Atrof-muhitni boshqarish - Environmental governance - Wikipedia

Ushbu maqolada bir nechta muammolar mavjud. Iltimos yordam bering uni yaxshilang yoki ushbu masalalarni muhokama qiling munozara sahifasi. (Ushbu shablon xabarlarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Bu maqola balki juda uzoq qulay o'qish va navigatsiya qilish. The o'qiladigan nasr hajmi 60 kilobaytni tashkil qiladi. Iltimos, ko'rib chiqing bo'linish tarkibni kichik maqolalarga, kondensatsiya uni qo'shish yoki qo'shish pastki sarlavhalar. (2013 yil fevral) Bu maqola kabi yozilgan shaxsiy mulohaza, shaxsiy insho yoki bahsli insho Vikipediya tahrirlovchisining shaxsiy his-tuyg'ularini bayon qiladigan yoki mavzu bo'yicha asl dalillarni keltiradigan. Iltimos uni yaxshilashga yordam bering uni qayta yozish orqali entsiklopedik uslub. (2013 yil sentyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Ushbu maqola ko'rinadi ko'p sonini o'z ichiga oladi shov-shuvli so'zlar. Bu haqda munozara bo'lishi mumkin munozara sahifasi. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang Agar imkoningiz bo'lsa. (2013 yil sentyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Atrof-muhitni boshqarish in tushunchadir siyosiy ekologiya va ekologik siyosat bu advokatlar barqarorlik (barqaror rivojlanish ) uchun eng yuqori e'tibor sifatida boshqarish barcha inson faoliyati -siyosiy, ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy.^[1] Boshqaruv hukumat, biznes va fuqarolik jamiyatini o'z ichiga oladi va butunlikni ta'kidlaydi tizimni boshqarish. Ushbu turli xil elementlarni qamrab olish uchun atrof-muhitni boshqarish ko'pincha muqobil boshqaruv tizimlaridan foydalanadi, masalan, suv havzalariga asoslangan boshqaruv.^[2]

Ko'rilgan Tabiiy boyliklar va atrof-muhit global sifatida jamoat mollari toifasiga mansub tovarlar ular baham ko'rilganda kamaymaydigan.^[3] Bu shuni anglatadiki, har bir kishi, masalan, nafas oladigan narsadan foyda ko'radi atmosfera, barqaror iqlim va barqaror biologik xilma-xillik.

Jamoat mollari raqobatbardosh emas - bir kishidan foydalanadigan tabiiy resursdan boshqalar ham bahramand bo'lishlari mumkin va istisno etilmaydi - kimdir yaxshilikni iste'mol qilishining (nafas olishining) oldini olish mumkin emas. Shunga qaramay, jamoat mollari foydali deb tan olinadi va shuning uchun ham qiymatga ega. Jahon ommaviy foydasi tushunchasi shu tariqa ozgina farq bilan paydo bo'ladi: u bir kishi yoki davlat tomonidan yo'q qilinishi mumkin bo'lmagan ehtiyojlarni qamrab oladi.

Bunday tovarlarning raqobatsiz xarakteri davlat va xususiy aktyorlarning ularga zarar etkazishini cheklaydigan boshqaruv yondashuvini talab qiladi. Yondashuvlardan biri iqtisodiy qiymati resursga. Suv ehtimol bu turdagi tovarlarning eng yaxshi namunasidir.

2013 yilga kelib atrof-muhitni boshqarish ushbu talablarga javob berishdan yiroq. "Atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha savollarning katta xabardorligiga qaramay ishlab chiqilgan va rivojlanayotgan davlatlar, u yerda atrof-muhitning buzilishi va yangi ekologik muammolarning paydo bo'lishi. Ushbu holat global ekologik boshqaruvning ahvoli pastligi tufayli yuzaga keladi, chunki hozirgi global atrof-muhit boshqaruvi ko'plab omillarga ko'ra atrof-muhit muammolarini hal qila olmaydi. Ular tarkibiga parchalangan boshqaruv kiradi Birlashgan Millatlar, moliya institutlarining aralashuvining yo'qligi, ko'pincha ziddiyatli ekologik shartnomalarning ko'payishi savdo chora-tadbirlar; bu barcha turli muammolar global atrof-muhitni boshqarish tizimining to'g'ri ishlashiga xalaqit beradi. Bundan tashqari, hozirgi global atrof-muhit boshqaruvining institutsional muvaffaqiyatsizliklarini tushunish uchun shimoliy mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi bo'linish va rivojlangan va rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi doimiy farq hisobga olinishi kerak. "

Ta'riflar

Atrof-muhitni boshqarish nima?

Atrof-muhitni boshqarish deganda jarayonlar tushuniladi Qaror qabul qilish atrof-muhitni boshqarish va boshqarish bilan shug'ullanadigan va Tabiiy boyliklar. Tabiatni muhofaza qilish xalqaro ittifoqi (IUCN), atrof-muhitni boshqarishni uchta asosiy sub'ektlar, ya'ni davlat bilan chegaralangan holda, ko'p darajali o'zaro ta'sirlar (ya'ni mahalliy, milliy, xalqaro / global) deb ta'riflaydi. bozor va rasmiy va norasmiy yo'llar bilan o'zaro aloqada bo'lgan fuqarolik jamiyati; jamiyat tomonidan atrof-muhit bilan bog'liq talablar va ma'lumotlarga javoban siyosat ishlab chiqish va amalga oshirishda; qoidalar, protseduralar, jarayonlar va keng tarqalgan xatti-harakatlar bilan bog'liq; "yaxshi boshqaruv" xususiyatlariga ega; atrof-muhitga erishish maqsadidabarqaror rivojlanish '(IUCN 2014)

Atrof-muhitni boshqarishning asosiy tamoyillariga quyidagilar kiradi:

• Qarorlarni qabul qilish va harakatlarning barcha darajalariga atrof muhitni singdirish
• Shahar va jamoalarni, iqtisodiy va siyosiy hayotni atrof muhitning bir qismi sifatida kontseptsiyalash
• Odamlarning ular yashaydigan ekotizimlarga aloqadorligini ta'kidlash
• Ochiq halqa / beshikdan qabrgacha tizimlardan (qayta ishlashsiz axlatni yo'q qilish kabi) yopiq tsiklga o'tishni rag'batlantirish /beshikdan beshikka tizimlar (shunga o'xshash) permakultura va nol chiqindilar strategiyalar).

Neoliberal atrof-muhitni boshqarish - bu atrof-muhitni boshqarish nazariyasiga nisbatan istiqbolga asoslangan yondashuv neoliberalizm biofizik olamga nisbatan mafkura, siyosat va amaliyot sifatida. Neoliberalizmning ko'plab ta'riflari va qo'llanmalari mavjud, masalan. iqtisodiy, xalqaro munosabatlarda va h.k.larda, neoliberalizmning an'anaviy tushunchasi ko'pincha davlatni orqaga qaytarish orqali bozorga asoslangan iqtisodiyotning ustunligi tushunchasiga soddalashtiriladi, tartibga solish va xususiylashtirish. Neoliberalizm ayniqsa so'nggi 40 yil ichida rivojlandi, chunki ko'plab olimlar neoliberal xaritada g'oyaviy izlarini qoldirdilar. Xayek va Fridman erkin bozorning davlat aralashuvidan ustunligiga ishongan. Bozor erkin harakat qilishiga ruxsat berilgan ekan, talab / taklif qonuni "maqbul" narx va mukofotni ta'minlar edi. Yilda Karl Polanyi Qarama-qarshi nuqtai nazar, bu o'z-o'zini tartibga soladigan keskinlik holatini ham keltirib chiqaradi erkin bozorlar ijtimoiy o'zaro aloqalarni buzish va o'zgartirish va "yashash va ishlashning boshqa qimmatli vositalarini almashtirish".^[4] Biroq, tartibga solinmagan bozor iqtisodiyoti tushunchasidan farqli o'laroq, «[davlat] aralashuvining paradoksal o'sishi» ham yuz berdi.^[5] neoliberal tartibni saqlab qolish uchun davlat tomonidan olib boriladigan iqtisodiy, qonunchilik va ijtimoiy siyosat islohotlarini tanlashda. Ushbu qarama-qarshi jarayonni Pekk va Tikell neoliberalizmni orqaga qaytarish deb ta'riflaydilar, bunda davlat bir tomondan resurslar ustidan nazoratni va ijtimoiy ta'minot uchun javobgarlikni xohlasa, ikkinchi tomondan, "neoliberalizatsiyani maqsadli qurish va birlashtirish" bilan shug'ullanadi. davlat shakllari, boshqaruv usullari va tartibga solish munosabatlari ".^[6]

Neoliberalizmning atrof-muhitni boshqarishning insonparvar bo'lmagan dunyosi siyosatiga ta'siriga qiziqish kuchaymoqda. Neoliberalizm bir hil va monolitik "narsa" dan ko'ra ko'proq yakuniy nuqtaga ega.^[7] Bu tabiat va atrof-muhitga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan va ta'sir ko'rsatadigan "joylar, mintaqalar va mamlakatlarning ajoyib qatorini qamrab oladigan" yo'lga bog'liq, fazoviy va vaqtinchalik "bog'liq bo'lgan neoliberalizatsiya" jarayonlarining bir qatoridir.^[8] Xususiy mulk va individual (investorlar) huquqlarini himoya qilishning ahamiyatini atrof-muhitni boshqarish sohasida neoliberal g'oyalarni birgalikda tanlashni yaqinda amalga oshirilgan ko'p tomonlama savdo shartnomalari misolida ko'rish mumkin (xususan Shimoliy Amerika erkin savdo shartnomasi ). Bunday neoliberal tuzilmalar tabiatni qamrab olish va tabiatning ko'payib borayotgan maydonlarini xususiylashtirishga xizmat qiladigan ibtidoiy to'planish yoki "tasarruf etish yo'li bilan to'plash" jarayonini yanada kuchaytiradi.^[9] An'anaviy ravishda xususiy mulkka ega bo'lmagan resurslarni erkin bozor mexanizmlariga egalik qilish-topshirish katta samaradorlik va investitsiyalarning optimal rentabelligini ta'minlaydi.^[10] Neo-liberal ilhomlantiruvchi loyihalarning shunga o'xshash boshqa misollariga minerallar, Tinch okeanining shimoliy qismidagi baliq ovlari kvotalari xafasi kiradi.^[11] va suv ta'minotini xususiylashtirish va kanalizatsiya tozalash Angliya va Uelsda.^[12] Uchala misolda ham tabiiy resurslar tijoratlashtirilib, tovarga aylanadigan "ekologik muammolarni hal qilishda bozorlarni joylashtirish" uchun neoliberal xususiyatlar mavjud.^[13] Ekotizimni narxga ega bo'lgan tovar sharoitida shakllantirishga yondashuv, tabiatni yer deb baholanadigan narx va talab / taklif mexanizmlariga bo'ysundiradigan neoliberal geograflarning ishlarida ham mavjud. miqdoriy manba (Kostanza Masalan, erni taxmin qiladi ekotizim xizmati qiymati 16 va orasida bo'lishi kerak 54 trillion dollar yiliga^[14]).

