Toksoplazmoz - Toxoplasmosis

Toksoplazmoz
Toxoplasma gondii tachy.jpg
T. gondii taxizoidlar
MutaxassisligiYuqumli kasallik
AlomatlarKo'pincha, hech qachon homiladorlik (tug'ma nuqsonlar)[1][2]
SabablariToxoplasma gondii[3]
Xavf omillariNoto'g'ri pishirilgan ovqatni iste'mol qilish, yuqtirilgan mushuklarning najasiga ta'sir qilish[3]
Diagnostika usuliQon testi, amniotik suyuqlik sinov[4]
DavolashHomiladorlik paytida spiramitsin yoki pirimetamin /sulfadiazin va folin kislotasi[5]
ChastotaniOdamlarning 50% gacha, yiliga 200 mingta tug'ma toksoplazmoz kasalligi[6][7]

Toksoplazmoz a parazitar kasallik sabab bo'lgan Toxoplasma gondii.[3] Toksoplazmoz bilan yuqadigan infektsiyalar odatda kattalarda aniq alomatlarni keltirib chiqarmaydi.[2] Ba'zida odamlarda bir necha hafta yoki bir necha oy yumshoq bo'lishi mumkin, grippga o'xshash kasallik mushaklarning og'rig'i va yumshoqligi kabi limfa tugunlari.[1] Kam sonli odamlarda ko'z bilan bog'liq muammolar rivojlanishi mumkin.[1] A bo'lganlarda zaif immunitet tizimi kabi jiddiy alomatlar soqchilik va yomon koordinatsiya yuzaga kelishi mumkin.[1] Davomida yuqtirgan bo'lsa homiladorlik, tug'ma toksoplazmoz deb ataladigan holat bolaga ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[1]

Toksoplazmoz odatda tarkibida kam pishgan ovqatni iste'mol qilish orqali tarqaladi kistalar, homiladorlik paytida mushukning yuqtirgan najasiga va yuqtirgan onadan chaqalog'iga ta'sir qilish.[3] Kamdan kam hollarda kasallik tarqalishi mumkin qon quyish.[3] Odamlar orasida boshqacha tarzda tarqalmaydi.[3] Parazit jinsiy yo'l bilan ko'payishni faqat mushuk oilasi.[8] Biroq, u ko'pchilik turlarini yuqtirishi mumkin issiq qonli hayvonlar odamlar, shu jumladan.[8] Tashxis odatda qonni tekshirish orqali amalga oshiriladi antikorlar yoki sinov orqali amniotik suyuqlik parazit uchun DNK.[4]

Oldini olish ovqatni to'g'ri tayyorlash va pishirish orqali amalga oshiriladi.[9] Shuningdek, homilador ayollarga mushuk axlat qutilarini tozalamaslik tavsiya etiladi, yoki keyinchalik qo'lqop kiyib, qo'llarini yuvish kerak bo'lsa.[9] Aks holda sog'lom odamlarni davolash odatda kerak emas.[5] Homiladorlik paytida, spiramitsin yoki pirimetamin /sulfadiazin va folin kislotasi davolash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin.[5]

Dunyo aholisining yarmigacha toksoplazmoz bilan kasallangan, ammo alomatlari yo'q.[7] Qo'shma Shtatlarda odamlarning taxminan 11% yuqtirgan bo'lsa, dunyoning ayrim mintaqalarida bu 60% dan oshadi.[3] Tug'ma toksoplazmozning yiliga taxminan 200 ming holati ro'y beradi.[6] Charlz Nikoll va Louis Manceaux birinchi marta organizmni 1908 yilda tasvirlab bergan.[10] 1941 yilda homiladorlik paytida onadan bolaga yuqishi tasdiqlandi.[10] Infektsiya odamlarning xatti-harakatlariga ta'sir qilishi mumkinligi to'g'risida taxminiy dalillar mavjud.[11]

Belgilari va alomatlari

Yuqtirish uch bosqichdan iborat:

O'tkir

O'tkir toksoplazmoz ko'pincha sog'lom kattalarda asemptomatik bo'ladi.[12][13] Biroq, alomatlar namoyon bo'lishi mumkin va ko'pincha gripp o'xshash: shishgan limfa tugunlari, bosh og'rig'i, isitma va charchoq,[14] yoki mushak og'rig'i va bir oy yoki undan ko'proq davom etadigan og'riqlar. To'liq ishlaydigan odam uchun kamdan-kam uchraydi immunitet tizimi infektsiyadan keyin og'ir alomatlar paydo bo'lishi. Immun tizimi zaif odamlarda bosh og'rig'i, chalkashlik, koordinatsiya sustligi, tutilish, o'pkada sil kasalligiga o'xshash muammolar bo'lishi mumkin. Pneumocystis jiroveci pnevmoniya (OITS bilan kasallangan odamlarda uchraydigan keng tarqalgan opportunistik infeksiya) yoki retinaning qattiq yallig'lanishi (ko'z toksoplazmozi) natijasida paydo bo'ladigan ko'rish.[14] Yosh bolalar va immunitet tanqisligi odamlar, masalan, OIV / OITS bilan kasallanganlar, ayrim turlarini qabul qilganlar kimyoviy terapiya, yoki yaqinda an olganlar organ transplantatsiyasi, og'ir toksoplazmoz rivojlanishi mumkin. Bu miyaga zarar etkazishi mumkin (ensefalit ) yoki ko'zlar (nekrotizan retinoxoroidit ).[15] Orqali yuqtirgan chaqaloqlar platsenta uzatish ushbu muammolarning birortasi bilan yoki nazal nuqsonlar bilan tug'ilishi mumkin, ammo yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloqlarda bu asoratlar kam uchraydi. Toksoplazmik trofozoitlar o'tkir toksoplazmozni keltirib chiqaradigan deb nomlanadi taxizoidlar, va odatda tana suyuqliklarida uchraydi.

