships. Livestock like hogs, cows, horses, sheep, chickens, etc. Completed knocked down houses both metal and wooden. Some ships carried mostly mail and passengers. Almost anything could eventually be bought at some price. As time went on many or indeed most of these supplies were grown or made locally; but some specialized items were nearly always cheaper to import on ships—still true today.
San Francisco was designated the official kirish porti for all California ports where U.S. Customs (also called tariflar va ad valorem taxs ) (averaging about 25%) were collected by the Collector of customs from all ships bearing foreign goods. The first Collector of customs was Edward H. Harrison appointed by General Kearny. Shipping boomed from the average of about 25 vessels from 1825 to 1847[57] to about 793 ships in 1849 and 803 ships in 1850.[58] All ships were inspected for what goods they carried to collect the appropriate customs. Passengers disembarking in San Francisco had one of the easier accesses to the gold country since they could from San Francisco take a paddle wheel steamer, after 1849, to Sacramento and several other towns.
Starting in 1849 many of the ship crews jumped ship and headed for the gold fields when they reached port. Soon San Francisco Bay had many hundreds of abandoned ships anchored off shore. The better ships were re-crewed and put back in the shipping and passenger business. Others were bought cheap and hauled up on the mud flats and used as do'kon kemalari, saloons, temporary stores, floating warehouses, homes and a number of other uses. Many of these re-purposed ships were partially destroyed in one of San Francisco's many fires and ended up as landfill to expand the available land. The population of San Francisco exploded from about 200 in 1846 to 36,000 in the 1852 California Census.[59] Unfortunately, the 1850 U.S. Census of San Francisco was burned in one of its frequent fires.
In San Francisco initially many people were housed in wooden houses, ships hauled up on the mud flats to serve as homes or businesses, wood-framed canvas tents used for saloons, hotels and boarding houses as well as other flammable structures. Lighting and heat were provided by burning oil lamps or open fires. All these canvas and wood structures housing fires, lanterns and candles combined with a lot of drunken gamblers and miners led almost inevitably to many fires. Most of San Francisco burned down six times in six 'Great Fires' between 1849 and 1852.[60]
Kaliforniya baliqchilik
Mahalliy baliqchilik
California has had an extensive fishery since it was discovered over 10,000 years ago. The Tug'ma amerikalik inhabitants of California, nearly all ovchilarni yig'uvchilar, harvested many types of fish and qisqichbaqalar as a regular and often major component of their diet. Bir nechta navlari go'shti Qizil baliq va temir bosh were some of the mainstays of the California Indians.
Indians living in the Northwest coast of California moved and fished along the rivers and California coastal waters using dugout kanolari. Their dugout canoes were laboriously made using fire and Stone Age tools out of large trees—usually qizil daraxtlar.
Salmon spawned in most rivers and streams in California sometime during the year and were a welcome addition to the diet of the ovchi California people living near almost all the streams. Many tribes migrated to a given area along the streams during spawning runs to harvest the fish. Fish were caught with nayzalar, harpunlar, baliq to'rlari, baliq tutqichlari (fishing weirs ), ilgaklar va baliq ovlash liniyalari, gathering seafood by hand and using specific plant toksinlar (sovun ildizi, bukri nuts, and wild bodring root) to temporarily paralyze the fish so they would float to the surface where could easily be captured.[61] About the only early competitors for fish was the California grizzly ayiqlar who lived in California then and who also liked salmon. Go'shti Qizil baliq and other fish were usually eaten almost immediately, chekilgan or sun dried and stored in woven baskets so they could not spoil and were available to eat nearly year-round. Acorns gathered each fall were the other staple of most California Indian's diet,
The Chumash xalqi va Tongva xalqi used sewen plank canoes (Tomols ) to travel across and fish in the seas between the Southwest California Coast and the Kanal orollari Kaliforniya. Some of their chief catches were sardalye (pilchards) who were mentioned several times by the early Spanish explorers. Sardalya kichikdir epipelagik baliqlar (surface water fish to 200m) which then ko'chib ketgan along the California coast in yirik maktablar at certain times of the year. Ular muhim ahamiyatga ega em-xashak baliqlari for larger forms of marine life and a major baliqchilik in the California waters till the sardine schools greatly diminished due to ocean current temperature changes and over fishing. The sardines were caught by the California Indians primarily with some kind of net.
The Native Americans in the San-Fransisko ko'rfazi qurilgan Emeryvill Shellmound and over 400 other shellmounds made up of inedible shellfish shells from millions of meals consumed at or near the shellmound sites. The size of these mounds indicate that they had to have accumulated over hundreds if not thousands of years and indicate a well used and stable food resource. The inedible shells they threw aside from their catches of shellfish eventually covered some hundreds of thousands of square feet, sometimes tens of feet thick. Most of the shells are from oysters (Ostrea lurida ) which occurred in large oyster reefs throughout the San Francisco Bay area. How they are harvested is unknown but may have been by hand or by using oyster tırmıklar. Tule (Schoenoplectus acutus ) canoes were often used for fishing, moving between shell beds, hunting and fishing sites in the Bay area and the extensive Sakramento – San-Xoakin daryosi deltasi.
Zamonaviy baliqchilik
During the Spanish colonization and Mexican periods there are no known fisheries developed. Indeed, they probably contracted as the Chumash xalqi va Tongva xalqi were enticed to move to the Ispaniyaning Kaliforniyadagi missiyalari and their movement and populations rapidly decreased.
Davomida Kaliforniya Gold Rush there were many new immigrants who were familiar with fishing. There was a large demand for fresh food including fresh fish and shellfish among the rapidly increasing California population. Providing fresh food products were one of the most wanted and lucrative trades that developed among the California Argonauts. Kichik Kalifornio population before the rush were only able to provide some beef—their main "product" before 1850 had been cowhides and tallow. After the California Gold Rush started developing a market for fresh fish, many Azorean-Portuguese turned from gold mining to fishing. Fisherman established several small fishing communities up and down the California coast selling fish in towns and cities from San Diego to Eureka. They built their own small fishing boats using the traditional "lateen" sail technology common in the Mediterranean on their fishing boats.[iqtibos kerak ]
After the gold rush started and Chinese immigrants appeared some of the first "modern" fishermen in California who started fishing in about 1853. The Chinese were using sampanlar built in California to fish for Kalmar, oyoq osti and fish on Monterey Bay. The Chinese, who came from the coastal Kanton region of South China Sea, were able to export roughly two hundred to eight hundred pounds of fresh fish to San Francisco every day or one hundred tons per year. The Chinese later specialized in squid fishing at night for their Asian markets.[iqtibos kerak ]
In 1899, the sardine fishery collapsed in Italy, energizing the Italian fishermen's immigration to California's fishing villages. The same year, the first sardine cannery in San-Fransisko ko'rfazi qurilgan. Sardines, at this time, existed in large maktablar of millions of fish migrating each year up the California coast to spawn.[iqtibos kerak ]
Fishing technology at Monterey prior to 1905 was archaic and inefficient; the canning process was equally crude. The unsightliness, odor, and processing waste from harbor canneries dictated that all future canneries would have to locate away from any business or residential district. To catch more fish the fishermen turned to the more efficient lampra fish net used in Sicily. The lampra net is set around a school of fish and when both ends are retrieved the vessel tows the net forward, closing the bottom and then top of the net while it scoops up much of the school of fish.[62] By 1912 70,000 cases of sardines were shipped.[63]
Other techniques were developed for "reducing" fish heads, tails, guts and skin into meal that could be processed into fertilizer and livestock feed. "Reduction" was cheap because it didn't require much labor, and the market for fishmeal was unlimited. Monterey became a cannery town. About 70% of all sardines were ground up and used as fertilizer and livestock feed with only about 30% canned for human consumption. The yield of sardines landed in California was about 500,000 tons in 1940 down to only 53 tons in 1953.[64]
In 1940 sardines were the most valuable fishing stock in the state. As the temperature of the ocean dropped the migrating sardine schools largely disappeared after 1950 from California waters and nearly all the canneries shut down. The ocean temperature has an irregular cycle called the Tinch okeanining dekadali tebranishi turned water temperatures colder in the mid-1940s, driving sardines southward and intensifying the pressures brought on by overfishing. As the ocean temperatures are cycling higher now there is some evidence that the sardines are starting to return.
Bugun Monterey ko'rfazidagi akvarium, displaying many types of marine life, is located on the former site of a sardine cannery on Konserva zavodi off the Pacific Ocean shoreline in Monterey. The Monterey ko'rfazi milliy dengiz qo'riqxonasi (MBNMS) is a U.S. Federally protected marine area offshore of California's central coast around Monterey ko'rfazi.
One of the more unusual developments in the exploitation of natural resources was the market for fresh eggs during the Gold Rush leading people to take small boats to the Farallon orollari to collect wild bird eggs. They sometimes collected up to 500,000 eggs in a year. The Tuxum urushi is the name given to an 1863 armed conflict between rival egging companies on the Farallon Islands, 25 miles west of San Francisco.
The fishing vessels first used were powered by wind and oars. Since "modern" fishing in California was developed after 1850 (at about the same time as steamships) there were soon some steam-powered fishing vessels being used for longer-distance fishing in bigger boats. The steam was used both for propulsion and also for g'ildirak in nets, unloading catches, lifting and lowering anchors etc. As the dizel dvigatellari va benzinli dvigatellar (gasoline engine) were developed in the early 1900s they were soon the engine of choice. Diesel engines are now the engine of choice for powering most commercial fishing vessels. Their economical operation and long lifetimes make their higher initial cost normally well worthwhile. Today many smaller and sports boats are powered by an tashqi dvigatel consisting of a self-contained unit that includes engine, gearbox and propeller or jet drive, designed to be affixed to the outside of the transom. The outboard motor provides steering control both as a movable rul and by pivoting over their mountings to control the direction of thrust. Outboard motors have less than one horsepower to over 200 hp and are relatively easy to remove for service or replacement.
Commercial fishing today uses a variety of techniques for fishing. Baliq ovlash uchun tayoqchalar with baited hooks and baliq ovlash liniyalari used in various ways are used for fishing for some particular types of fish. Fishing using nets like cast nets, hand nets, drift to'rlari, jilvalar, sein to'rlari, trol tarmoqlari, surrounding nets etc. of various sizes and construction as well as uzoq muddatli baliq ovlash with hundreds of hooks on a line fishing both for bottom and pelagik baliq (near surface fish) are the most common devices used to catch high yields of fish. The crab fisheries uses crab pots baited with dead fish to catch crabs.