Atrof-muhit muammolari

Atrof-muhit buzilishining asosiy omillari

Iqtisodiy o'sish - Aksariyat mamlakatlar va xalqaro institutlarda rivojlanib boruvchi rivojlanish nuqtai nazaridan ko'proq iqtisodiy o'sish sari shoshilish kerak. Boshqa tomondan, ekologik iqtisodchilar iqtisodiy o'sish va o'rtasidagi o'zaro bog'liqlikni ta'kidlaydilar atrof-muhitning buzilishi, sifatli rivojlanishni o'sishga alternativa sifatida muhokama qilmoqda. Natijada, so'nggi ikki o'n yillikda neo-liberal iqtisodiyotga alternativa sifatida barqaror rivojlanishga katta siljish kuzatildi. Ayniqsa, muqobil globallashuv harakati ichida a ga o'tishni maqsadga muvofiq deb hisoblaydiganlar bor o'sish Ijtimoiy samaradorlikni yo'qotmasdan yoki pasaytirmasdan bosqich hayot sifati.

Iste'mol - iste'molning o'sishi va iste'mol kulti yoki iste'molchi mafkura, iqtisodiy o'sishning asosiy sababidir. Kambag'allikning yagona alternativasi sifatida ko'rilgan haddan tashqari rivojlanish o'z-o'zidan maqsadga aylandi. Ushbu o'sishni to'xtatish vositasi vazifaga teng emas, chunki bu hodisa rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarda o'sib borayotgan o'rta sinf bilan chegaralanib qolmay, balki mas'uliyatsiz turmush tarzining rivojlanishiga, xususan shimoliy mamlakatlarda, masalan, kattaligi va kishi boshiga uylar va mashinalar soni.

Yo'q qilish biologik xilma-xillik - Sayyora ekotizimlarining murakkabligi shuni anglatadiki, har qanday turni yo'qotish kutilmagan oqibatlarga olib keladi. Biologik xilma-xillikka ta'siri qanchalik kuchli bo'lsa, oldindan aytib bo'lmaydigan salbiy ta'sirlar bilan zanjirli reaktsiya ehtimoli shunchalik kuchayadi. Biologik xilma-xillikning vayron bo'lishiga olib keladigan atrof-muhit buzilishining yana bir muhim omili va buni e'tiborsiz qoldirmaslik kerak o'rmonlarni yo'q qilish. Barcha etkazilgan zararlarga qaramay, bir qator ekotizimlar o'zlarini isbotladilar bardoshli. Atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha mutaxassislar ehtiyotkorlik printsipini qo'llab-quvvatlamoqdalar, bunda zarar etkazishi mumkin bo'lgan barcha tadbirlar ular uchun tahlil qilinishi kerak edi atrof-muhitga ta'siri.

Aholining o'sishi - 2050 yilda sayyoramizda 8,9 milliard odam istiqbolli prognozlarga ko'ra, bu asosan rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarga taalluqli, ammo shimoliy mamlakatlarga tegishli; ularning demografik o'sishi pastroq bo'lishiga qaramay, ushbu mamlakatlarda bir kishiga ekologik ta'sir ancha yuqori. Demografik o'sishga ta'lim va oilani rejalashtirish dasturlarini ishlab chiqish va umuman ayollar maqomini yaxshilash orqali qarshi turish kerak.

"Ifloslanish "- Qazilma yoqilg'idan foydalanish natijasida kelib chiqadigan ifloslanish atrof-muhitni yo'q qilishning yana bir omilidir. Ko'mir va neft kabi uglerod asosidagi qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ilarni yoqish atmosferaga karbonat angidrid gazini chiqaradi. Buning asosiy ta'sirlaridan biri bu iqlim o'zgarishi Hozirgi vaqtda Yerning harorati asta-sekin o'sib borayotgan sayyorada sodir bo'lmoqda.Ko'mir va neft kabi yoqilg'ilar eng ko'p ishlatiladigan yoqilg'i ekanligini hisobga olsak, bu ko'plab ekologlarni tashvishga solmoqda.

"Qishloq xo'jaligi amaliyotlari" - O'g'itlardan ortiqcha foydalanish kabi halokatli qishloq xo'jaligi amaliyotlari o'tlab ketish erlarning degradatsiyasiga olib keladi. Tuproq oladi emirildi va daryolar va suv omborlarida loyqalanishga olib keladi. Tuproq eroziyasi doimiy tsikl bo'lib, natijada natijaga olib keladi cho'llanish erning. Dan tashqari erlarning degradatsiyasi, suvning ifloslanishi bu ham imkoniyatdir; dehqonchilikda ishlatiladigan kimyoviy moddalar qochish daryolarga va suvni ifloslantiring.

Qiyinchiliklar

Insoniyatning tabiatga ta'siri ta'siridagi inqiroz boshqaruvni talab qiladi. Bunga xalqaro agentliklar, hukumatlar va fuqarolarning javoblari kiradi, ular ushbu inqirozni tegishli agentlar va muassasalarning har birining tajribasi va bilimlarini birlashtirish orqali hal qilishi kerak.

The atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish ko'rilgan choralar etarli emas. Kerakli islohotlar vaqt, kuch, pul va diplomatik muzokaralarni talab qiladi. Vaziyat bir ovozdan javob bermadi. Doimiy bo'linishlar global atrof-muhitni boshqarish yo'lida sekinlashadi.

Inqirozning global xarakteri milliy yoki tarmoq tadbirlarining ta'sirini cheklaydi. Aktyorlar va institutlar o'rtasida xalqaro savdo, barqaror rivojlanish va tinchlik.

Global, kontinental, milliy va mahalliy hukumat atrof-muhitni boshqarishda turli xil yondashuvlardan foydalangan. Muvaffaqiyatli va salbiy nosozliklar biron bir yurisdiksiyaning muammolarni hal qilish qobiliyatini cheklaydi.

Atrof-muhitni boshqarish muammolariga quyidagilar kiradi:

• Qit'a va global kelishuvlarning etarli emasligi
• Maksimal rivojlanish, barqaror rivojlanish va maksimal himoya, moliyalashtirishni cheklash, iqtisodiyot bilan aloqalarni buzish va dasturni cheklash o'rtasidagi hal qilinmagan keskinliklar Ko'p tomonlama atrof-muhit to'g'risidagi shartnomalar (MEA).
• Atrof-muhitni moliyalashtirish o'z-o'zini oqlamaydi, muammolarni hal qilishdan resurslarni moliyalashtirish janglariga yo'naltiradi.
• Sektor siyosati integratsiyasining yo'qligi
• Etarli emas institutsional imkoniyatlar
• Noto'g'ri belgilangan ustuvorliklar
• Tushunmagan maqsadlar
• BMT, hukumatlar, xususiy sektor va fuqarolik jamiyati doirasida muvofiqlashtirishning etishmasligi
• Birgalikda ko'rishning etishmasligi
• Rivojlanish / barqaror iqtisodiy o'sish, savdo, qishloq xo'jaligi, sog'liqni saqlash, tinchlik va xavfsizlik o'rtasidagi o'zaro bog'liqlik.
• Atrof-muhitni boshqarish va savdo-moliya dasturlari o'rtasidagi xalqaro muvozanat, masalan, Jahon savdo tashkiloti (JST).
• Global atrof-muhit fondi (GEF) doirasida loyihalarni amalga oshiradigan tashkilotlarga cheklangan kredit
• Bog'lanish UNEP, Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Taraqqiyot Dasturi (BMTTD) va Jahon banki MEA bilan
• MEA majburiyatlarini qondirish uchun hukumat imkoniyatlarining etishmasligi
• Atrof-muhitni boshqarishda gender nuqtai nazarining va tenglikning yo'qligi
• Jamoatchilik fikriga ta'sir o'tkaza olmaslik^[15][16][17]
• Inson harakati va atrof-muhit ta'siri o'rtasidagi vaqt kechikishi, ba'zan bir avlod kabi^[18]
• Bizning tushunchamiz hali ham sust bo'lgan juda murakkab tizimlarga ekologik muammolar kiritilgan^[18]

Ushbu muammolarning barchasi boshqaruvga ta'sir qiladi, ammo xalqaro ekologik boshqaruv zarur. IDDRI rad etishni da'vo qilmoqda ko'p qirralilik samaradorlik va milliy manfaatlarni himoya qilish yo'lida xalqaro huquq va global jamoat mollari kontseptsiyasini targ'ib qilish bilan ziddiyatlar. Boshqalar atrof-muhit muammolarining murakkab xususiyatini keltiradi.

Boshqa tomondan, The Kun tartibi 21 dastur 7000 dan ortiq jamoalarda amalga oshirildi.^[19] Ekologik muammolar, shu jumladan global miqyosdagi muammolar har doim ham global echimlarni talab qilmasligi mumkin. Masalan, dengiz ifloslanishi bilan mintaqaviy ravishda kurashish mumkin, va ekotizimning yomonlashuvini mahalliy darajada hal qilish mumkin. Iqlim o'zgarishi kabi boshqa global muammolar mahalliy va mintaqaviy harakatlardan foyda ko'radi.