Shishgan limfa tugunlari odatda bo'yin yoki iyak ostida, so'ngra qo'ltiq osti va chanoqda uchraydi. Shishish dastlabki infektsiyadan keyin turli vaqtlarda paydo bo'lishi mumkin, parazitga qarshi davolanishdan mustaqil ravishda har xil vaqt davomida davom etishi va takrorlanishi mumkin.[16] Odatda kattalardagi bitta saytlarda uchraydi, ammo bolalarda bir nechta sayt tez-tez uchraydi. Kattalashgan limfa tugunlari 60% hollarda 1-2 oy ichida tugaydi. Shu bilan birga, ta'sirlanganlarning to'rtdan biri normal holatga qaytish uchun 2-4 oy davom etadi va 8% 4-6 oyni oladi. Katta miqdordagi (6%) odatdagidan ancha keyin qaytmaydi.[17]

Yashirin

Aniq simptomlar yo'qligi sababli,[12][13] xostlar osonlikcha yuqtiriladi T. gondii va toksoplazmozni bilmasdan rivojlantiradi. Yengil bo'lsa-da, grippga o'xshash alomatlar vaqti-vaqti bilan ta'sirlanishdan keyingi bir necha hafta ichida, infektsiyaga uchraydi T. gondii sog'lom odamlarda kuzatilishi mumkin bo'lgan alomatlarni keltirib chiqarmaydi.[7][18] Ko'pchilikda immunokompetent odamlar, infektsiya yashirin bosqichga kiradi, bu davrda faqat bradizoidlar (to'qima kistalarida ) mavjud;[19] bu to'qima kistalari va hatto zararlanishlari ham paydo bo'lishi mumkin retinalar, alveolyar o'pkaning shilliq qavati (bu erda o'tkir infektsiya a ni taqlid qilishi mumkin Pneumocystis jirovecii infektsiya), yurak, skelet mushaklari va markaziy asab tizimi (CNS), shu jumladan miya.[20] Kistlar CNSda hosil bo'ladi (miya to'qimasi ) yuqtirilganda T. gondii va mezbonning umri davomida davom eting.[21] Bachadonda bo'lganida yuqtirgan chaqaloqlarning aksariyati tug'ilish paytida hech qanday alomatlarga ega emas, ammo keyinchalik alomatlar paydo bo'lishi mumkin.[22]

Sharhlar serologik tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, global aholining 30-50% yashirin toksoplazmoz bilan kasallangan va xronik ravishda yuqtirilgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo har bir mamlakatda infektsiya darajasi sezilarli darajada farq qiladi.[7][23][24] Infektsiyaning ushbu yashirin holati so'nggi paytlarda ko'pchilik bilan bog'liq kasallik yuklari,[7] asabiy o'zgarishlar,[21][23] va immunitetga ega bo'lmagan odamlarda jinsga bog'liq bo'lgan xatti-harakatlarning nozik o'zgarishlari,[25][26] shuningdek, avtotransport vositalarining to'qnashuvi xavfi ortadi.[27]

Teri

Kamdan kam hollarda, kasallikning erishilgan shaklida, shu jumladan teri lezyonlari paydo bo'lishi mumkin rozeola va eritema ko'p qirrali otilishlar, prurigo o'xshash tugunlar, ürtiker va makulopapulyar shikastlanishlar. Yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloqlarda bo'lishi mumkin punktat makulalar, ekximozlar, yoki "mersinli muffin" lezyonlari.Teri toksoplazmozining diagnostikasi taxyzoit shakliga asoslangan T. gondii topilgan epidermis.[28] U epidermisning barcha darajalarida uchraydi, taxminan 6 dan 2 mm gacha va kamon shaklida, yadrosi uning uchdan bir qismiga teng. Uni elektron mikroskop yordamida aniqlash mumkin Giemsa binoni sitoplazma ko'k, yadro qizil rangni ko'rsatadigan to'qima.[29]

Sababi

Hayotiy tsikl Toxoplasma gondii

Parazitologiya

Uning hayot aylanish jarayonida, T. gondii bir nechta shakllarni qabul qiladi.[30] Tachyzoites o'tkir infektsiya uchun javobgardir; ular tez bo'linib, tana to'qimalari orqali tarqaladi. Taxyzoites "taxyzoic merozoites" deb ham tanilgan, bu bosqichning parazitologik xususiyatini aniqroq ifodalaydigan tavsiflovchi atama.[31] Ko'paygandan keyin taxyzoitlar aylanadi bradizoidlar yashirin hujayra ichidagi to'qima ichida joylashgan kistalar asosan mushak va miyada hosil bo'ladi. Kistlarning shakllanishi qisman mezbon immunitet tizimining bosimi bilan qo'zg'atiladi.[32] Bradizoidlar ("bradizoid merozoitlar" deb ham yuritiladi) antibiotiklarga ta'sir ko'rsatmaydi. Bradizoidlar hosil bo'lganidan so'ng, mezbonning umri davomida to'qimalarda qolishi mumkin. Sog'lom xostda ba'zi bradizoidlar yana faol taxizoidlarga aylansa, immunitet tizimi ularni tezda yo'q qiladi. Ammo immunitet tanqisligi bo'lgan odamlarda yoki rivojlangan immunitet tizimiga ega bo'lmagan xomilalarda taxyzoitlar keng tarqalib, sezilarli darajada asab kasalliklariga olib kelishi mumkin.[30]