Ning ba'zi qismlarida Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismi, fishing with o'lja tuzoq ham keng tarqalgan. Common commercial methods for catching mayda qisqichbaqa va qisqichbaqalar o'z ichiga oladi pastki traul, cast nets, dengiz orollari, shrimp baiting va sho'ng'in to'ri. Bottom trawling often tears up the ocean bottom and can be very destructive to all bottom dwelling fish. Trolling involves the use of a system of nets deployed on or near the sea floor. Bentik trawling is towing or dragging a net at the very bottom of the ocean. Demersal trawling is towing a net just above the benthic zone. O'rta suvda trollar (pelagic trawling) is trawling, or net fishing nearer the surface of the ocean.
For some applications a baliq tutqichi ishlatilgan. Fish traps or fishing weirs restricts the flow of fish so that they are directed into a trap. The fish stay alive until they are removed and these techniques can be used to free some types of fish that are preferentially not caught. Today elaborate baliq ovlash trollari, etc. are all examples of the fishing techniques used today. To keep the caught fish fresh they are often kept in refrigerated holds or packed in ice.
As is typical worldwide of public owned resources, unlimited fishing has led to severe ortiqcha baliq ovlash for some fisheries. In response to this quotas, catch limits, closed and open seasons and other regulations had to be set in place to control the who, when, how and where questions of fishing. In 1851—California enacted a law concerning oysters and oyster beds. In 1852 the first regulation of salmon fishing occurred when fishing weirs or stream fish obstructions were prohibited and closed seasons established. In 1870 California Board of Fish Commissioners, predecessor to the Kaliforniya baliq va ov bo'limi tashkil etildi. 1870 yilda sharqiy istiridye (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced, in 1871 shad, in 1874 Laqqa baliq and in 1879 chiziqli bosh were all introduced to California waters.[65] California has about 4,000 lakes and 37,000 miles (60,000 km) of streams and canals suitable for game fish. To help fish get around dams baliq narvonlari are constructed to allow them to pass on upstream for yumurtlama etc. To preserve, protect and enhance existing fishing the Kaliforniya baliq va ov bo'limi (DFG) tries to keep all fishing laws enforced. The 720 properties managed by the DFG are: 110 wildlife areas, 130 ecological reserves, 11 marine reserves, 159 public access areas, 21 fish hatcheries and 289 other types of properties.[66] To help keep California waters stocked with fish in 1870 the first California fish hatcheries were built—mostly gulmohi inkubatsiya. Today (2011) there are eight go'shti Qizil baliq va temir bosh hatcheries and 13 gulmohi inkubatsiya. Though hatcheries may help some fishing stocks they are no panacea to counteract ortiqcha baliq ovlash, habitat destruction, stream restrictions, water diversions, etc.[67]
Qarang: Monterey ko'rfazi milliy dengiz qo'riqxonasi link to get a list and links to other protected marine preserves Kaliforniyada.
The major types of sport and commercial fish and shellfish now found in California waters are: Abalone, Albacore tuna, Hamsi, Barrakuda, Surfperch, Billfishes, Moviy orkinos, Bonito, Kabezone, Kaliforniya halibuti, Saza, Laqqa baliq, Mollyuskalar, California corbina, Crabs, Krappi, Kraker, Dungeness qisqichbaqasi, Eels, Qalqonbaliq, Uchar baliqlar, Gigant levrek, Greenling, Groundfish (includes Tosh baliq turlari), Gruppa, Grunion, Paltus, Hardhead, seld, Xek, Jek skumbriya, Kelp Bass, Largemut boshi, Lingcod, Skumbriya, Istiridye, Pacific shrimp, Perch, Pikeminnow (Squawfish), Qisqichbaqa, Rock crab, Sablefish, Sakramento qora baliqlari, Go'shti Qizil baliq, Sardina, Taroq, Scorpionfish, Nahang, Kaliforniya qo'y boshi, skat, Shortspine thornyhead, Skipjack orkinos, Smallmouth bass, Smeltlar, Soley, Spider or Sheep crab, Splittail, Tikanli omar, Kalmar, Steelhead, Chiziqli bas, Sturgeon, Surfperch, Qilich-baliq, Tyurbo, Gulmohi, Oq baliq, Oqlash, Yellowtail (baliq)[68][69]
See: NOAA Long list of California fish for more specific names:[70]
Nearly all fishing is subject to quotas, allowed seasons, licensing, allowed tackle, type and number of lines or net types, excluded (closed) areas, allowed size range, allowed catch size, and other restrictions. The jurisdictions and roles of several state and federal agencies often overlap in the maritime domain giving rise to an alphabet soup of agencies and jurisdictions. Each state normally maintains joint jurisdiction over the first 3.4 miles (5.5 km) (3 nautical mile) of their coastal waters. The main agency charged with ensuring deep sea fishing regulations and restrictions in the United States eksklyuziv iqtisodiy zona (EEZ) of 227 miles (365 km) (200 nautical miles) off its shores are enforced on the high seas by the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari sohil xavfsizligi.
The Milliy okean va atmosfera boshqarmasi (NOAA) agency within the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Savdo vazirligi is charged with protecting and preserving the nation's living marine resources through scientific research, fisheries management, enforcement and habitat conservation. The Milliy Okean va Atmosfera ma'muriyati Baliqchilik huquqni muhofaza qilish idorasi (NOAA OLE) tries to enforce the about 35 laws and regulations passed by Congress. NOAA's Office of Law Enforcement (OLE) is responsible for carrying out more than 35 federal statutes and regulations. The agency's jurisdiction spans more than 11,500,000 square kilometres (4,400,000 sq mi)s ocean in the U.S.'s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) spread over more than 85,000 miles (137,000 km) of U.S. coastline and the country's 13 National Marine Sanctuaries and its Marine National Monuments. It and the United States Coast Guard are also responsible for enforcing U.S. treaties and international law governing the high seas and international trade. With such a large coverage area, it's no wonder that NOAA's Office of Law Enforcement operates joint enforcement agreements with 27 coastal states and partners with other agencies to help get the job done. Article III, Section 2 ning Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi grants original jurisdiction to AQSh federal sudlari over admiralty and maritime matters, however that jurisdiction is not exclusive and most maritime cases can be heard in either state or federal courts under the "saving to suitors" clause.[71] NOAA OLE and NOAA Fisheries works within the laws as enacted in the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Lacey Act Amendments of 1981, the Marine Mammal Protection Act, the National Marine Sanctuaries Act and the Yo'qolib ketish xavfi ostida bo'lgan turlar to'g'risidagi qonun. NOAA's Office of Law Enforcement now has 146 special agents and 17 enforcement officers working out of six divisional offices and 52 field offices throughout the United States and U.S. territories. Many have criticized this meager manpower as grossly inadequate.[72]
Haddan tashqari baliq ovlash is one of the main problems with many marine fisheries with about 30% of all marine fisheries thought to be over fished. Inadequate data is one of the main restrictions to finding and instituting reasonable and sustainable limits on many fishing stocks. To control overfishing NOAA has instituted the Milliy dengiz baliqchilik xizmati (NMFS) to set quotas, specify open and closed fisheries and seasons and other limits on what, when and how fish are caught within federal guidelines. With the help of the six regional science centers, eight regional baliqchilikni boshqarish kengashlar,[73] the coastal states and territories, and three interstate fisheries management commissions,[74] These councils have had varying amounts of success,[75] but seem to at least have started the rehabilitation of some fisheries. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining baliq va yovvoyi tabiatni muhofaza qilish xizmati National Fish Passage Program tries to remove barriers blocking the natural migration of fish to historic habitat used for reproduction and growth.[76]
Since fisheries are the mainstay of some communities as well as being a $38 billion industry there are many conflicting pressures on controlling fishing. More data gathered by more people on: kuzatib borish (caught but unusable fish), fish life cycles, fish habitats at different parts of their life cycle, destructive fish harvesting methods, least damaging ways to harvest fish, etc. are needed to make reasonable choices and set quotas, seasons, etc. necessary to preserve our fisheries. All of this should be set with a maximum of scientific and a minimum of political input. With today's increasingly efficient fishing techniques and fleets, necessary restrictions are the only thing that will assure a continuing source of fishing related jobs and fish products for our descendants—being responsible stewards of our natural resources is often a difficult job but one we can learn and implement.
Mare oroli
Mare oroli shahri yaqinida Vallexo, Kaliforniya, was first Naval Base in California. The Napa River forms its eastern side as it enters the Carquinez Boğazı juncture with the east side of San-Pablo ko'rfazi. 1850 yilda Commodore John Drake Sloat, in charge of a commission to find a California naval base, recommended the island across the Napa River from the settlement of Vallejo; it being "free from ocean gales and from floods and freshets."
On 6 November 1850, two months after California was admitted to statehood, President Millard Fillmor reserved Mare Island for government use. The U.S. Navy Department acted favorably on Commodore Sloat's recommendations and Mare Island was purchased in July 1852, for the sum of $83,410 for the use as a naval shipyard. Two years later, on 16 September 1854, Mare Island became the first permanent U.S. naval installation on the west coast, with Commodore Devid G. Farragut, as Mare Island's first base commander. Bir asrdan ko'proq vaqt davomida Mare oroli Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari dengiz kuchlari "s Mare Island dengiz kemasozligi. A 508-foot (155 m) drydock was built by the Jamoat ishlari bo'limi on an excellent rock foundation of cut granite blocks. Ish o'n to'qqiz yil davom etdi va 1891 yilda yakunlandi. Davomida Ispaniya-Amerika urushi, a concrete drydock on wooden piles, 740 feet (230 m) long, was completed after eleven years of work, in 1910. By 1941, a third drydock had been completed and the drydock number four was under construction. O'q-dorilar ombori va suvosti kemalarini ta'mirlash bazasi zamonaviy, o'tga chidamli binolar edi. A million dollar, three-way vehicle causeway to Vallejo was completed.