Bekstrand va Savardning yozishicha, "barqarorlik va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish - bu yangi gibrid, ko'p qirrali boshqaruv shakllari bilan innovatsion tajribalar, shuningdek, davlat va xususiy bo'linishni qamrab oluvchi transmilliy fuqarolik jamiyatini birlashtirgan maydon".^[20]

Mahalliy boshqaruv

1997 yilgi hisobotda barqaror rivojlanishni amalga oshirish mahalliy darajadagi echimlar va mahalliy hamjamiyatlar tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan tashabbuslarga asoslangan bo'lishi kerakligi to'g'risida global kelishuv kuzatildi.^[21] Jamiyat ishtiroki va sheriklik hamda hukumat hokimiyatini mahalliy jamoalarga markazsizlashtirish bilan birgalikda mahalliy darajada atrof-muhitni boshqarishning muhim jihatlari hisoblanadi. Bu kabi tashabbuslar "davlat dasturlari va resurslarni boshqarish asosida" bo'lgan atrof-muhitni boshqarishning oldingi yondashuvlaridan ajralgan.^[21] va mahalliy darajadagi boshqaruv o'z ichiga olgan pastdan yuqoriga qarab emas, balki yuqoridan pastga yoki pastga qarab yondashishga amal qildi. Amaliyot yoki aralashuvlarning mahalliy miqyosda qabul qilinishi, qisman, izohlanishi mumkin yangilikning tarqalishi nazariya.^[22] Tanzaniya va Tinch okeanida tadqiqotchilar aralashuv, asrab oluvchi va ijtimoiy-ekologik kontekstning barcha jihatlari tabiatni muhofaza qilish tadbirlari makon va vaqt ichida tarqalishining shakllanishini tasvirlab berdi.^[22] Mahalliy darajadagi boshqaruv qarorlarni qabul qilishni shtatdan va / yoki hukumatlardan uzoqroqqa ko'chiradi. Mahalliy darajadagi boshqaruv hatto global miqyosda ham juda muhimdir. Global darajadagi atrof-muhitni boshqarish xalqaro deb ta'riflanadi va shu bilan mahalliy ovozlarning marginallashishiga olib keladi. Mahalliy darajadagi boshqaruv atrof-muhitning degradatsiyasiga qarshi global kurashda hokimiyatni mahalliy jamoalarga qaytarish uchun muhimdir.^[23] Pulgar Vidal "tabiiy resurslardan foydalanish va undan foydalanish bo'yicha qarorlarni qabul qilish tobora markazsizlashib borayotgan yangi institutsional bazani" kuzatdi.^[24] U ushbu jarayonlarni rivojlantirish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin bo'lgan to'rtta texnikani ta'kidladi:

• rasmiy va norasmiy qoidalar, protseduralar va jarayonlar, masalan, konsultatsiyalar va ishtirok etuvchi demokratiya;
• rivojlanish dasturlarida ishtirok etish yoki qabul qilingan adolatsizlikka munosabat natijasida yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan ijtimoiy ta'sir o'tkazish;
• individual savolni a sifatida qayta tasniflash uchun ijtimoiy xatti-harakatlarni tartibga solish jamoat masalasi;
• guruh ichida ishtirok etish qaror qabul qilishda va tashqi aktyorlar bilan munosabatlarda.

U markazsizlashtirilgan atrof-muhit boshqaruvini rivojlantirishning asosiy shartlari quyidagilardan iborat ekanligini aniqladi:

• kirish ijtimoiy kapital shu jumladan mahalliy bilimlar, rahbarlar va mahalliy umumiy ko'rish;
• axborot olish va qaror qabul qilishning demokratik imkoniyati;
• atrof-muhitni boshqarish sohasida mahalliy hokimiyatning faoliyati: tabiiy resurslarga kirishni osonlashtiruvchi yoki siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchi sifatida;
• markazlashtirilmagan ekologik boshqaruvni qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan va ijtimoiy o'zaro aloqalar uchun forumlar yaratadigan va keng qabul qilingan kelishuvlarni qabul qiladigan institutsional asos.^[24]

Qarorlarning qonuniyligi mahalliy aholining qatnashish koeffitsientiga va ishtirokchilar ushbu aholini qanchalik yaxshi namoyish etishiga bog'liq.^[25]Davlat hokimiyati organlariga kelsak, biologik xilma-xillik bilan bog'liq bo'lgan savollarga tegishli siyosat va strategiyalarni qabul qilish, bilim va tajriba almashish, sheriklik munosabatlarini shakllantirish, erdan foydalanishni to'g'ri boshqarish, biologik xilma-xillik monitoringi va resurslardan maqbul foydalanish yoki iste'molni kamaytirish orqali duch kelish mumkin. va EMAS va / yoki ISO 14001 kabi atrof-muhit sertifikatlarini targ'ib qilish. Shubhasiz, mahalliy hokimiyat organlari bioxilma-xillikni muhofaza qilishda asosiy rol o'ynashi kerak va ushbu strategiya, avvalambor, rasmiylar manfaatdor tomonlarni ishonchli atrof-muhitni yaxshilash loyihasiga jalb qilish orqali kuch ko'rsatganda muvaffaqiyatli bo'ladi. va shaffof va samarali aloqa siyosatini faollashtirish (Ioppolo va boshq., 2013).^[26]

Davlat boshqaruvi

Shtatlar atrof-muhitni boshqarishda hal qiluvchi rol o'ynaydi, chunki "xalqaro iqtisodiy integratsiya qanchalik tez va tez rivojlanayotgan bo'lsa ham, siyosiy hokimiyat milliy hukumatlar zimmasida qoladi".^[27] Shu sababli hukumatlar xalqaro shartnomalarni amalga oshirish majburiyatini hurmat qilishi va qo'llab-quvvatlashi kerak.^[28]

Davlat darajasida, atrof-muhitni boshqarish davra suhbatlari va qo'mitalarni yaratishga qulay ekanligi aniqlandi. Frantsiyada Grenelle de l'environnement^[29] jarayon:

• turli xil aktyorlarni (masalan, davlat, siyosiy rahbarlar, kasaba uyushmalar, korxonalar, notijorat tashkilotlar va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish fondlari) o'z ichiga olgan;
• manfaatdor tomonlarga ajralmas maslahatchilar sifatida o'z lavozimlarida qonun chiqaruvchi va ijro etuvchi hokimiyatlar bilan o'zaro munosabatda bo'lishlariga imkon berdi;
• boshqa institutlarni, xususan Iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy kengash, atrof-muhitni boshqarish modelini yaratish jarayonida ishtirok etgan bosim guruhini shakllantirish;
• mintaqaviy va mahalliy darajada atrof-muhitni boshqarish bilan bog'lanishga harakat qildi.

Agar atrof-muhit muammolari, masalan, iqtisodiy kun tartibidan chiqarib tashlansa, bu ushbu muassasalarni vakolatini bekor qilishi mumkin.^[30]

«Janubiy mamlakatlarda atrof-muhitni boshqarishni hududiy rivojlantirish jarayonida oraliq darajalarni birlashtirishga to'sqinlik qiladigan asosiy to'siq ko'pincha davlatlarning siyosiy ongida rivojlantiruvchi inersiyaning ustunligi hisoblanadi. Atrof-muhit masalasi milliy rivojlanishni rejalashtirish va dasturlarida samarali ravishda birlashtirilmagan. Buning o'rniga, eng keng tarqalgan g'oya shundan iboratki, atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy rivojlanishga to'sqinlik qiladi, bu resurslarni iste'mol qiladigan va hech qanday qo'shimcha qiymat ishlab chiqara olmaydigan vayron qiluvchi usullardan foydalangan holda qazib olinadigan xom ashyoni eksport qilish g'azabidan kelib chiqqan g'oya. "^[31] Albatta, ular bu fikrda oqlanadi, chunki ularning asosiy tashvishlari qashshoqlikni kamaytirish kabi ijtimoiy adolatsizliklardir. Ushbu shtatlarning ayrim fuqarolari bunga javoban barqaror rivojlanish orqali qashshoqlikni kamaytirish uchun vakolatlarni kengaytirish strategiyasini ishlab chiqdilar. Bunga qo'shimcha ravishda, siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchilar global janubning ushbu tashvishlari haqida ko'proq ma'lumotga ega bo'lishlari va o'zlarining siyosatlarida ijtimoiy adolatni ta'minlashga katta e'tibor berishlari kerak.

Global boshqaruv

Jahon miqyosida atrof-muhitni boshqarish bilan bog'liq ko'plab muhim sub'ektlar mavjud va "bir qator institutlar global atrof-muhitni boshqarish amaliyotiga hissa qo'shadi va yordam beradi.^[23] Global ekologik boshqaruv g'oyasi atrof-muhitni global miqyosda bir qator davlatlar va milliy hukumatlar kabi nodavlat sub'ektlar orqali boshqarish, NNTlar va UNEP kabi boshqa xalqaro tashkilotlar (Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi ). Global ekologik boshqaruv - bu xalqaro kun tartibining tobora murakkablashib borayotganligi sababli boshqaruvning yangi shakllarini talablariga javobdir. Bu ko'p qirrali boshqaruvning samarali shakli bo'lib, xalqaro hamjamiyat uchun yumshatish va global muhitga ta'sirini qaytarish maqsadlariga erishish uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega.^[32] Biroq, global ekologik boshqaruvning aniq ta'rifi hali ham noaniq bo'lib, global boshqaruv bilan bog'liq ko'plab muammolar mavjud.^[32]Elliotning ta'kidlashicha, "tiqilinch institutsional relef hali ham keng qamrovli global boshqaruv haqiqatidan ko'ra ko'proq ko'rinishni beradi".^[32] Bu shuni anglatadiki, atrof-muhitni global boshqarishda juda ko'p institutlar mavjud bo'lib, ular butunlay qamrab oladigan va izchil bo'lishi kerak, chunki bu shunchaki bu obrazni global jamoatchilikka ko'rsatib beradi. Global atrof-muhitni boshqarish nafaqat institutlar va qaror qabul qiluvchilarning tarmoqlarini kengaytirishdan iboratdir. "Bu bir vaqtning o'zida global kuchsizlik va kuchsizlik munosabatlarini aks ettiradigan, tashkil etadigan va niqoblaydigan siyosiy amaliyotdir".^[32] Davlat dasturlari atrof-muhitni boshqarish bo'yicha global dasturdan foydalanib, o'zlarining kun tartibini yoki xohish-istaklarini oshirish uchun foydalanadi, hatto bu global atrof-muhitni boshqarish orqasidagi muhim elementga zarar etkazadigan bo'lsa ham, bu atrof-muhitdir. Elliotning ta'kidlashicha, atrof-muhitni global boshqarish "normativ jihatdan neytral ham, moddiy jihatdan ham zararli emas".^[32]Nyuell tomonidan o'rganib chiqilganidek, Global Environmental Outlook hisobot yozuvlarida ta'kidlanishicha, global atrof-muhitni boshqarish tizimlari tobora ahamiyatsiz bo'lib, globallashuv naqshlari tufayli; mahsuldorlik va tovarlar va xizmatlarning taqsimlanishidagi muvozanat, boylik va qashshoqlik haddan tashqari darajasining beqaror rivojlanishi va aholi o'sishi va ekologik yutuqlarni ortda qoldiradigan iqtisodiy o'sish.^[33] Nyuellning ta'kidlashicha, bunday e'tiroflarga qaramay, "Xalqaro munosabatlar doirasidagi global ekologik o'zgarishlarni boshqarish xalqaro rejimlardan javob izlashda davom etmoqda".^[33]

O'lchov masalalari

Ko'p bosqichli boshqaruv

Boshqarish miqyosidagi adabiyotlar tushunchaning qanday o'zgarishini ko'rsatadi Atrof-muhit muammolari mahalliy ko'rinishdan ularning kattaroq va murakkabroq ko'lamini tan olishga harakatlanishiga olib keldi. Ushbu harakat tashabbuslarning xilma-xilligi, o'ziga xosligi va murakkabligini oshirdi. Meadowcroft mavjud tuzilmalar va jarayonlarning o'rnini bosish o'rniga ularning ustiga qatlam bo'lib qo'yilgan yangiliklarga e'tibor qaratdi.^[34]

Lafferti va Meadowcroft ko'p bosqichli boshqaruvga uchta misol keltiradi: xalqarolashtirish, tobora keng qamrovli yondashuvlar va ko'plab davlat tashkilotlarini jalb qilish.^[35] Lafferti va Meadowkroft natijada paydo bo'lgan ko'p bosqichli tizimni muammolarni kichikroq va kengroq miqyosda hal qilish deb ta'rifladilar.