Parazitning tirik qolishi xo’jayinning omon qolishi va parazitlarning tarqalishi o’rtasidagi muvozanatga bog’liq.[32] T. gondii bu muvozanatni xo’jayinning immunitet reaksiyasini boshqarish, xo’jayinning immunitetini kamaytirish va parazitning reproduktiv ustunligini oshirish orqali amalga oshiradi.[32] Oddiy xujayra xujayrasini yuqtirgandan so'ng, u xujayraning immunitet tizimining zararlanishiga qarshi turadi va xujayraning immunitet jarayonlarini o'zgartiradi.

U mezbon hujayraga kirib borishi bilan parazit a hosil qiladi parazitofor vakuol Mezbon hujayra membranasidan (PV) membrana.[2][33] PV parazitni o'z ichiga oladi va ikkalasi ham endolizozomal tizimning ta'siriga chidamli bo'lib, mezbonlarni boshqarishni o'z zimmasiga olishi mumkin. mitoxondriya va endoplazmatik to'r.[2][33]

Hujayrani birinchi marta ishg'ol qilishda parazit lampochkadan ROP oqsillarini chiqaradi roptriya organelle.[2] Ushbu oqsillar faollashishi mumkin bo'lgan PV membranasining yadrosi va yuzasiga o'tadi STAT ning ifodasini modulyatsiya qilish yo'llari sitokinlar transkripsiya darajasida, PV membranasini yo'q qilishni bog'lab qo'ying va inaktiv qiling IRG mumkin bo'lgan boshqa ta'sirlar qatorida oqsillar.[2][33][34] Bundan tashqari, T.ning ayrim shtammlari. gondii GRA15 deb nomlanuvchi oqsilni chiqarib, faollashtirishi mumkin NF-DB yallig'lanishni kuchaytiradigan yo'l sitokin Il-12 immunitetning dastlabki reaktsiyasida, ehtimol parazitning yashirin fazasiga olib keladi.[2] Parazitning ushbu oqsillarni ajratish qobiliyati uning genotipiga bog'liq va uning virulentligiga ta'sir qiladi.[2][34]

Parazit shuningdek, antopoptotik mexanizmga ta'sir qiladi, bu yuqtirilgan xujayra hujayralarining davom etishiga va ko'payishiga imkon beradi. Bitta usul apoptoz qarshilik, masalan, pro-apoptoz effektori oqsillarini buzishdir BAX va BAK.[35] Ushbu oqsillarni buzish uchun, T. gondii oqsillarning konformatsion o'zgarishlarini keltirib chiqaradi, bu esa oqsillarni apoptoz hodisalarini boshlaydigan turli xil uyali bo'linmalarga etkazilishiga yo'l qo'ymaydi. T. gondii ammo apoptoz effektori oqsillarining regulyatsiyasini keltirib chiqarmaydi.[35]

T. gondii shuningdek, boshlash qobiliyatiga ega avtofagiya mezbon hujayralarining.[36] Bu sog'lom, yuqtirilmagan hujayralarning pasayishiga olib keladi va natijada yuqtirgan hujayralarga hujum qilish uchun xost hujayralari kamroq bo'ladi. Vang tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar va boshq yuqtirilgan hujayralar normal va yuqtirilgan hujayralarda avtofagosomalarning yuqori darajasiga olib borishini aniqlaydi.[36] Ularning tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatadiki T. gondii kaltsiyga bog'liq bo'lgan yo'l yordamida mezbon hujayra autofagiyasini keltirib chiqaradi.[36] Boshqa bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatadiki, parazit hujayralarni signalizatsiya jarayonlari uchun muhim bo'lgan kaltsiy do'konlaridan chiqadigan kaltsiyga bevosita ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[35]

Yuqoridagi mexanizmlar imkon beradi T. gondii xostda turmoq. Toksoplazmaning ba'zi cheklovchi omillari shundaki, uning xujayra hujayralariga ta'siri kuchsiz immunitet tizimida kuchliroq va miqdorga bog'liq, shuning uchun ko'p sonli T. gondii har bir xujayra uchun yanada qattiq ta'sir qiladi.[37] Uy egasiga ta'siri, shuningdek, mezbon immunitet tizimining kuchiga bog'liq. Immunitetga ega bo'lmagan odamlar odatda og'ir alomatlarni yoki umuman namoyon bo'lmaydilar, o'lim yoki og'ir asoratlar immunitet tanqisligi bo'lgan odamlarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.[37]

Parazit uy egasining immunitetini o'zgartirishi mumkinligi sababli, u boshqa patogen tahdidlarga qarshi immunitetga ijobiy yoki salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.[32] Bunga infektsiyalarga qarshi javoblar kiradi, lekin ular bilan chegaralanmaydi Helicobacter felis, Leyshmaniya mayor, yoki boshqa parazitlar, masalan Nippostrongylus brasiliensis.[32]

Yuqish

Toksoplazmoz odatda og'iz orqali yuqganda Toxoplasma gondii ookistalar yoki to'qima kistalari tasodifan iste'mol qilinadi.[38] Onadan homilaga tug'ma o'tkazuvchanlik ham paydo bo'lishi mumkin.[39] Transmissiya qattiq organ transplantatsiyasi jarayonida ham sodir bo'lishi mumkin[40] yoki gematogen ildiz hujayralari transplantatsiyasi.[41]

Og'iz orqali yuborish quyidagilar orqali sodir bo'lishi mumkin.