Ikkinchi jahon urushidan oldin, Mare oroli doimiy ravishda obodonlashtirish holatida bo'lgan. By 1941, new projects included improvements to the central power plant, a new pattern storage building, a large foundry, machine shop, magazine building, paint shop, new administration building, and a huge storehouse. The yard was expected to be able to repair and paint six to eight large naval vessels at a time. Several finger piers had recently[when?] been built, as well as a new shipbuilding wharf, adding one 500-foot (150 m) and a 750-foot (230 m) berth. It employed 5593 workers at the beginning of 1939, and rapidly increased to 18,500 busily engaged by May 1941, with a monthly payroll of $3,500,000 (1941). Keyin keldi Pearl Harbor. In 1941, the drafting department had expanded to three buildings accommodating over 400 Naval architects, engineers and draftsmen. Kasalxonada 584 yotoqli bemor yotar edi. Mare Island became one of the AQSh dengiz kuchlari 's ship building sites in World War II specializing in building diesel engine powered submarines—they eventually built 32 of them. After the war was over Mare Island became a premier site for building nuclear-powered submarines—building 27 of them.
In 1969, the US Navy transferred its (Vietnam War) Brown Water Navy Riverine Training Forces from Coronado, California, to Mare Island. Swift Boats (Patrol Craft Fast-PCF) va PBRs (Patrol Boat River), boshqa daryo kemalari turlari qatorida shimoliy va g'arbiy qismlarida joylashgan hozirgi Napa-Sonoma Marshes State Wildlife Area bo'ylab qayiq operatsiyalarini o'tkazdilar. Mare oroli. Mare Island Naval Base was deactivated during the 1995 cycle of US base closures, but the US Navy Reserves still have access to the water portions of the State Wildlife Area for any riverine warfare training being conducted from their new base in Sacramento, California.
1996 yilda Mare Island dengiz kemasozligi yopildi.
San-Diego dengiz bazasi was started on land acquired in 1920. San Diego has become the home port of the largest naval fleet in the world, and includes two superkaryerlar, shu qatorda; shu bilan birga AQSh dengiz piyoda korpusi stantsiyalar, AQSh dengiz kuchlari ports, and AQSh sohil xavfsizligi o'rnatishlar. Naval Base San Diego is the largest base of the United States Navy on the west coast of the United States, in San Diego, California. Naval Base San Diego is the principal homeport of the Tinch okean floti 54 kema va 120 dan ortiq ijarachilarning buyruqlaridan iborat. Baza 977 gektar maydonga (3,95 km) cho'zilgan 13 ta tirgakdan iborat2) of land and 326 acres (1.32 km2) suv. The total on base population is 20,000 military personnel and 6,000 civilians.
Kaliforniya kemasozligi
Kaliforniya kemasozlari
California shipbuilders have built or repaired ships of all types, from battleships to wood sailing ships, from the mid-1850s till today. Ikkalasida ham Birinchi jahon urushi va Ikkinchi jahon urushi several large and small shipyards were built in California especially for war time construction. Ships were built out of steel, wood and when these were in short supply even out of concrete. Ko'pchilik tersaneler built many different types of ships and only the "major" builds are included here—see references for more detail and the names of ships. Shipyards that built only one ship are not included.
| Kema quruvchi | Vessel types, notes | California city |
|---|---|---|
| Collyer, W. (1875–1877) | Parom | San-Fransisko |
| Dickie Bros (1875–1883) | Yuk kemasi | Alameda |
| Dickie, J.W. (1894–1904) | Yuk kemasi | Alameda |
| Fulton Eng. & Sbldg 1889 | Arqon | San-Fransisko |
| Hanson & Fraser | Yo'lovchi kemasi | San-Fransisko |
| Hay, A. (1887–1890) | Yuk kemasi | Vilmington |
| Muller, W. | Arqon | Benicia |
| Metyu Tyorner (kema quruvchi) Kemasozlik zavodi | Sailing Ships (238 ea.) | Benicia |
| Union Brass & Iron Works 1849–1907 | Now: Bethlehem Steel | San-Fransisko |
| Kema quruvchi | Vessel types, notes | California city | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anderson & Cristofani | Mina tozalash kemalari | San-Fransisko | [78] |
| Barret va Xilp | Concrete ships, barges | Janubiy San-Fransisko | [79] |
| Basalt Rock Co. | Lighter, rescue ship | Napa | [80] |
| Bendixsen Shipbuilding | Cargo 1876–1910 | Fairhaven | [81] |
| Benicia Shipbuilding | Wooden cargo World War I | Benicia | [82] |
| Bethlehem, BAE Systems S. F. | Battleship, tug | San-Fransisko | [83] |
| Baytlahm San-Frantsisko | Cargo+ 1885–1981 | San-Fransisko | [84] |
| Bethlehem San Pedro | Yo'q qiluvchilar | San-Pedro | [85] |
| Bethlehem Steel, Risdon Iron Works | Union Brass Iron Works 1849–1907 | San-Fransisko | [86] |
| Bethlehem, BAE Systems San Diego | Mina tozalash kemalari | San-Diego | [87] |
| Campbell Industries | Tuna boats, minesweeper | San-Diego | [88] |
| Chandler, Ralph J. | Cargo 1917–1919 | Vilmington | [89] |
| Colberg qayiq ishlari | Mina tozalash kemalari | Stokton | [90] |
| Concrete Ship Constructors, Inc. | Concrete ships & barges | Milliy shahar | [91] |
| Konsolidatsiyalangan po'lat | Small cargo | Vilmington | [92] |
| Craig Shipbuilding | Subs 1917, Cargo 1931 | Long Beach | [93] |
| Cryer & Sons | Transport 1942 | Oklend | [94] |
| Eureka Shipbuilding Co | Diesel tugs | Evrika | [95] |
| Fellows & Stewart | Sub chaser, tug | Vilmington | [96] |
| Fulton kemasozlik zavodi | Mina tozalash kemalari | Antioxiya | [97] |
| General Dynamics NASSCO | Cargo, tug | San-Diego | [98] |
| Umumiy muhandislik | Mina tozalash kemalari | Alameda | [99] |
| Hammond Lumber | Yuk | Gumboldt ko'rfazi | [100] |
| Hanlon Dry Dock & Shipbuilding | Yuk | Oklend | [101] |
| Harbor Boatbuilding | Mina tozalash kemalari | Terminal oroli | [102] |
| Hickinbotham Bros. | Tank landing barge | Stokton | [103] |
| Hodgson-Greene-Haldeman | Tug, barge | Long Beach | [104] |
| Kaiser Permanente Yard #1 | Okeanlar, Libertys, G'alabalar | Richmond | [105] |
| Kaiser Permanente Yard #2 | Libertys, Victorys | Richmond | [106] |
| Kaiser Permanente Yard #3 | Libertys, Victorys | Richmond | [107] |
| Kaiser Permanente Yard #4 | Oilers, LSTs | Richmond | [108] |
| Kaiser, California Shipbuilding | Liberty, Victory | Los Anjeles | [109] |
| Kneass, G. W. | Fishing, Sub chaser | San-Fransisko | [110] |
| Kyle & Co. | Tankers, Barge | Stokton | [111] |
| Larson Boat Shop, Al | Fishing, sub chaser | San-Pedro | [112] |
| Long Beach Shipbuilding | World War I, cargo World War II | Long Beach | [113] |
| Los Angeles Shipbuilding | Yuk | San-Pedro | [114] |
| Lynch Shipbuilding | Tug, cargo | San-Diego | [115] |
| Mare Island dengiz kemasozligi | Navy shipyard | Vallexo | [116] |
| Dengizchilik | Libertys | Sausalito | [117] |
| Mur quruq dok | Yuk | Oklend | [118] |
| NASSCO | Fishing, LSTs | San-Diego | [119] |
| Pacific Bridge kompaniyasi | Coastal cargo | San-Fransisko | [120] |
| Pacific Coast Engineering (PACECO) | Tug, barge | Alameda | [121] |
| Pacific Coast Shipbuilding | Yuk | Bay Point | [122] |
| Peyton Co. | Sub chaser, tug | Newport Beach | [123] |
| Pollock-Stockton Shipbuilding | Barge, lighter | Stokton | [124] |
| Rolph Shipbuilding | Yuk | [125] | |
| San Diego Marine | Mina tozalash kemalari | San-Diego | [126] |
| San-Frantsisko dengiz kemasozligi | Ovchi nuqtasi | San-Fransisko | [127] |
| South Coast Shipbuilding | Mina tozalash kemalari | Newport Beach | [128] |
| Southwestern Shipbuilding | Yo'q qiluvchilar | San-Pedro | [129] |
| Standard Shipbuilding | Wooden ships, coal barges | San-Pedro | [130] |
| Stephens Marine | Barge, lighter | Stokton | [131] |
| Stone & Sons, William F. | 1853 yilda tashkil etilgan | Oklend | [132] |
| Todd San Pedro | Yuk kemasi | San-Pedro | [133] |
| Union Brass & Iron Works | See: Bethleham Steel | San-Fransisko | [86] |
| Union Construction | World War I cargo | Oklend | [134] |
| Van Peer Boat Works | Fishing 1978–2012 | Bragg Fort | [135] |
| Victory Shipbuilding | Tugs, U.S. Army & Navy | Newport Beach | [136] |
| G'arbiy quvur va po'lat | World War I & II cargo ships | South San Francisco, San Pedro | [137] |
| Wilmington qayiq ishlari | Sub chaser, tug | Vilmington | [138] |
| Wood, Clyde W. | Barge, tugs | Stokton | [139] |
| Kema quruvchi | Vessel types, notes | California city |
|---|---|---|
| Bay City Marine | Icebreaking tug | San-Diego |
| Berggren Marine | Baliq ovlash | Chula Vista |
| DeYoung, A. W. | Patrul qayig'i | Alameda |
| Bob Pluss Welding | Fishing 1980+ | Chula Vista |
| Calaska Marine C | Baliq ovlash | Marshal |
| Coombs, Walter D. | Arqon | Los Anjeles |
| Fashion Blacksmith, Inc. | Baliq ovlash | Yarim oy shahar |
| Guntert & Zimmerman | Derrick barge | Stokton |
| J. & R. Dooley Boat Builders | Baliq ovlash | Yarim oy ko'rfazi |
| Kaiser Cargo, Inc. | Drill ship | Richmond |
| Kelley Boat Works | Baliq ovlash | Bragg Fort |
| Mitchel Duane Phares | Baliq ovlash | Los Anjeles |
| Muller, William | Arqon | Vilmington |
| Richmond Steel | Covered lighter | Richmond |
| San Pedro BW | Patrul qayig'i | San-Pedro |
| SWATH Ocean Systems, MChJ | Tadqiqot kemasi | Chula Vista |
| Transval Electronics Co. | Baliq ovlash | Segundo |
| Wilmington kemasozlik | Buxoriy shunos | Vilmington |
| Kema quruvchi | Kema turlari, eslatmalar | Kaliforniya shahri |
|---|---|---|
| Aetna Iron & Steel | Loy barjasi | San-Diego |
| Amerika quvurlari | Yengilroq | Janubiy darvoza |
| Kaliforniya po'lati | Yoqilg'i moyi barjasi | Richmond |
| Garbutt-Uolsh | Yengilroq | San-Pedro |
| Hunt Marine Service | Arqon | Richmond |
| Mustaqil temir ishlari | Zajigalkani oching | Oklend |
| Madden, Lyuis | Arqon | Sausalito |
| Mur uskunalari | Yengilroq | Stokton |
| Tinch okeanidagi qayiq | Barja, pastki | Terminal oroli |
| Sakramento SB | Zajigalkani oching | Sakramento |
| Sausalito kemasozlik | Barja, benzin | Sausalito |
| Soule Steel | Yengilroq | San-Fransisko |
| Standart po'lat | Barja, pastki | Los Anjeles |
| Stenvud kemasozlik zavodi | Barja | Stenvud |
| Birlashgan beton trubkasi | Sohil bo'ylab yuk tashuvchi | Los Anjeles |
| Wilson Co. | Armiya ishga tushirildi | Vilmington |
Mare Island dengiz kemasozligi (DAK) in Vallexo, Kaliforniya, taxminan 1855 yildan 1993 yilgacha AQShning G'arbiy qirg'og'ida dengiz floti kemalari uchun asosiy dengiz qurilish maydonchasi bo'lgan.
Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan oldin, Mare oroli doimiy ravishda obodonlashtirish holatida bo'lgan. 1941 yilga kelib, hovli bir vaqtning o'zida oltidan sakkiztagacha yirik dengiz kemalarini ta'mirlash va bo'yash imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishi kerak edi. 1939 yil boshida 5593 ishchi ishlagan, ular 1941 yil may oyiga qadar 18500 ga o'sgan va oylik ish haqi $ 3.500.000 (1941). Keyin keldi Perl-Harborga hujum. Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida, Mare oroli Tinch okeanida AQSh dengiz kuchlarining dengiz osti kuchlarini qurish va boshqa dengiz kemalarini qurishga ixtisoslashgan.
Kongress 1993 yilda Mare orolini yopishni buyurganida, kemasozlik zavodida 5800 ishchi ishlagan.[142]
Mare Island dengiz kemasi zavodi AQSh dengiz kuchlari uchun kamida sakson to'qqizta dengiz kemalarini, shu jumladan ikkitasini Daromadlarni kesuvchi xizmat. Qurilgan eng muhim kemalar va qayiqlar orasida: Mare Island Construction
- 2 Yog'och urush shiori
- 1 temir monitor
- 1 daromad to'sar (USRC)
- 1 port tortish qayig'i uchun Daromadlarni kesuvchi xizmat
- 1 ta o'quv kemasi
- 1 kollier
- 1 samolyot tashuvchisi
- 3 tankerlar
- 2 qurolli qayiqlar
- 19 yo'q qiluvchilar
- 15 suvosti kemalari - yog'och
- 1 kreyser
- 1 og'ir kreyser
- 2 jangovar kemalar
- 2 dengiz osti tenderlari
- 32 Dizel quvvatlanadi dengiz osti kemalari
- 17 Yadro energiyasi bilan ishlaydi dengiz osti kemalari
- 1 Bathyscaphe Trieste II
Qarang: Mare Island dengiz kemasozligi maxsus kemalar uchun.
Milliy po'lat va kemasozlik kompaniyasi
Milliy po'lat va kemasozlik kompaniyasi, odatda NASSCO deb nomlanuvchi, San-Diyegodagi kemasozlik zavodi va Umumiy dinamikasi. U yonida joylashgan San-Diego dengiz bazasi. NASSCO ga aylangan narsa 1905 yilda Kaliforniya temir ishlari (CIW) deb nomlangan kichik dastgohlar do'koni sifatida tashkil etilgan. Mashinasozlik va quyish korxonalari 1922 yilda Milliy temir ishlari (NIW) deb nomlangan va 1944-1945 yillarda kemalar qurish uchun San-Diego qirg'og'iga ko'chib o'tgan. 1949 yilda NIW Milliy po'lat va kemasozlik korporatsiyasi (NASSCO) deb o'zgartirildi. Kema zavodi tijorat yuk kemalari va yordamchi kemalarini saqlash va qurishga ixtisoslashgan minalar tozalash kemalari va LSTlar, shifoxona kemalari uchun patrul kemalari va yuk kemalari AQSh dengiz kuchlari va Harbiy Sealift qo'mondonligi. Bu Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining G'arbiy sohilidagi 4600 dan ortiq odam ishlaydigan eng yirik yangi qurilish kemasozlik zavodi va hozirda AQShning G'arbiy sohilidagi yagona yirik kema quriladigan hovli hisoblanadi.
Qarang Turkum: San-Diegoda qurilgan kemalar u erda qurilgan 70 ta kemada yozish uchun.
Kaliforniya kemasozlik korporatsiyasi
.
Kaliforniya kemasozlik korporatsiyasi (ko'pincha Calship deb nomlanadi) 467 qurilgan Ozodlik va G'alaba kemalari Ikkinchi jahon urushi paytida, shu jumladan Xaskell- sinf hujum transport vositalari. Calship kemasozlik zavodi da yaratilgan Terminal oroli Los-Anjelesda Ikkinchi Jahon urushi kemasozlik ishlari doirasida. Dastlab 8 edi yo'llari va 14 ga ko'tarildi. Urushdan keyin u tugatildi. Ular qurgan kemalar:
- 306 EC2-S-C1 Liberty kema yuk tashish
- 30 Z-ET1-S-C3 Liberty kema tashuvchisi *
- 32 VC2-S-AP3 Victory kema yuk tashish, 8500 ot kuchi
- 30 VC2-S-AP5 Haskell klassi USN hujum transporti
- 69 VC2-S-AP2 Victory kema yuk tashish, 6000 ot kuchi
Kayzer-Permanente Kaliforniya kemasozlik zavodlari
Kaiser Richmond kemasozlik zavodlari, Richmond, Kaliforniya (Kaiser inshooti) shahrida joylashgan to'rtta Richmond kemasozlik zavodiga ega edi Richmond, Kaliforniya va Los-Anjelesdagi yana bir kemasozlik zavodi. Kayzerning boshqa hovlilari ham bor edi Vashington (shtat) va boshqa shtatlar. Ularni Kaiser boshqarganDoimiy metalllar va Kayzer kemasozlik zavodlari. Richmond hovlilari ko'proq qurilish uchun javobgardilar Ozodlik kemalari Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida, 747 yil, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi boshqa kemasozlik zavodlariga qaraganda. Ozodlik kemalari ommaviy ishlab chiqarish uchun tanlangan, chunki ularning eskirgan dizayni nisbatan sodda va uch karra kengayadigan pistoni bo'lgan bug 'dvigateli butlovchi qismlar etarlicha sodda bo'lib, ularni boshqa qismlarni ishlab chiqarish uchun juda zarur bo'lmagan bir nechta kompaniyalar amalga oshirishi mumkin edi. Kema qurishda nemis kabi po'lat va boshqa kerakli tarkibiy qismlarga katta ahamiyat berildi U-qayiqlar 1944 yilgacha Qo'shma Shtatlardagi barcha tersaneler qurishi mumkin bo'lganidan ko'proq kemalarni cho'ktirdi. AQSh kemasozlik korxonalari Ikkinchi Jahon urushida taxminan 5926 kema qurdilar[143] uchun yana 100 mingdan ortiq kichik hunarmandchilik AQSh armiyasining dengiz qismlari.
Genri J. Kayzer kompaniyasi qurgan edi yuk kemalari uchun AQSh dengiz komissiyasi 30-yillarning oxirlarida. 1940 yilda Angliya hukumatidan kemalar uchun buyurtma, allaqachon urush bilan Natsistlar Germaniyasi, o'sishga imkon berdi. Kayzer o'zining birinchi Richmond kemasozlik zavodini, 1940 yil dekabrda boshlagan. Oxir-oqibat, Richmondda yana uchta zavod qurilgan; kemalarni qurish uchun to'rtdan sakkizgacha slip bilan har bir hovli. Kaiser-Permanente tez va samarali ravishda "Ozodlik" kemalarini seriyali ishlab chiqarishga ixtisoslashgan va ular 1944 yilga qadar ancha murakkabroqqa o'tgandan keyin qurilgan narsalar. G'alaba kemalari va bir qismini qurdi tortish va Landing kema, tank (LSTs) va boshqa ixtisoslashgan kemalar yangi qurilgan №4 hovlida.