Institutsional muvofiqlik

Xans Bruyninkkx ekologik muammo ko'lami va siyosat aralashuvi darajasi o'rtasidagi nomuvofiqlik muammoli bo'lgan deb da'vo qildi.^[36] Yoshning ta'kidlashicha, bunday nomuvofiqliklar aralashuvlar samaradorligini pasaytiradi.^[37] Adabiyotlarning aksariyati darajasiga murojaat qiladi boshqaruv ekologik o'lchovdan ko'ra.

Elinor Ostrom, boshqalar qatori, nomuvofiqlik ko'pincha barqaror bo'lmagan boshqaruv amaliyotiga sabab bo'ladi va nomuvofiqlikning oddiy echimlari topilmagan deb da'vo qilmoqda.^[38][39]

Muhim munozaralar toza suvni boshqarish uchun qaysi daraja (lar) ning javobgarligini o'z zimmasiga olishi kerak degan savolga javob berdi. Rivojlanish xodimlari mahalliy darajadagi muammoni hal qilishga intilishadi. Milliy hukumatlar asosiy e'tiborni siyosat masalalariga qaratadilar.^[40] Bu davlatlar o'rtasida ziddiyatlarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin, chunki daryolar chegaralarni kesib o'tib, boshqaruvni rivojlantirishga qaratilgan harakatlarga olib keladi daryo havzalari.^[23][41]

Atrof-muhitni boshqarish masalalari

Tuproqning yomonlashishi

Tuproq va erlarning buzilishi uni kamaytiradi imkoniyatlar qo'lga olish uchun, saqlash va suv, energiya va oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini qayta ishlash. Ittifoq 21 quyidagi sohalarda taklif qilingan echimlar:^[42]

• o'z ichiga oladi tuproqni tiklash an'anaviy va ommabop ta'limning bir qismi sifatida
• barcha manfaatdor tomonlarni, shu jumladan siyosatchilar va hokimiyatni, ishlab chiqaruvchilar va erdan foydalanuvchilarni, ilmiy jamoatchilikni va fuqarolik jamiyatini rag'batlantirishni boshqarish va qoidalar va qonunlarni bajarish uchun jalb qilish
• xalqaro konvensiya kabi majburiy qoidalar to'plamini belgilash
• o'zgarishlarni engillashtirish uchun mexanizmlar va imtiyozlarni yaratish
• bilimlarni to'plash va almashish;
• milliy va xalqaro miqyosda mablag'larni jalb qilish

Iqlim o'zgarishi

Ilmiy kelishuv Iqlim o'zgarishi ning hisobotlarida ifodalangan Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha hukumatlararo hay'at (IPCC) va shuningdek, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi barcha yirik ilmiy organlarning bayonotlarida Milliy fanlar akademiyasi.^[43]

Iqlim o'zgarishi omillari quyidagilarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin: O'zgarishlar quyosh nurlanishi - Atmosferadagi o'zgarishlar iz gaz va aerozol kontsentratsiyasiIqlim o'zgarishi dalillarini o'rganish orqali aniqlash mumkin - Atmosfera kontsentratsiyalari Issiqxona gazlari (IG) kabi karbonat angidrid (CO2) - Quruqlik va dengiz sathining harorati - Atmosferadagi suv bug'lari- Yog'ingarchilik - Ekstremal ob-havo va iqlim hodisalarining paydo bo'lishi yoki kuchliligi - Muzliklar - Tez dengiz muz yo'qotish - Dengiz sathi^[44]

Iqlim modellari tomonidan harorat va dengiz sathidagi o'zgarishlar inson faoliyatining sababchi ta'siri bo'lishi mumkinligi taxmin qilinadi iste'mol qazib olinadigan yoqilg'idan, o'rmonlarni yo'q qilish, oshdi qishloq xo'jaligi mahsuloti va ishlab chiqarish ksenobiotik gazlar.^[45]

Iqlim o'zgarishini yumshatish va uning ta'sirini milliy, mintaqaviy va xalqaro miqyosda kamaytirish bo'yicha harakatlar ko'paymoqda. Kioto protokoli va Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Asosiy Konvensiyasi (UNFCCC) iqlim o'zgarishini xalqaro darajada hal qilishda eng muhim rol o'ynaydi.^[46]

Iqlim o'zgarishiga qarshi kurash maqsadi qabul qilinishiga olib keldi Kioto protokoli 191 shtatlari tomonidan qisqartirishni rag'batlantiruvchi kelishuv issiqxona gazlari, asosan CO
2. Rivojlangan iqtisodiyotlar aholi jon boshiga ko'proq emissiya ishlab chiqarishi sababli, barcha mamlakatlardagi chiqindilarni cheklash, rivojlanayotgan iqtisodiyotlar uchun imkoniyatlarni inhibe qiladi, bu hodisaga global ta'sir ko'rsatishda yagona katta muvaffaqiyat.

Yigirma o'n yillardan keyin Brundtland hisoboti ammo, ta'kidlangan asosiy ko'rsatkichlarda yaxshilanish yo'q.

Biologik xilma-xillik

Himoyalash uchun atrof-muhitni boshqarish biologik xilma-xillik ko'p darajalarda harakat qilishi kerak. Biologik xilma-xillik mo'rt, chunki unga deyarli barcha inson xatti-harakatlari tahdid soladi. Biologik xilma-xillikni saqlashga ko'maklashish uchun qishloq xo'jaligi faoliyatini tartibga soluvchi shartnomalar va qonunlar tuzilishi kerak; shahar o'sishi, sanoatlashtirish mamlakatlar, tabiiy resurslardan foydalanish, nazorat qilish invaziv turlar, suvdan to'g'ri foydalanish va havo sifati. Mintaqa yoki mamlakat uchun qaror qabul qiluvchilar uchun qaror qabul qilishdan oldin, siyosatchilar va jamoatchilik bioxilma-xillik uchun har qanday loyiha qanday ta'sir qilishi mumkinligini hisobga olishlari kerak.

Aholining o'sishi va urbanizatsiya o'rmonlarni kesishga katta hissa qo'shgan. Aholining o'sishi qishloq xo'jaligi maydonlaridan yanada intensiv foydalanishni talab qiladi, bu esa yangi maydonlarni o'rmonzor qilish zarurligiga olib keladi. Bu sabab bo'ladi yashash joylarini yo'qotish biologik xilma-xillikning asosiy tahdidlaridan biridir. Habitatning yo'qolishi va yashash joyining parchalanishi barcha turlarga ta'sir qiladi, chunki ularning barchasi cheklangan resurslarga, boqish va ko'paytirish uchun tayanadi.^[47]

‘Turlar genetik jihatdan noyobdir va ularning yo'qolishi qaytarilmas. Ekotizimlar juda xilma-xil parametrlar bo'yicha farq qiladi va shunga o'xshash ekotizimlarni (botqoqli erlar, o'rmonlar, qirg'oq zahiralari va boshqalarni) bir-birining o'rnini bosadigan deb hisoblash mumkin emas, chunki birining yo'qolishi boshqasini himoya qilish yoki tiklash bilan qoplanishi mumkin.’.^[48]

Yashash joyini yo'qotmaslik va natijada biologik xilma-xillikni yo'qotish, siyosatchilar va qonunchilar ehtiyotkorlik printsipidan xabardor bo'lishlari kerak, ya'ni loyihani yoki qonunni tasdiqlashdan oldin barcha ijobiy va salbiy tomonlarini sinchkovlik bilan tahlil qilish kerak. Ba'zan ta'sirlar aniq emas yoki hatto mavjud emasligi isbotlanmaydi. Ammo, agar qaytarib bo'lmaydigan ta'sir qilish ehtimoli bo'lsa, buni hisobga olish kerak.^[49]

Biologik xilma-xillikni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha atrof-muhitni boshqarishni rag'batlantirish uchun atrof-muhitni boshqarish rejalari bo'yicha muzokaralar olib borishda qadriyatlar va manfaatlar o'rtasida aniq fikr bo'lishi kerak.^[50] Xalqaro shartnomalar bu ishni to'g'ri bajarish uchun yaxshi usuldir.

The Biologik xilma-xillik to'g'risidagi konventsiya (CBD) Rio-de-Janeyroda 1992 yilda inson faoliyati bilan imzolangan. CBD ning maqsadlari: "biologik xilma-xillikni saqlash, biologik xilma-xillikni barqaror ravishda ishlatish, biologik xilma-xillikning afzalliklarini adolatli va teng ravishda bo'lishish". Konventsiya biologik xilma-xillikning barcha jihatlari: genetik resurslar, turlar va ekotizimlarni ko'rib chiqishga qaratilgan birinchi global kelishuvdir. Biologik xilma-xillikni saqlash "butun insoniyat uchun umumiy tashvish" ekanligini birinchi marta tan oldi. Konventsiya ilmiy-texnikaviy hamkorlik, genetik resurslardan foydalanish va toza ekologik texnologiyalarni o'tkazish bo'yicha chora-tadbirlarni amalga oshirishga da'vat etadi.