  • Xom yoki qisman pishirilgan go'shtni, ayniqsa cho'chqa go'shti, qo'zichoq yoki kiyik go'shtini iste'mol qilish Toksoplazma kistalar: an'anaviy ravishda kam pishirilgan go'sht iste'mol qilinadigan mamlakatlarda infektsiyaning tarqalishi ushbu yuqish usuli bilan bog'liq. To'qimalarning kistalari, shuningdek, pishgan go'sht bilan ishlov berishdan keyin yoki pichoq, idish-tovoq yoki xom go'sht bilan ifloslangan taxta plitalarini ishlatishdan keyin og'ziga qo'l bilan tegish paytida yuqishi mumkin.[42]
  • Yuqtirilgan mushuklarning najasini o'z ichiga olgan ifloslangan tuproq bilan aloqada bo'lgan yuvilmagan meva yoki sabzavotlarni iste'mol qilish.[43]
  • Mushukni yutish najas tarkibida ookistlar mavjud: Bu bog'dorchilik, mushukni tozalashdan keyin og'zaki aloqa orqali sodir bo'lishi mumkin axlat qutisi, bolalar qumtepalari bilan aloqa qilish; parazit atrof muhitda bir necha oy yashashi mumkin.[44]
  • To'g'ridan-to'g'ri iste'mol qilish yoki oziq-ovqat tayyorlash uchun suvdan foydalanish orqali tozalanmagan, filtrlanmagan suvni iste'mol qilish.[45]
  • Pasterizatsiya qilinmagan sut va sut mahsulotlarini, xususan, echki sutini iste'mol qilish.
  • Xom dengiz mahsulotlarini iste'mol qilish.

Mushuklar kasallik qo'zg'atgandan so'ng bir necha hafta davomida qo'zg'atuvchini najas bilan chiqaradi, umuman olganda sutemizuvchilar (kemiruvchilar kabi) yoki qushlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin bo'lgan yuqtirilgan oraliq xo'shni iste'mol qiladi. Ookistni to'kish odatda yuqtirilgan oraliq xostlarni qabul qilganidan keyingi uchinchi kundan boshlanadi va bir necha hafta davom etishi mumkin. Ookistalar tashqariga chiqarilganda yuqumli emas. Taxminan bir kundan so'ng, ookist sporulyatsiya deb ataladigan jarayonni boshdan kechiradi va potentsial patogen bo'lib qoladi.[46] Mushuklardan tashqari qushlar va sutemizuvchilar, shu jumladan odam ham parazitning oraliq xosti bo'lib, yuqish jarayonida ishtirok etadi. Ammo patogenligi infektsiya bilan bog'liq bo'lgan yosh va turlarga va yuqish uslubiga qarab farq qiladi T. gondii.[47]

Toksoplazmoz ham qattiq organ transplantatsiyasi orqali yuqishi mumkin. Yaqinda yuqtirilgan toksoplazma-seropozitiv donorlardan organlarni qabul qiladigan toksoplazma-seronegativ retseptorlari xavf ostida. Yashirin toksoplazmozga ega bo'lgan organ retsipientlari, qattiq organ transplantatsiyasi paytida yuzaga kelgan immunosupressiya tufayli kasallik o'z tizimida qayta faollashishi xavfi ostida.[40] Gematogen ildiz hujayralari transplantatsiyasini oluvchilar immunosupressiyaning uzoqroq muddatlari tufayli yuqtirish xavfi yuqori bo'lishi mumkin.[41]

Yurak va o'pka transplantatsiyasi yurakni tashkil etuvchi mushaklari tufayli toksoplazmoz infektsiyasining eng yuqori xavfini keltirib chiqaradi,[40] kistlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin, va boshqa organlar va to'qimalar uchun xavf turli xil.[48] Transplantatsiya jarayonidan oldin donorlar va retsipientlarni tekshirib, davolanishni ta'minlash orqali yuqish xavfi kamayishi mumkin.[48]

Homiladorlikning oldini olish choralari

Tug'ma toksoplazmoz - toksoplazmozning o'ziga xos shakli, bunda tug'ilmagan homila platsenta.[49] Tug'ma toksoplazmoz homilaning o'limi va tushishi bilan, chaqaloqlarda esa nevrologik etishmovchilik, neyrokognitiv nuqson va chorioretinit.[6] Ijobiy antikor titr oldingi ta'sirlanish va immunitetni ko'rsatadi va asosan homila xavfsizligini ta'minlaydi. Birinchi tug'ruqdan oldin shifokorga tashrif buyurganingizda oddiy qon olish ayolning avvalgi maruziyetga uchraganligini yoki yo'qligini va shuning uchun u xavf ostida yoki yo'qligini aniqlashi mumkin. Agar ayol o'zining birinchi ta'sirini qabul qilsa T. gondii homiladorlik paytida homila ayniqsa xavf ostida.[6]