- 747 EC2-S-C1 Liberty kema yuk tashish transporti vositalari qurildi
Quyidagi ma'lumotnomalarda qurilgan individual kemalar ro'yxati:
- Kaiser Permanente Yard # 1; Okeanlar, Ozodlik, G'alabalar; Richmondda qurilgan[144]
- Kaiser Permanente Yard # 2; Richmondda qurilgan Libertys, Victorys[106]
- Kayzer Permanente Yard # 3; Ozodlik, G'alabalar; Richmondda qurilgan[107]
- Kayzer Permanente Yard # 4; Landing kema, tanklar (LST) s, Tugmalar; Richmondda qurilgan[108]
- Kayzer, Kaliforniya kemasozlik; Ozodlik, G'alabalar; Los-Anjelesda qurilgan[145]
Ushbu Ozodlik kemalari vaqtning uchdan ikki qismida va boshqa barcha tersaneler o'rtacha narxining to'rtdan birida yakunlandi. Ozodlik kemasi SSRobert E. Peary kemasozlik korxonalari o'rtasida o'tkazilgan maxsus tanlov doirasida besh kundan kam vaqt ichida yig'ildi; Ammo 1944 yilga kelib "Ozodlik" kemasini standart usullar bilan yig'ish uchun ikki haftadan sal ko'proq vaqt ajablanarli darajada qisqa vaqt talab qilindi. Ular kemaning asosiy qismlarini, shu jumladan kemasozlikning turli joylarida korpus uchastkalarini oldindan yig'ishgan va keyin kerak bo'lganda ularni og'ir ko'taruvchi kranlar bilan kema zavodining ishga tushirish joyiga ko'chirishgan, u erda ular oldindan qurilgan uchastkalarni bir-biriga payvandlashgan. Kemalar ishga tushirilgandan so'ng, ular so'nggi konfiguratsiyani suvga ko'tarish paytida tugatdilar va boshqa kemani qurishni boshlash uchun yo'l ochildi.
1945 yilda kemasozlik korxonalari to'rt yil avval ishga tushirilgandek tez o'chirildi. Ilgari kemasozlik korxonalari egallab olgan qirg'oqlarning katta qismi endi egalik qiladi Richmond, Kaliforniya va federal yordam "jigarrang maydonlar" dasturlari asosida tozalangan va qayta ishlab chiqilgan. "Rozi Riveter" / Ikkinchi Jahon urushi fronti milliy tarixiy parki kemasozlik zavodida Ikkinchi Jahon urushida g'olib chiqishda frontning rolini yod etish va sharhlash uchun tashkil etilgan.
- Richmond Shipyards Tasvirlari[146][147]
- Kaiser-Permanente hovlisining №1, # 2, # 3 va # 4 xaritasi[148]
- Kayzer kemasozlik zavodlari[149]
Kaliforniya portlari
- Los-Anjelesning Long Wharf porti 1894 yildan 1913 yilgacha temir yo'l va ko'cha vagonlari xizmat qilgan yirik dengiz porti bo'lgan. Bu hozirgi saytida edi Will Rogers State Beach qutqaruvchilarning shtab-kvartirasi. Okean o'sha paytda 4600 fut balandlikda dunyodagi eng uzun bo'lgan. Bu Kaliforniya tarixiy obidasi, sayt raqami 881.[184]
Parom xizmati
San-Fransisko ko'rfazi 150 yildan ortiq vaqt davomida barcha turdagi paromlar bilan xizmat qilib kelmoqda. Garchi qurilish Oltin darvoza ko'prigi va San-Fransisko-Oklend ko'rfazidagi ko'prik ko'pgina paromlarning ahamiyatini pasayishiga olib keldi, ba'zi yo'lovchi paromlari bugungi kunda ham yo'lovchilar, ham sayyohlar uchun foydalanilmoqda, shu jumladan Oltin darvoza paromi va San-Fransisko ko'rfazidagi parom.
Feribot xizmati ham o'tish uchun mavjud San-Diego ko'rfazi San-Diegodan Koronado. Yo'lovchi paromlari, shuningdek, offshor portlarga xizmat ko'rsatadi Avalon va Ikki port kuni Santa-Katalina oroli. Avalonga avtoulovlar uchun parom qatnovi muntazam mavjud emas, ammo shahar o'z chegaralarida yengil va yuk mashinalaridan foydalanishni cheklaydi.[185]
Kaliforniya kemalari halokatga uchradi
The Farallon orollari, Kanal orollari Kaliforniya va toshli materik qirg'og'i tarixiy ravishda dengiz tashish uchun xavfli navigatsion to'siqlarni keltirib chiqardi. Vaqti-vaqti bilan tuman va xavfli shamol va bo'ronlar ko'pincha kemalarni toshlarga, xavfli plyajlarga va orollarga Tinch okeanining zarbasi berilishiga olib keldi. Shish va bo'ronlar. To'lqin yo'nalishini o'zgartirganda, shiddatli oqimlar har doim Oltin darvozaga kirish va chiqish yo'llarini bosib o'tdilar. Suvlarida 140 dan ortiq kema halokati haqida xabar berilgan Farallones ko'rfazidagi Milliy dengiz qo'riqxonasi.
Kaliforniyada birinchi bo'lib qayd etilgan kema halokatlari San-Augustin, boy yuklangan ispan Manila galleoni 1595 yilda toshqin bilan qirg'oqqa haydalgan Drake's Bay, San-Frantsisko shimoli-g'arbiy qismida.
The Honda Point halokati tinchlik vaqtidagi eng katta yo'qotish bo'ldi AQSh dengiz kuchlari kemalar. Honda Point, shuningdek, Point Pedernales deb ham ataladi, hozirgi dengiz qirg'og'ida joylashgan Vandenberg aviabazasi yopiq Arguelloning nuqtasi sohilda Santa-Barbara okrugi, Kaliforniya. 1923 yil 8-sentabr oqshomida "Destroyer Squad 11" ning o'n to'rtta kemasi navigatsiya paytida 20 knot (37 km / s) tezlikda harakatlanayotgan edi. o'lik hisoblash ba'zan xoinlarga kirishni topish Santa Barbara kanali. Eskadronni boshqargan Commodore Edvard X. Uotson, ustida flagman qiruvchi USS Delfi. Hammasi edi Klemson- sinf besh yoshga to'lmagan qirg'inchilar. Soat 21: 00da kemalar sharqiy tomonga burilib, 095-yo'nalishga, go'yoki Santa-Barbara kanalining kirish qismiga yo'l olishdi. Ettita esminets shimoliy tomondan bir necha mil uzoqlikda joylashgan Honda-Poyntga qarata yugurdi Santa Barbara kanali. Yana ikkita esminets bir oz zarar etkazdi. Yigirma uch kishi vafot etdi.[186]
Kaliforniya shtati a Kema halokatiga uchragan ma'lumotlar bazasi Kaliforniyadagi ma'lum bo'lgan (1540 ea.) halokatga uchragan kemalar va ularning eng taniqli kenglik va uzunlik koordinatalari, kema turi, egasi, kapitan va boshqalar. - ma'lum bo'lganda.[187] A ta'rifi kema halokati ma'lumotlar bazasiga kiritilgan qirg'oqqa, toshlarga yoki riflarga qulab tushish, kema portlashlari, asoschilarni (suv bilan to'ldirish va cho'ktirish), snagalarni urish (cho'kib ketgan daraxtlar), yong'inlarda, ajratilgan chiziqlar va boshqalarni o'z ichiga olgan vayronalar. asosan kemaga zarar etkazadigan har qanday narsa. Ushbu kemalarning aksariyati ta'mirlanib, baxtsiz hodisalardan keyin xizmatda qolishgan. Ushbu kemalar, ularning yuklari va ularni to'xtatib turuvchi aravachalar tizimlari Kaliforniya dengiz tarixining fizik qoldiqlari hisoblanadi.
- Kaliforniyadagi kema halokati haqida yozish
- USSAberkrombi
- USSAgerxolm
- USSEntoni
- USSEntoni
- USSArcher-Fish
- USSAspro
- USSAspro
- USSAtlanta
- SSAvalon
- USSBarbel
- USSXayriyat
- USSBlekfin
- USSBoston
- Jonatan birodar
- USSBunting
- USSBurrfish
- Kabutar tashuvchi
- Centerville Beach Cross
- USSChamplin
- USSCharlz J. Kimmel
- USSKonsi[Izoh 2]
- SSRio-de-Janeyro shahri
- USSColahan
- SSKolumbiya
- USSKoningham
- SSKuba
- USSDeLong
- USSDelfi[Izoh 2]
- USSDeperm
- USSDevilfish
- Diosa del Mar
- SSDominator
- USSDunkan
- SSEmidio
- SSEskambiya
- USSF-1
- USSFalgout
- USSFarragut [Izoh 2]
- USSTo'liq [Izoh 2]
- USSJorj K. MakKenzi
- USSXarveson
- USSGerreshoff № 321
- USSXogan
- Honda Point halokati
- USSHornbill
- Jeyms Rolf
- Yoxanna Smit
- USSJon R. Kreyg
- Qirol Filipp kemaning halokatga uchrashi
- USSRitsar
- Labouchere
- USSLyuis
- USSMagnit
- USSMarkus
- USSMakkullox
- USSMiluoki
- SSMontebello
- USSMoray
- USSNayf
- USSNikolay[Izoh 2]
- SSNortherner
- SSOgayo shtati
- SSPalo Alto
- USSPensakola
- USSRadford
- USSRichard S. Bull
- USSRichey
- USSS-37
- USSS. P. Li[Izoh 2]
- USSSabalo
- USSVahshiylik
- USSDengiz iblis
- Sibil Marston
- USSSkat
- USSSkipjack
- USSSloat
- USSSomers[Izoh 2]
- SSMonte-Karlo
- USSStyuart
- USSStribling
- USSTompson
- USSTingey
- USSTrav
- USSUlvert M. Mur
- USSUilyams
- SSUinfild Skott
- USSVudberi[Izoh 2]
- Vayronagarchilik xiyoboni
- USSYosh[Izoh 2]
- HMCSYukon
- Zenobiya
Kaliforniya dengiz chiroqlari
A dengiz chiroqi bu minora, bino yoki boshqa turdagi inshootlar - bu xavf haqida ogohlantirish yoki asosan kechasi navigatsiyaga yordam berish uchun miltillovchi yorug'likni o'z ichiga oladi. Endi chiroqlar qaysi yorug'lik ekanligini aniqlash uchun oldindan belgilangan ketma-ketlikda yonib o'chadi. Dengiz chiroqlari tunda yoki tuman bilan bog'langan navigatsiyaga yordam sifatida ishlatiladi kema uchuvchilari va kapitanlar dengizda yoki ichki suv yo'llarida. Ular xavfli qirg'oq chiziqlari, quruqlik punktlari haqida ogohlantiradi shoals, toshlar va riflar yoki kema kanallarini yoki port kirish joylarini belgilang. Ochiq havoda yorug'likni kechasi 26 milya (26 km) ko'rish mumkin. Endi tuman tumanlarida chiroqlar odatda a bilan birlashtiriladi foghorn. Tumanli shoxlar ishlab chiqarilishidan oldin, zambaraklar va / yoki katta qo'ng'iroqlar (soat vkladkalari tomonidan chaqirilgan), tuman bilan o'ralgan xavf haqida ogohlantirish uchun ishlatilgan. Miltillovchi chiroqlar odatda minoralar yoki dengiz yaqinidagi quruqlik, tosh yoki shollarda qurilgan boshqa taniqli inshootlarga o'rnatiladi. Ba'zilari qurilgan qoziqlar, kessonlar yoki ajratilgan jinslarga o'rnatiladi. Ba'zi dengiz chiroqlari o'rnatilgan langar Yengil kemalar boshqa iqtisodiy alternativa bo'lmaganida.