Biologik xilma-xillik to'g'risidagi konventsiya eng muhim nashri 2010 yilda bo'lib o'tdi. 2011-2020 yillarda bioxilma-xillikning strategik rejasi va Aichi maqsadlari, ishga tushirildi. Ushbu ikkita loyiha Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bioxilma-xillik bo'yicha o'n yillik tarixini yaratmoqda. U Yaponiyada bo'lib o'tdi va "sayyoramizning biologik xilma-xilligini yo'qotishini to'xtatish va oxir-oqibat qaytarish’.^[51] Biologik xilma-xillikning strategik rejasida "uning tabiat bilan uyg'unlikda yashash haqidagi umumiy qarashlarini targ'ib qilishNatijada (...) ‘turli darajadagi asosiy biologik xilma-xillik. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bioxilma-xillik bo'yicha o'n yillik faoliyati davomida hukumatlar Bioxilma-xillik bo'yicha strategik rejani amalga oshirish bo'yicha milliy strategiyalarni ishlab chiqish, amalga oshirish va natijalarini etkazishga da'vat etiladi.’.^[51] CBD ma'lumotlariga ko'ra ^[51] beshta Aichi maqsadi:

1. ‘Hukumat va jamiyat bo'ylab bioxilma-xillikni joriy qilish orqali bioxilma-xillikni yo'qotishining asosiy sabablarini hal qiling;
2. Biologik xilma-xillikka to'g'ridan-to'g'ri bosimni kamaytirish va barqaror foydalanishni rag'batlantirish;
3. Ekotizimlar, turlar va turlarni himoya qilish orqali bioxilma-xillik holatini yaxshilash genetik xilma-xillik;
4. Bioxilma-xillik va barcha uchun foydalarni oshirish ekotizim xizmatlari;
5. Orqali amalga oshirishni kuchaytirish ishtirokida rejalashtirish, bilimlarni boshqarish va salohiyatni oshirish.’

Suv

2003 yil BMTning suvni rivojlantirish bo'yicha Jahon hisoboti kelgusi yigirma yil ichida mavjud bo'lgan suv miqdori 30 foizga kamayishini da'vo qildi.

Ushbu maqola bo'lishi kerak yangilangan. Iltimos, ushbu maqolani so'nggi voqealarni yoki yangi mavjud ma'lumotlarni aks ettirish uchun yangilang. (2013 yil sentyabr)

Xuddi shu hisobotda 1998 yilda 2,2 million odam diareya kasalliklaridan vafot etganligi ko'rsatilgan.^[52] 2004 yilda Buyuk Britaniyaning WaterAid xayriya tashkilotining xabar berishicha, har 15 soniyada bitta bola suv bilan bog'liq kasalliklardan vafot etgan.

21-alyansga ko'ra^[53] «Suv ta'minotini boshqarishning barcha darajalari zarur va mustaqildir. Suv yig'ish joylariga kompleks yondashishda ehtiyojlarni hisobga olish kerak sug'orish va tez-tez ko'rinib turganidek, alohida va alohida bo'lmagan shaharlarning shaharlari .... Suv ta'minoti boshqaruvi barqaror rivojlanish tamoyillariga asoslanishi kerak. "

Avstraliyalik suv resurslari har doim o'zgaruvchan bo'lib kelgan, ammo ular o'zgaruvchan iqlim sharoitlari bilan tobora ko'payib bormoqda. Avstraliyada suv resurslari cheklanganligi sababli, mamlakat ichida olib boriladigan atrof-muhitni boshqarishni samarali amalga oshirish kerak. Suv cheklovlari shahar va qishloq xo'jaligi muhitida ishlatiladigan suv miqdorini cheklash uchun Avstraliyaning atrof-muhitni boshqarishda qo'llaniladigan muhim siyosat vositasidir (Beeton va boshq. 2006). Avstraliyada er usti suv manbalariga bosim kuchaymoqda, chunki uning nazoratsiz o'sishi er osti suvlari foydalanish va doimiy qurg'oqchilik tahdidi. Ushbu yuqori bosim nafaqat suv yo'llarining miqdori va sifatiga, balki bioxilma-xillikka ham salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda. Hukumat Avstraliyaning ichki suvini saqlab qolish, himoya qilish va kuzatib borish siyosatini yaratishi kerak. Avstraliya hukumati tomonidan belgilanadigan eng muhim atrof-muhitni boshqarish siyosati bu tabiiy muhitga suv ajratadigan atrof-muhit oqimlarini taqsimlashdir. To'g'ri amalga oshirish suv savdosi tizimlar Avstraliyada suv resurslarini tejashga yordam berishi mumkin. O'tgan yillar davomida suvga bo'lgan talabning oshishi kuzatilib, Avstraliyani jon boshiga to'g'ri keladigan suvdan foydalanuvchi dunyoda uchinchi o'rinni egallab turibdi (Beeton va boshq. 2006). Agar ushbu tendentsiya davom etsa, talab va taklif o'rtasidagi farqni bartaraf etish kerak bo'ladi. Hukumat suvga taqsimotlarni yanada samarali amalga oshirishi va suv stavkalarini oshirishi kerak (YuNEP, 2014). By changing public perception to promote the action of reusing and recycling water some of the stress of water shortages can be alleviated. More extensive solutions like desalination plants, building more dams and using aquifer storage are all options that could be taken to conserve water levels but all these methods are controversial. With caps on surface water use, both urban and rural consumers are turning to groundwater use; this has caused groundwater levels to decline significantly. Groundwater use is very hard to monitor and regulate. There is not enough research currently being conducted to accurately determine sustainable yields. Some regions are seeing improvement in groundwater levels by applying caps on bores and the amount of water that consumers are allowed to extract. There have been projects in environmental governance aimed at restoring vegetation in the riparian zone. Restoring riparian vegetation helps increase biodiversity, reduce salinity, prevent soil erosion and prevent riverbank collapse. Many rivers and waterways are controlled by weirs and locks that control the flow of rivers and also prevent the movement of fish. The government has funded fish-ways on some weirs and locks to allow for native fish to move upstream. Wetlands have significantly suffered under restricted water resources with water bird numbers dropping and a decrease in species diversity. The allocation of water for bird breeding through environmental flows in Macquarie Marshes has led to an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research in producing daughterless carp to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving into floodplains and wetlands. Investment in national and regional programmes like the Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-vegetation and aquatic pest control. The Living Murray programme has been crucial for the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500 billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010). In Arab countries, the extensive use of water for agriculture also needs critical attention since agriculture in this region has less contribution for its national income. ^[54][55][56]

Ozon qatlami

On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Monreal protokoli to address the declining ozon qatlami. Since that time, the use of xloroflorokarbonatlar (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides such as bromid metil has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases are still in use.^[57]

Nuclear risk

The Nuclear non-proliferation treaty is the primary multilateral agreement governing nuclear activity.

Transgenic organisms

Genetik jihatdan o'zgartirilgan organizmlar are not the subject of any major multilateral agreements. They are the subject of various restrictions at other levels of governance. GMOs are in widespread use in the US, but are heavily restricted in many other jurisdictions.

Controversies have ensued over oltin guruch, genetically modified salmon, genetik jihatdan o'zgartirilgan urug'lar, disclosure and other topics.

Ehtiyotkorlik printsipi

The ehtiyotkorlik printsipi or precautionary approach states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. As of 2013 it was not the basis of major multilateral agreements.The Precautionary Principle is put into effect if there is a chance that proposed action may cause harm to the society or the environment. Therefore, those involved in the proposed action must provide evidence that it will not be harmful, even if scientists do not believe that it will cause harm. It falls upon the policymakers to make the optimal decision, if there is any risk, even without any credible scientific evidence. However, taking precautionary action also means that there is an element of cost involved, either social or economic. So if the cost was seen as insignificant the action would be taken without the implementation of the precautionary principle.^[58] But often the cost is ignored, which can lead to harmful repercussions. This is often the case with industry and scientists who are primarily concerned with protecting their own interests.^[59]

Socio-environmental conflicts

Leading experts have emphasized on the importance of taking into account the security aspects the environment and natural resources will cause. The twenty-first century is looking into a future with an increase in mass migrations of refugees, wars and praetorian regimes caused by the effect of environmental degradation such as water scarcity, deforestation and soil erosion, air pollution and, climate change effects such as rising sea levels. For a long time, foreign-policy challenges have focused on social causes as being the only reason for social and political changes. However, it is a crucial moment to understand and take into consideration the security implications that environmental stress will bring to the current political and social structure around the globe.^[60]

Shartnomalar

Konventsiyalar

The main multilateral conventions, also known as Rio Conventions, are as follows:

Biologik xilma-xillik to'g'risidagi konventsiya (CBD) (1992–1993): aims to conserve biodiversity. Related agreements include the Kartagena protokoli on biosafety.

Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Asosiy Konvensiyasi (UNFCC) (1992–1994): aims to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would stabilize the climate system without threatening food production, and enabling the pursuit of sustainable economic development; it incorporates the Kioto protokoli.

Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Cho'llanishga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi konvensiyasi (UNCCD) (1994–1996): aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and desertification, in developing countries (Though initially the convention was primarily meant for Africa).

Further conventions:

• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1971–1975)
• YuNESKOning Jahon merosi konvensiyasi (1972–1975)
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) (1973–1975)
• Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (1979–1983)
• Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) (1992–1996)
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989–1992)
• Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedures for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (COP) (2001–2004)

The Rio Conventions are characterized by:

• obligatory execution by signatory states
• involvement in a sector of global environmental governance
• focus on the fighting poverty and the development of sustainable living conditions;
• funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for countries with few financial resources;
• inclusion of a for assessing ecosystem status^[61]

Environmental conventions are regularly criticized for their:

• rigidity and verticality: they are too descriptive, homogenous and top down, not reflecting the diversity and complexity of environmental issues. Signatory countries struggle to translate objectives into concrete form and incorporate them consistently;
• duplicate structures and aid: the sector-specific format of the conventions produced duplicate structures and procedures. Inadequate cooperation between government ministries;
• contradictions and incompatibility: e.g., “if reforestation projects to reduce CO
  2 give preference to monocultures of exotic species, this can have a negative impact on biodiversity (whereas natural regeneration can strengthen both biodiversity and the conditions needed for life).”^[15]

Until now, the formulation of environmental policies at the international level has been divided by theme, sector or territory, resulting in treaties that overlap or clash. International attempts to coordinate environment institutions, include the Inter-Agency Coordination Committee and the Commission for Sustainable Development, but these institutions are not powerful enough to effectively incorporate the three aspects of sustainable development.^[62]

Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)

MEAs are agreements between several countries that apply internationally or regionally and concern a variety of environmental questions. As of 2013 over 500 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), including 45 of global scope involve at least 72 signatory countries.^[63][64] Further agreements cover regional environmental problems, such as deforestation in Borneo or pollution in the Mediterranean. Each agreement has a specific mission and objectives ratified by multiple states.

Many Multilateral Environmental Agreements have been negotiated with the support from the United Nations Environmental Programme and work towards the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals as a means to instil sustainable practices for the environment and its people.^[65] Multilateral Environmental Agreements are considered to present enormous opportunities for greener societies and economies which can deliver numerous benefits in addressing food, energy and water security and in achieving sustainable development.^[65] These agreements can be implemented on a global or regional scale, for example the issues surrounding the disposal of hazardous waste can be implemented on a regional level as per the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa which applies specifically to Africa, or the global approach to hazardous waste such as the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal which is monitored throughout the world.^[65][66][67]

“The environmental governance structure defined by the Rio and Johannesburg Summits is sustained by UNEP, MEAs and developmental organizations and consists of assessment and policy development, as well as project implementation at the country level.