Homiladorlikdan oldin tug'ma toksoplazmozning oldini olish bo'yicha ta'limning ta'siri haqida juda ko'p dalillar mavjud emas.[50] Biroq, bola tug'ilishidan oldin ota-onalarga ta'lim berish samarali bo'lishi tavsiya etilgan, chunki u oziq-ovqat, shaxsiy va uy hayvonlari gigienasini yaxshilashi mumkin.[50] Antenatal ta'lim tug'ma toksoplazmozni kamaytirishi mumkinligini aniqlash uchun ko'proq tadqiqotlar o'tkazish kerak.[50]

Antikorlarning salbiy titrlari bo'lgan homilador ayollar uchun, ilgari ta'sir qilmaganligini ko'rsatmoqda T. gondii, Serologni har oyda bo'lgani kabi tez-tez o'tkazib turadigan ayollar uchun homiladorlik paytida davolanish tavsiya etiladi T. gondii birinchi marta homila parazitini yuqtirish xavfini keskin kamaytiradi. Bolaning immuniteti hayotning birinchi yilida to'liq rivojlanmaganligi va butun tanada hosil bo'ladigan elastik kistalarni antiprotozoanlar bilan yo'q qilish juda qiyin bo'lgani uchun, yosh bolalarda infektsiya juda jiddiy bo'lishi mumkin.

Ushbu xavf-xatarlarga qaramay, ko'pgina mamlakatlarda homilador ayollar toksoplazmozni muntazam ravishda tekshiruvdan o'tkazmaydilar, chunki bu iqtisodiy samaradorlik va ularning ko'pligi yolg'on ijobiy hosil bo'lgan; Portugaliya,[51] Frantsiya,[52] Avstriya,[52] Urugvay,[53] va Italiya[54] taniqli istisnolar va ayrim mintaqaviy skrining dasturlari ishlaydi Germaniya, Shveytsariya va Belgiya.[54] Invaziv sifatida tug'ruqdan oldin sinov ba'zi xavfga olib keladi homila (Toksoplazmoz bilan kasallanish uchun 18,5 homiladorlik yo'qolishi oldini oldi),[52] tug'ruqdan keyingi yoki yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloq skrining afzal. Istisno holatlar bu erda homila anormalliklar qayd etiladi va shu tariqa skrining maqsadga muvofiq bo'lishi mumkin.[52]

Homilador ayollar muomaladan qochishlari kerak xom go'sht, ichish xom sut (ayniqsa, echki suti) va turidan qat'i nazar, xom yoki pishmagan go'sht iste'mol qilmaslik tavsiya etiladi.[55] O'rtasidagi aniq munosabatlar tufayli Toksoplazma mushuklarga ko'pincha mushuklarning axlatiga tushmaslik va bog'dorchilikdan voz kechish (bog 'tuprog'ida mushuklarning najasi keng tarqalgan) yoki hech bo'lmaganda qo'lqop kiyish tavsiya etiladi.[55] Ko'pgina mushuklar faol ravishda to'kilmaydi ookistalar, chunki ular hayotlarining dastlabki olti oyida, ootsistlarni qisqa vaqt ichida (1-2 hafta) to'kishganda yuqtirishadi.[56] Ammo, bu ookistlar tuproqqa ko'milib, sporulyatsiya qilinadi va bir necha oydan bir yildan ko'proq vaqtgacha yuqumli bo'lib qoladi.[55] Ko'plab tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, uy sharoitida mushuk bilan yashash muhim xavf omili emas T. gondii infektsiya,[55][57][58] bir nechta mushukchalar bilan yashash ba'zi ahamiyatga ega.[59]

2006 yilda Chexiya tadqiqot guruhi[60] yuqori darajadagi toksoplazmoz antikorlari bo'lgan ayollarning o'g'il tug'ilishi qiz bolalarga qaraganda ancha yuqori bo'lgan. Ko'pgina populyatsiyalarda tug'ilish koeffitsienti o'g'il bolalarning 51 foizini tashkil qiladi, ammo yuqtirgan ayollar T. gondii o'g'il bolani topish ehtimoli 72% gacha bo'lgan.[61]

Tashxis

Odamlarda toksoplazmoz diagnostikasi biologik, serologik, gistologik yoki molekulyar usullar bilan yoki yuqorida aytilganlarning kombinatsiyasi bilan amalga oshiriladi.[56] Toksoplazmozni ajratish qiyin bo'lishi mumkin birlamchi markaziy asab tizimining limfomasi. U bir nechta boshqa yuqumli kasalliklarni taqlid qiladi, shuning uchun klinik belgilar o'ziga xos emas va aniq tashxis qo'yish uchun etarli darajada xarakterli emas. Natijada, tashxis terapiya sinovi orqali aniqlanadi (pirimetamin, sulfadiazin va folin kislotasi (USAN: leykovorin)), agar dorilar klinik ta'sir ko'rsatmasa va takroriy tasvirlashda yaxshilanish bo'lmasa.

T. gondii da aniqlanishi mumkin qon, amniotik suyuqlik, yoki miya omurilik suyuqligi yordamida polimeraza zanjiri reaktsiyasi.[62] T. gondii xostda, ehtimol aniqlashdan qochib ketadigan, harakatsiz kist sifatida mavjud bo'lishi mumkin.