1850-yillarda yorug'lik yog 'yoki kerosin lampalar tizimidan chiqarildi. Yorug'lik bir tizim bilan jamlangan va yo'naltirilgan edi Fresnel linzalari. 1850-yillarda yorug'lik yonishdan ta'minlandi fitna a kit yog'i chiroq. Keyinchalik, kerosin paydo bo'lganda, yorug'lik yonib turgan kerosin bilan ta'minlandi. Ular odatda Argand chiroq unda yorug'lik chiqindilarini yo'naltirish va kuchaytirish uchun chiroq ortida kumushli parabolik reflektor bilan yaxshiroq, yorqinroq, yonish uchun shisha bacadagi bo'sh fitil mavjud edi. Yog 'yoqadigan barcha lampalar yorug'likni yoqish uchun yonib turgan jo'mraklardan foydalanganlar, shunda ular dengiz chiroqlarini ushlab turuvchilaridan birini "fitna" deb atashgan, chunki ular ko'p vaqtini lampalaridagi chiroqlarni eng kamida yonib turishlari uchun soot. 1850-yillarda ularning chiroqlari yordamida aylantirildi soat mexanizmlari, odatda zanjirlarga biriktirilgan tushgan og'irliklar bilan ishlaydi. Ko'pgina dengiz chiroqlari vertikal vallarga ega edi, shunda og'irliklar minora balandligini pasaytirishi mumkin edi. Bu og'irliklarni yana tortib olishlari uchun ko'proq vaqtni taqdim etdi dengiz chiroqlari qo'riqchilari aylanish mexanizmini quvvatlantirish uchun. Ba'zilarini har ikki soatda bir marta qayta tiklash kerak edi.
Soat mexanizmlarini yarasini ushlab turish uchun chiroqni yoqish va chiroq uskunalari va derazalarini tozalab turish uchun zarur bo'lgan yog'ga yonilg'i quying, odatda mayoqlarni birdan beshgacha erkak yoki ayolgacha bo'lgan chiroq saqlovchilari boshqargan. Ekipajlar farovon yashashlari va / yoki boshqalar bilan muloqot qilishlari mumkin bo'lgan juda baxtli mayoqlargina joylashgan. Ushbu topshiriqlar ko'pincha tumanga bog'liq bo'lgan yolg'iz joylarda bo'lganligi sababli, ekipajlar bir necha oyda bir necha marta navbatchilikda va navbatda aylanardi. Ba'zan oilalarga mayoqni ishlatish uchun er, xotin va bolalar birgalikda yashashlari uchun pul to'lashardi.
1890-yillarning boshidan boshlab chiroqlar yonish bilan ta'minlandi asetilen hosil bo'lgan gaz joyida dan kaltsiy karbid suv bilan reaksiyaga kirishish. Atsetilen-gazni yoritish tizimi ishonchli tarzda avtomatik ravishda yoqilishi va o'chirilishi mumkin, bu esa qarovsiz avtomatlashtirilgan dengiz chiroqlarini ishlatishga imkon beradi. Elektr mavjud bo'lgandan so'ng, ko'pincha bir yoki bir nechtasi tomonidan ta'minlanadi dizel elektr generatorlari uzoq joylarda yorug'lik manbai asta-sekin elektr energiyasiga aylantirildi va soat mexanizmlari ba'zi turdagi elektr motorlari tomonidan boshqarildi. Masalan, zamonaviy o'zgarishlar haqida Chatham Light yilda Chatham, Massachusets shtati ("tirsagi" yonida Cape Cod ) yorug'lik 1969 yilda Fresnel linzalari yorug'lik yig'ilishidan a ga aylantirildi Carlisle & Finch DCB-224 2,8 milliondan ortiq kandela hosil qiluvchi aylanma yorug'lik. Bu toza kechada 20 dan ortiq dengiz millari bo'ylab ko'rinadi va yonib ketgan lampalarni almashtirish uchun o'z-o'zidan o'zgaruvchan lampalar to'plamiga ega.
Keng qo'llanilgandan so'ng, texnik xizmat ko'rsatish va ularni zamonaviy elektron navigatsiya yordamchilari bilan almashtirish hisobiga operatsion chiroqlar soni kamaydi. Hozirgi kunda ham foydalanilayotgan deyarli barcha dengiz chiroqlari, imkoni bo'lmagan joylarda quyosh batareyalari va katta batareyalar orqali ta'minlanadigan quvvat bilan imkon qadar avtomatlashtirilgan. Bugungi chiroqlar hammasi tomonidan boshqariladi AQSh sohil xavfsizligi uchun voris Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining dengiz chiroqlari xizmati. Hozirda AQShning Sohil xavfsizlik xizmati tomonidan joylashgan joylari va xarakterli signallari bilan harakatlanishda yordam beradigan vositalar to'g'risida batafsil ma'lumot beruvchi faol yorug'lik uylari, yoritilgan mayoqlar va boshqalar ro'yxati. Yorug'lik ro'yxati har yili chiqarilgan.[234] Kaliforniya hozirgi paytda o'n birinchi va o'n uchinchi sohil xavfsizligi tumanida.
Ispaniyaliklar Kaliforniyada bo'lganlarida, ularning jo'natilishi yiliga ~ 2,5 kema dan kam bo'lgan va ular kemalar qachon paydo bo'lishini taxmin qilishning iloji yo'q edi va aloqa shunchalik sust va noaniq edi, chunki kamdan-kam hollarda dengiz chiroqlari kabi narsalarga ehtiyoj sezilardi. Tungi signallar tegishli deb hisoblanganida, plyajda katta yong'in paydo bo'lishi mumkin. Aslida tungi navigatsiya yo'q edi - bu juda xavfli edi. Kecha tunda kemalar qirg'oqqa kun yorug'igacha yoki langarga qadar yaxshi turishgan. Meksika Kaliforniyani nazorat qilganda ishlar biroz yaxshilandi, chunki yuk tashish hajmi yiliga taxminan 25 ta kemaga ko'tarildi - dengiz chiroqlarini yoqish yoki hatto deyarli har doim ham o't o'chirish uchun signal berish juda oz. Kema hali ham qirg'oqqa qadar kun yorug'igacha yoki langarda saqlanib turardi.
Qachon Kaliforniya Gold Rush boshlangan va yiliga kemalar soni yiliga 700 dan ortiq kemalarga sakrab tushgan va dengiz chiroqlari texnologiyasi etarlicha rivojlangan, asosan Frenel linzalari va Argand lampalari, dengiz chiroqlari ancha foydali va amalga oshirila boshlandi. Bir nechta yomon kema halokatlari shuni ko'rsatdiki, kecha yoki tuman paytida belgilanishi kerak bo'lgan navigatsiya uchun juda ko'p xavf mavjud. 1790 yildan 1850 yilgacha AQSh Federal hukumati 85 foizdan ko'proqni import orqali moliyalashtirdi tariflar (shuningdek, bojxona to'lovlari yoki ad valorem soliqlari ) 25 foizga yaqin xorijiy tovarlarga Vashingtonga boradigan Kaliforniya yuk tashishidan doimiy ravishda pul yig'ilib turardi. Barcha tariflar AQShga 1790 yildan beri yuborilgan chet el tovarlari tomonidan to'langanligi sababli Daromad dengiz (AQSh Sohil Xavfsizligining oldingi vakili) kema qatnovini diqqat bilan kuzatgan. Portga kelgan har bir kemani tekshirish va tegishli tarif soliqlarini yig'ish majburiyati yuklangan Bojxona yig'uvchisi tomonidan yig'ilgan tariflar. Kaliforniyadagi birinchi bojxona kollektsiyasi 1848 yilda general Kerniy tomonidan tayinlangan Edvard X. Xarrison edi. Ushbu daromadning bir qismini Kaliforniyaga qaytarib berish uchun Kaliforniyalik kongressmenlar mayoqlar uchun ariza berishni boshladilar va tez orada Kongress kelishib oldi. 1850 yilga kelib Sharqiy sohilda juda keng yorug'likli uylar mavjud edi, shuning uchun o'nlab yillar davomida ishlab chiqarilgan bir xil texnologiya AQShning G'arbiy qirg'og'iga o'tkazildi.
Frensis A. Gibbons va Frensis Kellining firmasi 1853 yilda Kaliforniyaning birinchi ettita dengiz chiroqlarini qurish bo'yicha shartnoma imzoladilar. Alkatraz oroli birinchi bo'lib 1855 yilga qadar San-Frantsisko ko'rfazida foydalanilgan - Frenel linzalari etishmasligi sababli tugatish kechiktirildi. Vaqt o'tishi bilan Kaliforniya sohillari bo'ylab 45 dan ortiq dengiz chiroqlari qurildi.
Point Reyes dengiz chiroqida turgan jasur erkaklar va ayollarning sa'y-harakatlariga qaramay, yaqin qirg'oqda kemalar halokatga uchradi. The Hayotni qutqarish xizmati 1889 yilda Point Reyesda qurilgan ikkita hayotni tejash stantsiyasining birinchisini ochdi. Ikkinchi stantsiya Drakes plyajida 1968 yilda yopildi. U erda joylashgan ishchilar bo'ron va kema halokatlari qurbonlarini qutqarishga harakat qilishdi. O'zlarining ishlarining ajoyib xavfliligi va o'z ishlariga bo'lgan sadoqati AQSh sohil xavfsizlik xizmatining norasmiy shiorida sezilishi mumkin:
- "Siz tashqariga chiqishingiz kerak, lekin qaytib kirishingiz shart emas."