"The governance structure consists of a chain of phases:

• a) assessment of environment status;
• b) international policy development;
• c) formulation of MEAs;
• d) policy implementation;
• e) policy assessment;
• f) enforcement;
• g) sustainable development.

"Traditionally, UNEP has focused on the normative role of engagement in the first threephases. Phases (d) to (f) are covered by MEAs and the sustainable development phase involves developmental organizations such as UNDP and the World Bank.”^[63]

Lack of coordination affects the development of coherent governance. The report shows that donor states support development organizations, according to their individual interests. They do not follow a joint plan, resulting in overlaps and duplication. MEAs tend not to become a joint frame of reference and therefore receive little financial support. States and organizations emphasize existing regulations rather than improving and adapting them.^[63]

Fon

The risks associated with nuclear fission raised global awareness of environmental threats. 1963 yil Yadro sinovlarini qisman taqiqlash to'g'risidagi shartnoma prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing was the beginning of the globalization of environmental issues. Environmental law began to be modernized and coordinated with the Stockholm Conference (1972), backed up in 1980 by the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.^[68] The Ozon qatlamini himoya qilish to'g'risidagi Vena konventsiyasi was signed and ratified in 1985. In 1987, 24 countries signed the Monreal protokoli which imposed the gradual withdrawal of CFCs.

The Brundtland hisoboti, published in 1987 by the UN Commission on Environment and Development, stipulated the need for economic development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their needs.

Rio Conference (1992) and reactions

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as the 1992 Yer sammiti, was the first major international meeting since the end of the Sovuq urush and was attended by delegations from 175 countries. Since then the biggest international conferences that take place every 10 years guided the global governance process with a series of MEAs. Environmental treaties are applied with the help of kotibiyatlar.

Governments created international treaties in the 1990s to check global tahdidlar atrof-muhitga. These treaties are far more restrictive than global protocols and set out to change non-sustainable production and consumption models.^[69]

Kun tartibi 21

Kun tartibi 21 is a detailed plan of actions to be implemented at the global, national and local levels by UN organizations, member states and key individual groups in all regions. Agenda 21 advocates making sustainable development a legal principle law. At the local level, local Agenda 21 advocates an inclusive, territory-based strategic plan, incorporating sustainable environmental and social policies.

The Agenda has been accused of using neoliberal principles, including free trade to achieve environmental goals. For example, chapter two, entitled “International Cooperation to Accelerate Sustainable Development in Developing Countries and Related Domestic Policies” states, “The international economy should provide a supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals by: promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization.”

Aktyorlar

Xalqaro institutlar

Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi

The UNEP has had its biggest impact as a monitoring and advisory body, and in developing environmental agreements. It has also contributed to strengthening the institutional capacity of environment ministries.

In 2002 UNEP held a conference to focus on product lifecycle impacts, emphasizing the fashion, advertising, financial and retail industries, seen as key agents in promoting sustainable consumption.^[69]

According to Ivanova, UNEP adds value in environmental monitoring, scientific assessment and information sharing, but cannot lead all environmental management processes. She proposed the following tasks for UNEP:

• initiate a strategic independent overhaul of its mission;
• consolidate the financial information and transparency process;
• restructure organizing governance by creating an operative executive council that balances the omnipresence of the overly imposing and fairly ineffectual Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum (GMEF).

Other proposals offer a new mandate to “produce greater unity amongst social and environmental agencies, so that the concept of ‘environment for development’ becomes a reality. It needs to act as a platform for establishing standards and for other types of interaction with national and international organizations and the United Nations. The principles of cooperation and umumiy, ammo tabaqalashtirilgan majburiyatlar should be reflected in the application of this revised mandate.”^[70]

Sherman proposed principles to strengthen UNEP:

• obtain a social consensus on a long-term vision;
• analyze the current situation and future scenarios;
• produce a comprehensive plan covering all aspects of sustainable development;
• build on existing strategies and processes;
• multiply links between national and local strategies;
• include all these points in the financial and budget plan;
• adopt fast controls to improve process piloting and identification of progress made;
• implement effective participation mechanisms.^[71]

Another group stated, “Consider the specific needs of developing countries and respect of the fundamental principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities'. Developed countries should promote technology transfer, new and additional financial resources, and capacity building for meaningful participation of developing countries in international environmental governance. Strengthening of international environmental governance should occur in the context of sustainable development and should involve civil society as an important stakeholder and agent of transformation.”^[72]

Global ekologik fond (GEF)

Created in 1991, the Global Environment Facility is an independent financial organization initiated by donor governments including Germany and France. It was the first financial organization dedicated to the environment at the global level. As of 2013 it had 179 members. Donations are used for projects covering biodiversity, climate change, international waters, destruction of the ozone layer, soil degradation and doimiy organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar.

GEF's institutional structure includes UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank. It is the funding mechanism for the four environmental conventions: climate change, biodiversity, persistent organic pollutants and desertification. GEF transfers resources from developed countries to developing countries to fund UNDP, UNEP and World Bank projects. The World Bank manages the annual budget of US$561.10 million.^[73]

The GEF has been criticized for its historic links with the World Bank, at least during its first phase during the 1990s,^[74] and for having favoured certain regions to the detriment of others.^[75] Another view sees it as contributing to the emergence of a global "green market". It represents “an adaptation (of the World Bank) to this emerging world order, as a response to the emergence of environmental movements that are becoming a geopolitical force.”^[76] Developing countries demanded financial transfers to help them protect their environment.

GEF is subject to economic profitability criteria, as is the case for all the konvensiyalar. It received more funds in its first three years than the UNEP has since its creation in 1972. GEF funding represents less than 1% of development aid between 1992 and 2002.^[76]

United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)

This intergovernmental institution meets twice a year to assess follow-up on Rio Summit goals. The CSD is made up of 53 member states, elected every three years and was reformed in 2004 to help improve implementation of Agenda 21. It meets twice a year, focusing on a specific theme during each two-year period: 2004-2005 was dedicated to water and 2006–2007 to climate change. The CSD has been criticized for its low impact, general lack of presence and the absence of Agenda 21 at the state level specifically, according to a report by the Jahon resurslari instituti.^[77] Its mission focuses on sequencing actions and establishing agreements puts it in conflict with institutions such as UNEP and OECD.^[78]

World Environment Organization (WEO)

A proposed World Environment Organization, analogous to the Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti could be capable of adapting treaties and enforcing international standards.^[79]

The European Union, particularly France and Germany, and a number of NGOs favour creating a WEO. The United Kingdom, the US and most developing countries prefer to focus on voluntary initiatives.^[80] WEO partisans maintain that it could offer better political leadership, improved legitimacy and more efficient coordination. Its detractors argue that existing institutions and missions already provide appropriate environmental governance; however the lack of coherence and coordination between them and the absence of clear division of responsibilities prevents them from greater effectiveness.^[62][16]

Jahon banki

The World Bank influences environmental governance through other actors, particularly the GEF. The World Bank's mandate is not sufficiently defined in terms of environmental governance despite the fact that it is included in its mission. However, it allocates 5 to 10% of its annual funds to environmental projects. The institution's capitalist vocation means that its investment is concentrated solely in areas which are profitable in terms of cost benefits, such as climate change action and ozone layer protection, whilst neglecting other such as adapting to climate change and desertification. Its financial autonomy means that it can make its influence felt indirectly on the creation of standards, and on international and regional negotiations.^[81]

Following intense criticism in the 1980s for its support for destructive projects which, amongst other consequences, caused deforestation of tropical forests, the World Bank drew up its own environment-related standards in the 1990s so it could correct its actions. These standards differ from UNEP's standards, meant to be the benchmark, thus discrediting the institution and sowing disorder and conflict in the world of environmental governance. Other financial institutions, regional development banks and the private sector also drew up their own standards. Criticism is not directed at the World Bank's standards in themselves, which Najam considered as “robust”,^[78] but at their legitimacy and efficacy.

GEF

The GEF 's account of itself as of 2012 [1] is as "the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment", period, which "provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants." It claims to have provided "$10.5 billion in grants and leveraging $51 billion in co-financing for over 2,700 projects in over 165 countries [and] made more than 14,000 small grants directly to civil society and community-based organizations, totaling $634 million." It serves as mechanism for the:

• Biologik xilma-xillik to'g'risidagi konventsiya (CBD)
• Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Asosiy Konvensiyasi (UNFCCC)
• Doimiy organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar to'g'risidagi Stokgolm konventsiyasi (POPs)
• Cho'llanishga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi konventsiya (UNCCD)
• amalga oshirish Ozon qatlamini buzadigan moddalarga oid Monreal protokoli in some countries with "economies in transition" [2]

This mandate reflects the restructured GEF as of October 2011 [3].

Jahon Savdo Tashkiloti (JST)

The WTO's mandate does not include a specific principle on the environment. All the problems linked to the environment are treated in such a way as to give priority to trade requirements and the principles of the WTO's own trade system. This produces conflictual situations. Even if the WTO recognizes the existence of MEAs, it denounces the fact that around 20 MEAs are in conflict with the WTO's trade regulations. Furthermore, certain MEAs can allow a country to ban or limit trade in certain products if they do not satisfy established environmental protection requirements. In these circumstances, if one country's ban relating to another country concerns two signatories of the same MEA, the principles of the treaty can be used to resolve the disagreement, whereas if the country affected by the trade ban with another country has not signed the agreement, the WTO demands that the dispute be resolved using the WTO's trade principles, in other words, without taking into account the environmental consequences.

Some criticisms of the WTO mechanisms may be too broad. In a recently dispute over labelling of dolphin safe labels uchun orkinos between the US and Mexico, the ruling was relatively narrow and did not, as some critics claimed,

Xalqaro valyuta fondi (XVF)

The IMF's mission is "to ensure the stability of the international monetary system".^[82]

The IMF Green Fund proposal of Dominik Stross-Kan^[83] specifically to address "climate-related shocks in Africa",^[84] despite receiving serious attention^[85] rad etildi.^[86] Strauss-Kahn's proposal, backed by Frantsiya va Britaniya, was that "developed countries would make an initial capital injection into the fund using some of the $176 billion worth of SDR allocations from last year in exchange for a stake in the green fund." However, "most of the 24 directors ... told Strauss-Kahn that climate was not part of the IMF's mandate and that SDR allocations are a reserve asset never intended for development issues."^[86]

UN ICLEI

The UN's main body for coordinating municipal and urban decision-making^[87] nomi berilgan Mahalliy ekologik tashabbuslar bo'yicha xalqaro kengash. Its slogan is "Local Governments for Sustainability".This body sponsored the concept of to'liq xarajatlarni hisobga olish that makes environmental governance the foundation of other governance.