Serologik sinov aniqlay oladi T. gondii usullarini qo'llagan holda qon zardobidagi antikorlar Sabin - Feldman bo'yoq sinovi (DT), bilvosita gemaglutinatsiyani tahlil qilish, bilvosita lyuminestsent antikorlarni tahlil qilish (IFA), to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aglutinatsiya testi, lateks aglutinatsiya testi (LAT), ferment bilan bog'liq immunosorbent tahlil (Elishay) va immunosorbentli aglutinatsiyani tahlil qilish testi (IAAT).[56]

O'lchash uchun eng ko'p ishlatiladigan testlar IgG antikor DT, Elishay, IFA va o'zgartirilgan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aglutinatsiya testidir.[63] IgG antikorlari odatda infektsiyadan bir-ikki hafta ichida paydo bo'ladi, bir oydan ikki oygacha avjiga chiqadi, so'ngra har xil tezlikda pasayadi.[63] Toksoplazma IgG antikorlari odatda umr bo'yi saqlanib qoladi va shuning uchun qonda mavjud yoki oldingi infektsiya natijasida bo'lishi mumkin.[64]

Ba'zi darajada o'tkir toksoplazmoz infektsiyalari surunkali infektsiyalardan IgG yordamida farqlanishi mumkin avidlik sinov, bu Elishayning o'zgarishi. Infektsiyaga birinchi javobda toksoplazmadagi o'ziga xos IgG toksoplazma antigeniga nisbatan yaqinligi past; keyingi haftalarda va oyda IgG antigenga yaqinligi oshadi. IgG avidligi testiga asoslanib, agar yuqtirgan odamda IgG yuqori yaqinlikka ega bo'lsa, demak, infektsiya sinovdan uch-besh oy oldin boshlangan. Bu, ayniqsa, tug'ruq infektsiyasida foydalidir, bu erda homiladorlik holati va homiladorlik paytida homiladorlik davri davolanishni belgilaydi.[65]

IgG dan farqli o'laroq, IgM antikorlari o'tkir infektsiyani aniqlash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin, ammo umuman surunkali infektsiyani emas.[64] IgM antikorlari infektsiyadan keyin IgG antikorlariga qaraganda tezroq paydo bo'ladi va tiklanishdan keyin IgG antikorlariga qaraganda tezroq yo'qoladi.[56] Ko'p hollarda, T. gondii- o'ziga xos IgM antikorlari dastlab birlamchi infektsiyani olgandan keyin taxminan bir hafta o'tgach aniqlanishi va bir oydan olti oygacha kamayishi mumkin; Yuqtirilganlarning 25% salbiy hisoblanadi T. gondii- etti oy ichida maxsus IgM.[64] Shu bilan birga, IgM infektsiyadan bir necha oy yoki bir necha yil o'tgach, surunkali bosqichda aniqlanishi mumkin va o'tkir infektsiya uchun noto'g'ri ijobiy holatlar bo'lishi mumkin.[63] IgM antikorini o'lchash uchun eng ko'p ishlatiladigan testlar IgM-ELISA juft sendvichi, IFA testi va immunosorbentli aglutinatsiya tahlili (IgM-ISAGA). Tijorat test to'plamlari ko'pincha o'ziga xos xususiyatlarga ega va hisobot natijalari ko'pincha noto'g'ri talqin etiladi.[63]

Tug'ma

Tug'ma toksoplazmozni aniqlash bo'yicha tavsiyalar quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi: testlar asosida prenatal tashxis amniotik suyuqlik va ultratovush tekshiruvlari; platsentaning molekulyar tekshiruviga asoslangan yangi tug'ilgan diagnostika va ichak qoni va ona-bola qiyosiy serologik tekshiruvlari va tug'ilish paytida klinik tekshiruv; va asosida erta bolalikni tashxislash nevrologik va oftalmologik hayotning birinchi yilida tekshiruvlar va serologik tekshiruv.[49] Homiladorlik davrida serologik tekshiruvni uch hafta oralig'ida o'tkazish tavsiya etiladi.[66]

Toksoplazmoz tashxisi juda aniq anti-serologik aniqlashga bog'liq bo'lsa hamToksoplazma immunoglobulin, serologik tekshiruv cheklovlarga ega. Masalan, ning faol fazasini aniqlay olmasligi mumkin T. gondii yuqumli kasallik, chunkiToksoplazma IgG yoki IgM infektsiyadan bir necha hafta o'tgach ishlab chiqarilmasligi mumkin. Natijada, homilador ayol faol bosqichida salbiy tekshiruv o'tkazishi mumkin T. gondii aniqlanmagan va shuning uchun davolanmagan tug'ma toksoplazmozga olib keladigan infektsiya.[67] Shuningdek, test aniqlanmasligi mumkin T. gondii immunitet tanqisligi bo'lgan bemorlarning infektsiyalari, chunki o'ziga xos anti-titrlarToksoplazma Ushbu turdagi bemorlarda IgG yoki IgM ko'tarilmasligi mumkin.