Shuningdek qarang
- Kaliforniya tadqiqotchilari
- Kaliforniya tarixi
- Kaliforniya tarixi 1900 yilgacha
- Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari savdogar dengizining tarixi
- Gumboldt ko'rfazi
- San-Frantsisko dengiz milliy tarixiy bog'i
- Ispaniyaning Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismiga ekspeditsiyalari
- G'arbiy qirg'oqning yog'och savdosi
Izohlar
Kaliforniya shtatidagi 1850 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish 92,597 nafar aholini ko'rsatdi. Bunga San-Frantsiskodan (shtatning o'sha paytdagi eng yirik shahri) Santa Klara va Kontra-Kosta okruglari aholisi ro'yxatga olingan bo'lib, ularning soni ro'yxatga olinmagan yoki yo'qolgan. San-Frantsiskoda 1850 yilgi AQSh aholini ro'yxatga olish ularning dastlabki bir necha yil ichida olti marta shaharni qamrab olgan davriy yong'inlaridan birida yo'qolgan. 1850 yildagi gazeta hisoblari (Kaliforniyalik Olta) San-Frantsisko shahri / tumani aholisini 21000 kishiga beradi; 1852 yildagi Kaliforniya shtatidagi maxsus ro'yxatga olish Santa-Klara okrugining 6,158 nafar aholisini, Kontra-Kosta okrugining 2 ming 786 nafar aholisini va tez rivojlanib borayotgan San-Frantsisko shahri / tumanidan 36,134 nafarini topadi. Kaliforniya shtatidagi "tuzatilgan" 1850 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish 120 mingdan oshdi. 1850 yilgi AQSh aholini ro'yxatga olish Kaliforniya shtatida tug'ilgan 7765 ispan aholisini ko'rsatadi. Qarang: AQShning ettinchi aholini ro'yxatga olish 1850: Kaliforniya bu 1852 yilgi Kaliforniya shtatidagi maxsus aholini ro'yxatga olishni o'z ichiga oladi[235]
Izohlar
Adabiyotlar
- ^ Tule kulbalarini yasash 2011 yil 12-mayda kirilgan
- ^ Tule matlari 2011 yil 12-mayda kirilgan
- ^ Tule arra 2011 yil 12-mayda kirilgan
- ^ Tule Boat Project rasmlari Kirish 2011 yil 9-may
- ^ Tule kanoe qurilishi [1] 2011 yil 12-mayda kirilgan
- ^ San-Frantsisko ko'rfazidagi qobiq uyalari 1909 yil Kirish 2011 yil 9-may
- ^ Qo'l qurish uchun tule kanoe 2011 yil 10-iyulda foydalanilgan
- ^ Tomol kanoe qurilishi Kirish 2011 yil 9-may
- ^ Chumash va Tongva Tomol (Plank) kanoeslari Arxivlandi 2011 yil 15-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 9-may
- ^ Quyi Kaliforniyaning kashfiyoti va dastlabki tadqiqotlari Arxivlandi 2011 yil 13 iyun Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 11 May 2011
- ^ Kelsi, Garri; 1986 yil; João Rodrigues Kabrillo; Xantington kutubxonasi, San-Diego, Kaliforniya
- ^ Kabrillo hayoti Arxivlandi 2011 yil 26 avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 10-may
- ^ Bankston, Jon; Xuan Rodgriquesz Kabrillo; Mitchell Lane Publishers; 2004 yil; ISBN 1-58415-199-4
- ^ Derek Xeys (2001). Shimoliy Tinch okeanining tarixiy atlasi: kashfiyot va ilmiy izlanish xaritalari, 1500–2000. Duglas va McIntyre. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-55054-865-5.
- ^ Shurtz, Uilyam Little; Manila Galleon; E.P. Dutton and Co, Nyu-York, 1939 yil; p. 193-225
- ^ Krespi, Xuan, tahrir. Braun tomonidan, Alan; Uzoq yo'llarning tavsifi: 1769–1770 yillarda Kaliforniyaga qilingan birinchi ekspeditsiyaning asl jurnallari; San-Diego shtati universiteti matbuoti; (2001), ispan va ingliz tillarida; ISBN 978-1-879691-64-3
- ^ Rivera tadqiqotlari[doimiy o'lik havola ]
- ^ "Mehmonlar: San-Frantsisko tarixiy ma'lumotlari". San-Frantsisko shahri va okrugi. nd Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008 yil 31 martda. Olingan 10 iyun 2008.
- ^ Kaliforniya Longhorns va boshqalar. Texas Longhorns Arxivlandi 2011 yil 8-iyul kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi 2011 yil 10-iyun kuni kirish huquqiga ega
- ^ San-Frantsiskoda yetmish besh yil kema yozuvlari Kirish 11 May 2011
- ^ http: // Kaliforniya Arxivlandi 2013 yil 30-iyul kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Texas Longhornsga qarshi [www.fairlealonghorns.com/Default.aspx?ID=566&Title=CaliforniavsTexasLonghorns]
- ^ Dana, Richard; Mastdan ikki yil oldin: dengizdagi hayot haqida shaxsiy rivoyat CreateSpace tomonidan nashr etilgan (2010) ISBN 978-1-4564-7282-5
- ^ 1774 yildan 1847 yilgacha KALIFORNIYA portlariga etib kelgan kemalarning yozuvlari Kirish 2011 yil 6 mart
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- ^ Minora, Sheldon Walter; Amerika kit baliq ovlash tarixi s.51; John C. Winston Co., Filadelfiya, Pa; 1907 yil]
- ^ Oldham, Kit (2003 yil 13-yanvar). "Kapitan Robert Grey 1792 yil 11 mayda Kolumbiya daryosiga kirgan hindu bo'lmagan birinchi navigatorga aylandi".. Vashington shtati tarixining onlayn entsiklopediyasi. HistoryLink.org. Olingan 1 aprel 2008.
- ^ Roberts, Jon E. (2005). Discovery Journal: Jorj Vankuverning birinchi tadqiqot mavsumi - 1792 yil. Trafford nashriyoti. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4120-7097-3. URL manzili Google Book Search versiyasi.
- ^ "Kapitan Robert Grey haqida". Dengiz tarixi. Garibaldi muzeyi. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 23 iyunda. Olingan 11 dekabr 2006.
- ^ "Ekspeditsiyani kuzatib boring" [2] Smitson institutidan on-layn rejimida mavjud
- ^ Bankroft (1882), p. 201
- ^ a b Bankroft (1882), p. 199
- ^ Kleland (1922), p. 205
- ^ Kleland (1922), p. 180
- ^ Kleland (1922), p. 191
- ^ Bankroft (1882), p. 252
- ^ Marli, Devid; Amerika urushlari: Yangi dunyoda 1492 yilgacha qurolli to'qnashuvlar xronologiyasi (1998); p. 504
- ^ Kalifornios qo'zg'oloni 1845 yil Kirish 25 iyul 2009 yil
- ^ Starr, Kevin va Richard J. Orsi (tahr.) (2000). Vahshiy tuproqqa ildiz otgan: Gold Rush Kaliforniyadagi odamlar, madaniyat va jamoat; 48-bet; Berkli va Los-Anjeles: Kaliforniya universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 0-520-22496-5
- ^ a b Kaliforniya 1850 va 1852 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish Arxivlandi 2011 yil 4 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 10 mart
- ^ "Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tarixiy statistikasi, 1789–1945" 2011 yil 14-aprelda kirish huquqiga ega
- ^ Amerikaning dastlabki yelkanli kemalari 2011 yil 2-fevralda kirish
- ^ Swann, p. 5.[iqtibos kerak ]
- ^ Smithsonian, p. 618.[iqtibos kerak ]
- ^ Steam Ship SS Kaliforniya Kirish 27 yanvar 2011 yil
- ^ Steam Ship SS Kaliforniya texnik xususiyatlar. Qabul qilingan 27 yanvar 2011 yil
- ^ SS Kaliforniya (1848)[3] Arxivlandi 1999 yil 24 aprel Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 13-aprel
- ^ San-Fransisko kemalari Kirish 2011 yil 20-aprel
- ^ Delagdo, Jeyms P.; Dengiz bo'yidagi Kaliforniyaga; 66-bet; Janubiy Karolina universiteti matbuoti (1996 yil 1 oktyabr); ISBN 978-1-57003-153-3
- ^ Kema kashf etilishi General Harrison Kirish 22 iyun 2011 yil
- ^ Fisher, Lourens M. (1989 yil 13 fevral). "Payshanba kuni bola suzib ketdi, belgini qo'ydi" Nyu-York Tayms (Nyu-York nashri): C2 bet. Qabul qilingan 3 mart 2010 yil
- ^ a b Delgado (1990), p. 59
- ^ a b Delgado (1990), p. 66
- ^ Shott, Jozef L.; Panama bo'ylab relslar - Panama temir yo'lining qurilishi haqidagi hikoya 1849–1855, Bob Merrill Company Inc., Nyu-York: N.Y., 1967 yil
- ^ Lyuis, Oskar; Oltin konlariga dengiz yo'llari - 1849–1852 yillarda Kaliforniyaga suv bilan ko'chish; p. 1; Oakley Press 2007; ISBN 978-1406768961
- ^ Delgado (1990), 79-81-betlar
- ^ Kaliforniya shtatidagi 1850 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish (120 mingdan ortiq aholi tuzatilgan) Arxivlandi 2011 yil 4 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 avgust 2011
- ^ 1774-1848 yillarga qadar Kaliforniya kemalari. San-Frantsiskodagi etmish besh yil Qo'shimcha N 2011 yil 2-aprelda kirish huquqiga ega
- ^ San-Frantsisko portiga kemalar kelishi 2011 yil 1-aprelda kirish
- ^ San-Frantsisko aholisi 794-2000 Arxivlandi 2013 yil 4 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 4-aprel
- ^ San-Fransisko 1849–1852 yillarda yong'in chiqardi Kirish 2011 yil 4-aprel
- ^ Baliq toksinlari Arxivlandi 2011 yil 25 iyul Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 17-iyun
- ^ Lampra baliqlari tarmog'i Kirish 12 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Monterey konserva zavodi Arxivlandi 2015 yil 11 sentyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 12 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kaliforniyadagi sardak konservalari Kirish 2011 yil 15-iyun
- ^ Yangi turlar joriy etildi Kirish 2011 yil 15-iyun
- ^ Kaliforniya baliqlari va ovlari Arxivlandi 2011 yil 1 oktyabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 20-iyun
- ^ Kaliforniyadagi baliqlarni baliq ovlash korxonalari ro'yxati Arxivlandi 2011 yil 9-avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 17-iyun
- ^ Kaliforniya suvlarida asosiy baliq turlari Arxivlandi 2002 yil 15 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 2011 yil 17-iyun
- ^ Kaliforniya baliqlari NOAA [4] Kirish 2011 yil 17-iyun
- ^ NOAA Kaliforniya baliqlarining uzoq ro'yxati Kirish 2011 yil 17-iyun
- ^ 28 AQSh § 1333
- ^ NOAA ning Huquqni muhofaza qilish idorasi Kirish 29 iyun 2011
- ^ Baliqchilik, NOAA (18 sentyabr 2017 yil). "NOAA - NOAA Baliqchilikka xush kelibsiz". www.nmfs.noaa.gov.