ICLEIs projects and achievements include:

• Convincing thousands of municipal leaders to sign the World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change (2005) which notably requests of other levels of government that:

Global trade regimes, credits and banking reserve rules be reformed to advance debt relief and incentives to implement policies and practices that reduce and mitigate climate change.^[88]

• Starting national councils to implement this and other key agreements, e.g., ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA
• Yoyish ecoBudget (2008)^[89] va Uchlik pastki chiziq (2007) "tools for embedding barqarorlik into council operations",^[90] masalan. Guntur 's Municipal Corporation, one of the first four to implement the entire framework.
• Sustainability Planning Toolkit (launched 2009)^[91] integrating these and other tools
• Cities Climate Registry (launched 2010)^[92] - part of UNEP Campaign on Cities and Climate Change^[93]

ICLEI promotes eng yaxshi amaliyot almashinuvi among municipal governments globally, especially yashil infratuzilma, sustainable procurement.

Other secretariats

Other international institutions incorporate environmental governance in their action plans, including:

• Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Taraqqiyot Dasturi (UNDP), promoting development;
• Jahon meteorologiya tashkiloti (WMO) which works on the climate and atmosphere;
• Oziq-ovqat va qishloq xo'jaligi tashkiloti (FAO) working on the protection of agriculture, forests and fishing;
• Xalqaro atom energiyasi agentligi (IAEA) which focuses on nuclear security.

Over 30 UN agencies and programmes support environmental management, according to Najam.^[78] This produces a lack of coordination, insufficient exchange of information and dispersion of responsibilities. It also results in proliferation of initiatives and rivalry between them.

Tanqid

According to Bauer, Busch and Siebenhüner,^[94] the different conventions and multilateral agreements of global environmental regulation is increasing their secretariats' influence. Influence varies according to bureaucratic and leadership efficiency, choice of technical or client-centered.

The United Nations is often the target of criticism, including from within over the multiplication of secretariats due to the chaos it produces. Using a separate secretariat for each MEA creates enormous overhead given the 45 international-scale and over 500 other agreements.

Shtatlar

Environmental governance at the state level

Environmental protection has created opportunities for mutual and collective monitoring among neighbouring states. The European Union provides an example of the institutionalization of joint regional and state environmental governance. Key areas include information, led by the Evropa atrof-muhit agentligi (EEA), and the production and monitoring of norms by states or local institutions.See also the Evropa Ittifoqining ekologik siyosati.

State participation in global environmental governance

US refusal to ratify major environment agreements produced tensions with ratifiers in Europe and Japan.

The World Bank, IMF and other institutions are dominated by the developed countries and do not always properly consider the requirements of developing countries.

Biznes

Environmental governance applies to business as well as government. Considerations are typical of those in other domains:

• values (vision, mission, principles);
• policy (strategy, objectives, targets);
• oversight (responsibility, direction, training, communication);
• process (management systems, initiatives, internal control, monitoring and review, stakeholder dialogue, transparency, environmental accounting, reporting and verification);
• performance (performance indicators, benchmarking, eco-efficiency, reputation, compliance, liabilities, business development).^[95]

White and Klernan among others discuss the correlation between environmental governance and financial performance. This correlation is higher in sectors where environmental impacts are greater.^[95]

Business environmental issues include emissions, biodiversity, historical liabilities, product and material waste/recycling, energy use/supply and many others.^[95]

Environmental governance has become linked to traditional corporate governance as an increasing number of shareholders are corporate environmental impacts.^[96] Corporate governance is the set of jarayonlar, customs, siyosatlar, laws, and institutions affecting the way a korporatsiya (yoki kompaniya ) is managed. Korporativ boshqaruv is affected by the relationships among manfaatdor tomonlar. These stakeholders research and quantify performance to compare and contrast the environmental performance of thousands of companies.^[97]

Large corporations with global supply chains evaluate the environmental performance of business partners and suppliers for marketing and ethical reasons. Some consumers seek environmentally friendly and sustainable products and companies.

Nodavlat tashkilotlar

According to Bäckstrand and Saward,^[20] “broader participation by non-state actors in multilateral environmental decisions (in varied roles such as agenda setting, campaigning, lobbying, consultation, monitoring, and implementation) enhances the democratic legitimacy of environmental governance.”

Local activism is capable of gaining the support of the people and authorities to combat environmental degradatation. In Cotacachi, Ecuador, a social movement used a combination of education, direct action, the influence of local public authorities and denunciation of the mining company's plans in its own country, Canada, and the support of international environmental groups to influence mining activity.^[98]

Fisher cites cases in which multiple strategies were used to effect change.^[99] She describes civil society groups that pressure international institutions and also organize local events. Local groups can take responsibility for environmental governance in place of governments.^[100][101]

According to Bengoa,^[102] “social movements have contributed decisively to the creation of an institutional platform wherein the fight against poverty and exclusion has become an inescapable benchmark.” But despite successes in this area, “these institutional changes have not produced the processes for transformation that could have made substantial changes to the opportunities available to rural inhabitants, particularly the poorest and those excluded from society.” He cites several reasons:

• conflict between in-group cohesion and openness to outside influence;
• limited trust between individuals;
• contradiction between social participation and innovation;
• criticisms without credible alternatives to environmentally damaging activities

A successful initiative in Ecuador involved the establishment of stakeholder federations and management committees (NGOs, communities, municipalities and the ministry) for the management of a protected forest.^[25]

Takliflar

The Barqaror rivojlanish bo'yicha xalqaro institut proposed an agenda for global governance. Ushbu maqsadlar:^[78]

• expert leadership;
• positioning science as the authoritative basis of sound environmental policy;
• coherence and reasonable coordination;
• well-managed institutions;
• incorporate environmental concerns and actions within other areas of international policy and action

Coherence and coordination

Despite the increase in efforts, actors, agreements and treaties, the global environment continue to degrade at a rapid rate. From the big hole in Earth's ozone layer to over-fishing to the uncertainties of climate change, the world is confronted by several intrinsically global challenges.^[103] However, as the environmental agenda becomes more complicated and extensive, the current system has proven ineffective in addressing and tackling problems related to trans-boundary externalities and the environment is still experiencing degradation at unprecedented levels.^[104]

Inforesources^[105] global atrof-muhitni boshqarish yo'lidagi to'rtta to'siqni aniqlaydi va bunga javoban choralarni tavsiflaydi. To'rt to'siq:

• parallel tuzilmalar va raqobat, izchil strategiyasiz
• qarama-qarshiliklar va mos kelmaslik, tegishli murosasiz
• bir-biriga mos kelmaydigan maqsadlar, qoidalar va jarayonlar bilan bir nechta kelishuvlar o'rtasidagi raqobat
• siyosatni makro- mikroskoplarga birlashtirish.

Tavsiya etilgan choralar:

• MRM (Mingyillik rivojlanish maqsadlari)^[106] barqarorlik va qashshoqlik va tenglikni kamaytirishni birlashtirgan konventsiyalar;
• global va mahalliy miqyoslarni bog'laydigan mamlakat darajasidagi yondashuv
• rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan va donor davlatlar va institutlar o'rtasidagi muvofiqlashtirishni yaxshilaydigan ko'p tomonlama yondashuvda vazifalarni muvofiqlashtirish va taqsimlash
• qashshoqlikni kamaytirish bo'yicha strategiya hujjatlaridan (PRSPs) foydalanish^[107] rivojlanishni rejalashtirishda
• to'qnashuvlarni savdo-sotiq, sinergiya va yutib olish variantlariga aylantirish

Global atrof-muhitni boshqarish bilan bog'liq zamonaviy munozaralar yanada kuchli va samarali institutsional bazani ishlab chiqish g'oyasiga yaqinlashdi. Bunga qanday erishish mumkinligi haqidagi qarashlar, hali ham qizg'in bahslashmoqda. Hozirda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi (UNEP) bilan hamkorlik qilish o'rniga, atrof-muhitga oid xalqaro majburiyatlar ko'plab turli idoralar bo'ylab tarqaldi, shu jumladan: a) Jahon meteorologik tashkiloti, Xalqaro dengiz tashkiloti va boshqalar kabi BMT tizimidagi ixtisoslashgan muassasalar; b) BMTning taraqqiyot dasturi kabi BMT tizimidagi dasturlar; c) BMTning mintaqaviy iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy komissiyasi; d) Bretton-Vuds muassasalari; e) Jahon savdo tashkiloti va; f) Global ekologik fond kabi atrof-muhitga yo'naltirilgan mexanizmlar va 500 ga yaqin xalqaro ekologik shartnomalar.^[103]

Ba'zi tahlilchilar, shuningdek, tizimdan maksimal darajada ishlab chiqarishni ta'minlash uchun bir nechta institutlar va ma'lum darajada bir-birining ustiga chiqish va takrorlanish zarurligini ta'kidlaydilar.^[108] Boshqalar esa, institutlar juda tarqoq va koordinatsiyasiz bo'lib, bu ularning global atrof-muhitni boshqarishdagi samaradorligiga zarar etkazishi mumkin deb da'vo qilmoqda.^[109] WEOga qarshi va unga qarshi turli xil dalillar mavjud bo'lsa-da, ammo asosiy muammo bir xil bo'lib qolmoqda: global muhitni samarali himoya qiladigan oqilona va samarali asoslarni ishlab chiqish.

Demokratlashtirish

2002 yildan boshlab Saward^[20] va boshqalar tomosha qilishni boshladilar Yer sammiti manfaatdor tomonlarning demokratiyasini ochish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lgan jarayon. Sammitlar shunchaki ishtirok etish o'rniga, maslahatlashuv tarzida bo'lib o'tdi, qarorlar qabul qilish jarayoniga davlatlar va xalqaro tashkilotlar qatorida nodavlat notijorat tashkilotlari, ayollar, erkaklar, mahalliy aholi va korxonalar qo'shildi:

• ilmiy va texnik fikrlarga berilgan ahamiyat
• heterojen faoliyat doirasiga ega bo'lgan ko'plab aktyorlarning rasmiy va norasmiy ishtiroki
• o'sib borayotgan noaniqlik
• ning yangi talqini xalqaro huquq va ijtimoiy tashkilot modellari^[110]

2013 yildan boshlab, bunday forumlarni tuzish bo'yicha qo'shma qoidalarning yo'qligi shaffof bo'lmagan munosabatlarning rivojlanishiga olib keladi, bu esa yanada kuchli manfaatdor tomonlarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Tanqidlar^[111] ular ko'proq lobbi platformasi sifatida harakat qilishlarini ta'kidlaydilar, bunda muayyan manfaatdor guruhlar hukumatlariga ta'sir o'tkazishga harakat qilishadi.