Amniotik suyuqlikni o'z ichiga olgan klinik namunalar yordamida toksoplazmozni tashxislash uchun ko'plab PCR asosidagi metodlar ishlab chiqilgan, qon, miya omurilik suyuqligi va to'qima biopsiyasi. PCR asosidagi eng sezgir texnika ichki PCR keyin PCR mahsulotlarini duragaylash.[67] Ushbu texnikaning asosiy salbiy tomoni shundaki, ular ko'p vaqt talab etadi va miqdoriy ma'lumot bermaydi.[67]

Haqiqiy vaqtda PCR patogenni aniqlashda, genlarning ekspressioni va regulyatsiyasi va allelik kamsitilishida foydalidir. Ushbu PCR texnikasi 5 'nukleaza faolligidan foydalanadi Taq PCR kengayish bosqichida keraksiz, lyuminestsentsiya bilan belgilangan gibridlanish zondini ajratish uchun DNK-polimeraza.[67] Ikkinchi lyuminestsent bo'yoq, masalan, 6-karboksi-tetrametil-rodamin, buzilmagan probning lyuminestsentsiyasini o'chiradi.[67] PCR paytida duragaylash naychasining nukleazli bo'linishi, ketma-ketlikni aniqlash vositasi bilan kuzatilishi mumkin bo'lgan PCR mahsuloti miqdoriga mutanosib lyuminestsentsiyaning ko'payishiga olib keladigan söndürme ta'sirini chiqaradi.[67]

Toksoplazmozni aniqlab bo'lmaydi immunostaining. Ta'sir qilingan limfa tugunlari Toksoplazma xarakterli o'zgarishlarga ega, shu jumladan yomon chegaralangan reaktiv germinal markazlar, monotsitoid B hujayralari klasterlari va tarqoq epiteliyoid histiositlar.

Tug'ma toksoplazmozning klassik uchligiga quyidagilar kiradi. chorioretinit, gidrosefali va intrakranial arterioskleroz.[68] Boshqa oqibatlarga sensorinevral karlik, tutqanoq va aqliy qobiliyatsizlik kiradi.[69]

Tug'ma toksoplazmoz ham bolaning eshitish qobiliyatiga ta'sir qilishi mumkin. Yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloqlarning 30 foizigacha eshitish qobiliyati ma'lum darajada sensorinevral tarzda yo'qoladi.[70] Bolaning muloqot qobiliyatlari ham ta'sir qilishi mumkin. 2010 yilda nashr etilgan tadqiqotda 106 bemor ko'rib chiqildi, ularning barchasi 2,5 oydan oldin toksoplazmoz bilan davolangan. Ushbu guruhdan 26,4% til buzilishi bilan murojaat qilgan.[71]

Davolash

Davolash ko'pincha jiddiy sog'liq muammolari bo'lgan odamlar uchun tavsiya etiladi, masalan OIV kimning CD4 hisoblagichlar 200 mm / mm dan past3, chunki kasallik odamning immuniteti zaif bo'lganida eng jiddiy hisoblanadi. Trimetoprim / sulfametoksazol bu toksoplazmozni oldini olish uchun tanlangan dori, ammo faol kasallikni davolash uchun emas. 2012 yildagi tadqiqot ushbu kasallikning faol va yashirin shaklini ikki usul yordamida davolashning istiqbolli yangi usulini ko'rsatadi. endoxinga o'xshash kinolonlar.[72]

O'tkir

O'tkir toksoplazmoz uchun buyurilgan dorilar quyidagilar:

(boshqa antibiotiklar, masalan minosiklin, ba'zi bir foydalanishni a sifatida ko'rgan qutqarish terapiyasi ).

Agar homiladorlik paytida yuqtirilsa, piramitamin / sulfadiazin va birinchi trimestrda spiramitsin tavsiya etiladi. leykovorin ikkinchi va uchinchi trimestrlarning oxirida tavsiya etiladi.[74]

Yashirin

Yashirin toksoplazmoz bilan kasallangan odamlarda kistalar ushbu davolash usullariga qarshi immunitetga ega, chunki antibiotiklar bradizoidlar etarli konsentratsiyada.

Yashirin toksoplazmoz uchun buyurilgan dorilar:

  • Atovakuone - o'ldirish uchun ishlatilgan antibiotik Toksoplazma ichidagi kistalar OITS bemorlar[75]
  • Klindamitsin - bu bilan birga bo'lgan antibiotik atovaquone, sichqonlardagi kistalarni optimal tarzda yo'q qilganday tuyuldi[76]

Tug'ma

Homilador ayolga o'tkir toksoplazmoz tashxisi qo'yilganda, amniyosentez yordamida homila yuqtiriladimi yoki yo'qligini aniqlash mumkin. Homilador ayolda o'tkir toksoplazmoz paydo bo'lganda, taxizoidlar platsenta to'qimalariga kirish ehtimoli taxminan 30% ni tashkil qiladi va u erdan homilaga kirib, uni yuqtiradi. INFEKTSION paytida homiladorlik muddati oshgani sayin, homila yuqtirish ehtimoli ham oshadi.[30]

Agar parazit hali homilaga etib bormagan bo'lsa, spiramitsin platsenta yuqishini oldini olishga yordam beradi. Agar homila yuqtirgan bo'lsa, homilador ayolni davolash mumkin pirimetamin va sulfadiazin, bilan folin kislotasi, birinchi trimestrdan keyin. Ular birinchi trimestrdan keyin davolanadi, chunki pirimetamin antifolat ta'siriga ega va foliy kislotasining etishmasligi xalaqit berishi mumkin xomilalik miyaning shakllanishi va sabab trombotsitopeniya.[77] Homiladorlikning oldingi bosqichlarida yuqtirish homilaning va neonatalning yomon natijalari bilan, ayniqsa infektsiya davolanmagan bo'lsa, o'zaro bog'liqdir.[78]

Tug'ilgandan keyingi 12 oylik toksoplazmozga qarshi davolanishni o'tkazgan yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloqlarda sensorinevral eshitish qobiliyati past bo'ladi.[79] Ushbu guruh uchun tug'ma toksoplazmoz bilan kasallangan bolalarni davolash bosqichlari haqida ma'lumot yaratilgan.[80]