- ^ Baliqchilik, NOAA (18 sentyabr 2017 yil). "NOAA - NOAA Baliqchilikka xush kelibsiz". www.nmfs.noaa.gov.
- ^ Baliq ovlash kengashlarining muvaffaqiyat darajasi [5][doimiy o'lik havola ] Kirish 29 iyun 2011
- ^ Baliqdan o'tishning milliy dasturi Kirish 28 iyun 2011
- ^ 19-asr Kaliforniya kemachilari Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 aprel Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Anderson va Kristofani Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Barret va Xilp Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Bazalt Rok Co.[6] Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Bendixsen kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 2 aprel kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Benicia kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 17 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Baytlahm, BAE Systems S. F."Arxivlangan nusxa". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 19 oktyabrda. Olingan 22 iyul 2011.CS1 maint: nom sifatida arxivlangan nusxa (havola) Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Baytlahm San-Frantsisko Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Baytlahm San-Pedro Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ a b Bethlehem Steel, Risdon Iron Works Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Baytlahm, BAE Systems San-Diego Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ "Arxivlangan nusxa". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 19 oktyabrda. Olingan 6 aprel 2013.CS1 maint: nom sifatida arxivlangan nusxa (havola) Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Chandler, Ralf J.[7] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 17 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Colberg qayiq ishlari Arxivlandi 2011 yil 3-noyabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Beton kema konstruktorlari, Inc."Arxivlangan nusxa". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 10 oktyabrda. Olingan 25 may 2011.CS1 maint: nom sifatida arxivlangan nusxa (havola) Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Konsolidatsiyalangan po'lat Arxivlandi 2013 yil 21 dekabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kreyg kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Cryer & Sons Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Eureka Shipbuilding Co. Arxivlandi 2012 yil 22 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Fellows & Stewart Arxivlandi 2012 yil 20 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Fulton kemasozlik zavodi Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ General Dynamics NASSCO Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Umumiy muhandislik Arxivlandi 2011 yil 4 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Hammond Lumber Arxivlandi 2012 yil 17 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Hanlon quruq dok va kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Makoni qayiq qurish Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Hickinbotham Bros.[8] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 22 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Xojson-Grin-Xoldemen Arxivlandi 2012 yil 22 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kaiser Permanente Yard # 1 Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ a b Kaiser Permanente Yard # 2 Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ a b Kaiser Permanente Yard # 3 Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ a b Kaiser Permanente Yard # 4 Arxivlandi 2012 yil 3-noyabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kayzer, Kaliforniya kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kneass, G. V.[9] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kyle & Co.[10] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Larson qayiq do'koni, Al Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Long Beach kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Los-Anjeles kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Lynch kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Lott, Arnold S., leytenant Komdr., AQSh; "Uzoq muddatli kemalar: Mare orolining Kaliforniyadagi dengiz faoliyati asrida"; Annapolis: AQSh dengiz kuchlari instituti, 1954.
- ^ Dengizchilik Arxivlandi 2011 yil 10 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Mur quruq dok Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ NASSCO Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Pacific Bridge kompaniyasi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Tinch okean sohil muhandisligi (PACECO)[11] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Tinch okean sohilidagi kema qurish Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Peyton Co.[12] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 22 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Pollock-Stockton kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 22 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Rolph kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 17 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ San-Diego dengiz piyodalari Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ San-Frantsisko dengiz kemasozligi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Janubiy sohil kema qurilishi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Janubi-g'arbiy kemasozlik Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Standart kema qurilishi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 21 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Stephens Marine Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Stone & Sons, Uilyam F.[13] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Todd San Pedro Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Ittifoq qurilishi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 19 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Van Peer qayiqlari ishlaydi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 9-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ G'alaba kemasozligi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ G'arbiy quvur va po'lat Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Wilmington qayiq ishlari Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Yog'och, Klayd V. Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Tinchlik davrida qurilish kichik hovlilar Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 aprel Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Urush davridagi kichik hovlilar Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10 aprel Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ "Bazalarni qayta tuzish va yopish tarixi". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2016 yil 4 martda. Olingan 8-noyabr 2013.
- ^ WW-II da AQShda qurilgan kemalar Arxivlandi 2013 yil 25-noyabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 12 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kaiser Permanente Yard №1 Richmond, Kaliforniya Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kayzer, Kaliforniyaning Los-Anjelesdagi kema qurilishi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 10-may kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 8 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Richmond Shipyards Tasvirlari Richmond kemasozlik zavodining dastlabki kunlarini tasvirlaydigan tasvirlar va og'zaki tarixiy yozuvlar Kirish 2011 yil 13-iyun
- ^ Kaiser Permanente Shipyard binosi va boshqalar.[14] Arxivlandi 2013 yil 29 avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 12 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kaiser-Permanente hovlisining xaritasi №1, №2 [15] Arxivlandi 2012 yil 13 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 12 fevral 2012 yil
- ^ Kayzer kemasozlik zavodlari Permanente Metals Corporation - Kaiser Richmond CA kemasozlik zavodlari Arxivlandi 2013 yil 29 avgust Orqaga qaytish mashinasi 2011 yil 13-iyun
- ^ San-Xakin porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Avalon Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Avon porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Benicia porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Porto Bodega Marina Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Crescent City Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Krokett porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Dana-Point porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ El Segundo dengizdan tashqaridagi neft terminali Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Gumboldt ko'rfazidagi port Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Noyo Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Pillar Point Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Long-Bich porti[16] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Los-Anjeles porti[17] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Shell Oil Terminal Martinez Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Monterey porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Morro-Bay Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Moss Landing Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Oklend porti[18] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Okeansid porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Pitsburg porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Hueneme porti[19] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Port-San-Luis porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Redondo plyaj porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Redvud Siti porti[20] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Richmond porti (Kaliforniya)[21] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ San-Diego porti[22] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ San-Diego dengiz bazasi[23] Arxivlandi 2011 yil 6 sentyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ San-Frantsisko porti[24] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Santa Barbara porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Santa-Kruz Makoni Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Stokton porti[25] Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ Ikki port Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ G'arbiy Sakramento porti Kirish 25 sentyabr 2011 yil
- ^ "Kaliforniya tarixiy manbalari". CA shtat bog'lari.
- ^ "City of Avalon - tez-tez so'raladigan savollar". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 8-iyulda. Olingan 1 sentyabr 2011.
- ^ Overshiner, Elvin U.; "095-kursga to abadiy: Destroyer Saga of Destroy Eleven"; Nashriyotchi: Overshiner; 1980 yil; ISBN 978-0-937480-00-7
- ^ Kaliforniyada halokatga uchragan kemalar ro'yxati 2011 yil 6-iyun kuni kirilgan. Vayronalar qidiruv ma'lumotlar bazasining to'liq ro'yxatini bo'sh ism maydonchasi bilan olish va natijalarni nusxalash uchun (20 / bet).
- ^ Sent-Jorj rifi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Batareya quvvati Arxivlandi 2012 yil 5 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Trinidad rahbari Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Trinidad yodgorligi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Stol Bluff Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Gumboldt porti Arxivlandi 2012 yil 25 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Mendosino burni Arxivlandi 2012 yil 4 oktyabr Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Punta-Gorda Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Kabrillo nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Arena Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Reys Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Farallon oroli Arxivlandi 2007 yil 13 oktyabrda Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Bonita nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Mil toshlari Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Diablo nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Fort-Point Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Lime Point Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Nox Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Sharq birodar Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Alkatraz oroli Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Blunt Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Yerba Buena Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Yengil yuk kemasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Oklend Makoni Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Carquinez Boğazı Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ "Sautgempton Shoal" Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Montara nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Kabutar nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Año Nuevo Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Santa-Kruz Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Santa-Kruz dalgıç suvi Arxivlandi 2012 yil 25 yanvar Orqaga qaytish mashinasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Pinos Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Sur Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Piedras Blankas Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ San-Luis Obisbo Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Arguelloning nuqtasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Nuqta tushunchasi Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Santa Barbara Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Point Hueneme Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Anakapa oroli Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Vinsente Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Nuqta Fermin Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Long Beach Makoni Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Los-Anjeles Makoni Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Old Point Loma Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Yangi nuqta Loma Kirish 31 may 2010 yil
- ^ Yorug'lik ro'yxati 2011 yil Kirish 2011 yil 3-iyun
- ^ AQShning ettinchi aholini ro'yxatga olish 1850 yil: Kaliforniya Kirish 18 Avgust 2011
Bibliografiya
- Bancroft, Hubert H. (1882). 1846–1848. Kaliforniya tarixi. XXII. San-Frantsisko, Kaliforniya: Tarix kompaniyasi noshirlari.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
- Klelend, Robert Shisha (1922). Kaliforniya tarixi. Nyu-York: Makmillan.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
- Delgado, Jeyms P. (1990). Dengiz orqali Kaliforniyaga: Kaliforniyadagi oltin shoshilinch dengiz tarixi. Janubiy Karolina universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 978-1-57003-153-3.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
- Gipolito (Gipolit) Buchard va 1818 yildagi reyd
- Lammermur
- Kema halokati haqida ma'lumotlar bazasi
- Point Reyes dengiz tarixi
- Monterey ko'rfazi milliy dengiz qo'riqxonasi
- Kaliforniya dengiz chiroqlari
- Ushbu maqolada Milliy park xizmati ichida joylashgan Jamoat mulki