Institutsional islohot

Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti ichidagi va tashqarisidagi aktyorlar atrof-muhitni global boshqarish imkoniyatlarini muhokama qilmoqdalar, bu mo'rtlik, muvofiqlashtirish va izchillikning dolzarb muammolariga echim topadi.^[112] Muhokama UNEPni yanada samarali qilish maqsadiga qaratilgan. 2005 yildagi rezolyutsiya "Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti tizimida atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha faoliyatni takomillashtirish, muvofiqlashtirishni takomillashtirish, siyosiy maslahat va ko'rsatmalarni takomillashtirish, ilmiy bilimlarni kuchaytirish, baholash va hamkorlikni kuchaytirish, shartnomalarning qonuniy avtonomiyasini hurmat qilish bilan birga, shartnomalarni yaxshiroq bajarish zarurligini va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish sohasidagi faoliyatni barqaror rivojlanishning yanada keng doirasiga qo'shilishi ».

Takliflar quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi:^[113]

• idoralar o'rtasida katta va yaxshi muvofiqlashtirish;
• UNEPning ilmiy rolini kuchaytirish va tan olish;
• turli kelishuvlar o'rtasida muvofiqlashtirish, hamkorlik va jamoaviy ishni kuchaytirish uchun MEA yo'nalishlarini aniqlash;
• mintaqaviy mavjudlikni oshirish;
• amalga oshirish Bali strategik rejasi texnologiyani o'qitishni takomillashtirish va kambag'al mamlakatlarda atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish choralarini qo'llashni qo'llab-quvvatlash to'g'risida;
• UNEP va MEAlarning JSTning barcha tegishli qo'mitalarida rasmiy ravishda kuzatuvchi sifatida qatnashishini talab qilish.
• uning moliyaviy ahvolini mustahkamlash;
• kotibiyatlarning samaradorligi va samaradorligini oshirish.

Ushbu muammoni hal qilishning asosiy tadqiqotlaridan biri quyidagilarni taklif qiladi:

• rivojlanish tashkilotlari, YuNEP va MEA o'rtasida vazifalarni aniq taqsimlash
• siyosiy yo'nalishni qabul qilish^{[tushuntirish kerak ]} atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish va barqaror rivojlanish uchun
• UNEP Boshqaruv Kengashi / Global Vazirlar Atrof-muhit Forumiga YuNEPning o'rta muddatli strategiyasini qabul qilish huquqini berish
• a'zo davlatlarga har bir konvensiya uchun mustaqil kotibiyatni shakllantirish va boshqarish uchun ruxsat berish
• MEA-larni vaqti-vaqti bilan baholashda UNEPni qo'llab-quvvatlash va muvofiqlashtirish va izchillikni ta'minlash
• MEA-larni Umumiy mamlakatlarni baholash (CCA) jarayoniga qo'shishga qodir bo'lgan milliy / mintaqaviy platformalarni yaratish bo'yicha ko'rsatmalarni belgilash va Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining rivojlanishiga ko'maklashish doirasi (UNDAF)^[114]
• global qo'shma rejalashtirish tizimini yaratish
• differentsial xarajatlarga e'tiborni qaratgan holda, atrof-muhit faoliyatini moliyalashtirish qobiliyati va samaradorligini o'rganish
• mavjud moliyaviy mexanizmlarga taalluqli bo'lgan differentsial xarajatlarni moliyalashtirish kontseptsiyasini o'rganish va qayta aniqlash
• topshiriqlarni qayta ko'rib chiqish, ko'p tomonlama konferentsiyalarga xizmat ko'rsatuvchi sub'ektlar o'rtasida vazifalar va majburiyatlarni taqsimlash. BMT vakolatxonalari MEA kotibiyatlariga ko'rsatadigan xizmatlarni aniq belgilab qo'ying
• MEA kotibiyatlari uchun kadrlar bilan ta'minlash va geografik taqsimotni yaxshilashga qaratilgan chora-tadbirlarni taklif qilish
• dasturlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashda va MEA-larga xizmat ko'rsatishda shaffoflik manbalaridan foydalanishni yaxshilash. MEA-larga etkazib beriladigan xizmatlar uchun qo'shma byudjetni tuzing.

Ta'lim

2001 yildagi Alliance 21 hisobotida oltita harakat yo'nalishi taklif qilingan:^[115]

• siyosiy yo'nalishlarni yanada demokratik nazorat qilishni ta'minlash uchun fuqarolarning tanqidiy fakultetlarini kuchaytirish
• global va tanqidiy yondashuvni ishlab chiqish
• o'qituvchilar uchun fuqarolik ta'limini rivojlantirish
• muayyan ijtimoiy-kasbiy guruhlar uchun tayyorgarlikni rivojlantirish
• butun aholi uchun ekologik ta'limni rivojlantirish;
• fuqarolik jamiyatining tajribalarini baholash

Kundalik hayotni o'zgartiring

Jismoniy shaxslar, iste'molni o'zgartirishi mumkin ixtiyoriy soddalik: sotib olish odatlaridagi o'zgarishlar, soddalashtirilgan turmush tarzi (kam ish, kam iste'mol, ko'proq ijtimoiylashuv va bo'sh vaqt konstruktiv). Ammo individual harakatlar ehtiyotkorlik va siyosatga bosimni almashtirmasligi kerak.^[69] Mas'uliyatli iste'mol tushunchalari iste'mol aholining asosiy ehtiyojlarini qondirishi kerak degan tamoyilga binoan individual xaridlarning siyosiy mohiyatini ochib beradigan o'nlab yillar davomida shakllandi. Ushbu ehtiyojlar shaxslar va jamiyatning jismoniy farovonligi, sog'lom ovqatlanish, ichimlik suvi va sanitariya-tesisat ta'minoti, ta'lim, sog'liqni saqlash va jismoniy xavfsizlikni o'z ichiga oladi.^[69] Iste'molni kamaytirish, materiallarni qayta ishlatish va qayta ishlash zarurligiga umumiy munosabat markazlari. Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini iste'mol qilishda hayvonlarga nisbatan yomon munosabatdan qochadigan mahalliy, organik va adolatli savdo mahsulotlari asosiy tendentsiyaga aylandi.

Shaxsiy avtomobilga alternativalar, jumladan jamoat transporti, avtoulovlarni taqsimlash va velosipedlar va harakatlanishning muqobil tizimlari ko'paymoqda.

Muqobil energiya manbalari arzonga tushmoqda.

Ekologik sanoat jarayonlari chiqindilarni bir tarmoqdan ikkinchisiga xomashyoga aylantiradi.

Hukumatlar subsidiyalarni kamaytirishi / soliqlarni ko'paytirishi / barqaror bo'lmagan faoliyatni tartibga solishni kuchaytirishi mumkin.^[69]

The Jamiyat atrof-muhitni boshqarish Global alyans mahalliy bilimlarni o'z ichiga olgan ekologik va iqtisodiy muammolarga kompleks yondashishni rag'batlantiradi. Okotoks, Alberta Qo'y daryosining suv o'tkazuvchanligi asosida aholining o'sishini cheklab qo'ydi.^[116] Frayzer havzasi kengashi suv havzasini boshqarish^[117] Britaniya Kolumbiyasida, Kanadada munitsipal yurisdiktsiyalarni qamrab oladigan masalalarni boshqaradi. Aqlli o'sish atrof-muhitni boshqarishning asosiy qoidalarini qo'llaydigan xalqaro harakatdir shaharsozlik.

Siyosatlar va qoidalar

Siyosiy, jismoniy va madaniy darajalarni hal qilishda "farovonlik uchun infratuzilmalarni" targ'ib qiluvchi siyosat va qoidalarni belgilang.

Atrof muhitga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatadigan va soliqning ifloslanishiga olib keladigan subsidiyalarni bekor qiling

Ishchilarning shaxsiy va oilaviy rivojlanishiga ko'maklashish.^[69]

Muvofiqlashtirish

Tegishli kotibiyatlar bilan hamkorlikda 2000 yil oxirida boshlangan uchta Rio konventsiyalari o'rtasidagi sinergiya bo'yicha milliy seminarlar dasturi. Maqsad mahalliy darajadagi muvofiqlashtirishni quyidagilar orqali kuchaytirish edi.

• ma'lumot almashish
• moliyaviy ko'mak olish va dasturlarni amalga oshirish uchun siyosiy muloqotni rivojlantirish
• kotibiyatlarga qo'shma ish dasturlarini yangilashga imkon berish.^[118]

Kempbellning so'zlariga ko'ra,^[119] «Globallashuv sharoitida atrof-muhit mavzularini boshqa sub'ektlar bilan, masalan, savdo, sarmoyalar va nizolarni hal qilish mexanizmlari bilan bog'lash, shuningdek, shartnomalarda qatnashish va ularni qo'llash uchun iqtisodiy rag'batlantirish masalasi samarali bo'lishi uchun muhim dars bo'lib tuyuladi. atrof-muhitni boshqarish tuzilmalarini rivojlantirish ». Ekologik muammolar global iqtisodiy tizimning bir qismiga aylanadi. «Ushbu muammolar xalqaro munosabatlarning barqarorligiga ham, jamoaviy xavfsizlikka ham ta'sir qilishi mumkin bo'lgan yangi avlod xalqaro mojarolarning urug'larini o'z ichiga oladi. Shuning uchun "jamoaviy xavfsizlik" tushunchasi paydo bo'ldi ".

Mahalliy qarorlarni global darajaga ko'chirish mahalliy tashabbuslar va ilg'or tajribalar global tizimning bir qismi sifatida muhimdir. Kanie^[120] nodavlat notijorat tashkilotlari, olimlar, xalqaro tashkilotlar va manfaatdor tomonlarning sherikliklari mahalliy va xalqaro darajalarni ajratib turadigan masofani kamaytirishi mumkinligini ta'kidlamoqda.

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

Manbalar

• Kanie, Norichika; Haas, Piter M. (2004). Atrof-muhitni boshqarishda rivojlanayotgan kuchlar. UNU Press.
• Yangi dunyo boshqaruvi forumi
• Lennart J. Lundqvist (2004), Shvetsiya va atrof-muhitni boshqarish: panjara bilan kurashish. Manchester universiteti matbuoti, ISBN  0-7190-6902-5
• Srivastva, Amit. (2017). "21-asrda atrof-muhitni boshqarish: Xitoyning atrof-muhitni boshqarish bo'yicha amaliy tadqiqotlar" (pdf), researchgate.net.