Epidemiologiya

T. gondii infektsiyalar butun dunyo bo'ylab ro'y beradi, ammo infektsiya darajasi mamlakatlar bo'yicha sezilarli darajada farq qiladi.[24] Bola tug'ish yoshidagi ayollar uchun 44 ta mamlakat bo'yicha o'tkazilgan 99 ta tadqiqotlar natijasida o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra eng ko'p tarqalgan joylar mavjud lotin Amerikasi (taxminan 50-80%), qismlari Sharqiy va Markaziy Evropa (taxminan 20-60%), Yaqin Sharq (taxminan 30-50%), qismlari Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo (taxminan 20-60%) va uning qismlari Afrika (taxminan 20-55%).[24]

In Qo'shma Shtatlar, ma'lumotlar Milliy sog'liqni saqlash va ovqatlanishni o'rganish bo'yicha so'rov (NHANES) 1999 yildan 2004 yilgacha AQShda tug'ilgan 12-49 yoshdagi odamlarning 9,0% ni tashkil qildi seropozitiv uchun IgG antikorlar qarshi T. gondii, 1988-1994 yillarda NHANESda o'lchangan 14,1% dan past.[81] 1999-2004 yillarda o'tkazilgan so'rovda AQShda tug'ilganlarning 7,7% va 15-44 yoshdagi chet elda tug'ilgan ayollarning 28,1%. T. gondii seropozitiv.[81] Kamayish tendentsiyasi seroprevalans Qo'shma Shtatlar va ko'plab Evropa mamlakatlarida o'tkazilgan ko'plab tadqiqotlar tomonidan kuzatilgan.[24] Toksoplazma gondii ikkinchi sababdir oziq-ovqat - Qo'shma Shtatlarda o'lim va oziq-ovqat bilan bog'liq kasalxonaga yotqizishning to'rtinchi sababi.[82]

Toksoplazmoz uchun javobgar protist T. gondii. Butun dunyoda toksoplazmoz kasalliklari uchun javob beradigan uchta asosiy T. gondii turi mavjud. I, II va III turlari mavjud. Ushbu uch turdagi T. gondii genotiplarining xilma-xilligi tufayli ma'lum xostlarga, asosan sichqonlarga va odamlarga turlicha ta'sir ko'rsatadi.[83]

  • I toifa: sichqonlar va odamlarda virusli OITS bilan kasallangan odamlar.
  • II tip: sichqonlarda zararli emas, odamlarda (asosan Evropa va Shimoliy Amerika), OITS bilan kasallangan odamlarda uchraydi.
  • III tur: sichqonlarda zararli emas, asosan hayvonlarda zararli, ammo odamlarda ham ozroq darajada kuzatiladi.

Joriy serotiplash texnikalar faqat II yoki II tipdagi parazitlarni ajratishi mumkin.[84]

Parazit homiladorlik paytida yuqtirilganda homila uchun alohida xavf tug'diradi,[85] global miqyosda epidemiologik bilan bog'liq ma'lumotlar T. gondii tug'ish yoshidagi ayollarda seropozitivlik testlaridan kelib chiqadi. Seropozitivlik testlari antitellarning mavjudligini tekshiradi T. gondii qonda, shuning uchun seropozitivlik parazitga duchor bo'lishini kafolatlasa-da, uning surunkali yuqishini kafolatlamaydi.[86]

Tarix

Toxoplasma gondii birinchi marta 1908 yilda Tunisda Nikol va Manceoux tomonidan, Braziliyada esa Splendore tomonidan mustaqil ravishda tasvirlangan.[10] Splendore xabar berdi protozoan quyonda, Nikol va Mansaux buni Shimoliy Afrikadagi kemiruvchida, gundi (Ctenodactylus gundi ).[38] 1909 yilda Nikol va Mansa protozoyani farqlashdi Leyshmaniya.[10] Keyin Nikoll va Manceuux ism berishdi Toxoplasma gondii uning yuqumli bosqichining egri shaklidan keyin (yunoncha ildiz 'toxon' = kamon).[10]

Birinchi tug'ma toksoplazmoz kasalligi 1923 yilda qayd etilgan, ammo u sabab bo'lganligi aniqlanmagan T. gondii.[38] Yanki (1923) kasalxonaga murojaat qilgan 11 oylik bolaning otopsi natijalarini batafsil bayon qildi gidrosefali. Bolada toksoplazmozning klassik belgilari bor edi, shu jumladan chorioretinit (koroid va ko'zning to'r pardasi yallig'lanishi).[38] Gistologiya bir qator "sporotsitlar" ni aniqladi, ammo Janko ularni aniqlamadi T. gondii.[38]

Faqat 1937 yilgacha birinchi batafsil ilmiy tahlil qilingan T. gondii viruslarni tahlil qilish uchun ilgari ishlab chiqilgan texnikalar yordamida amalga oshirildi.[10] 1937 yilda Sabin va Olitskiy tahlil qildilar T. gondii laboratoriya maymunlari va sichqonlarida. Sabin va Olitskiy buni ko'rsatdilar T. gondii majburiy hujayra ichidagi parazit bo'lib, sichqonlar ovqatlanardi T. gondii- yuqtirilgan to'qima ham infektsiyani yuqtirgan.[10] Shunday qilib Sabin va Olitskiy namoyish qildilar T. gondii kabi patogen hayvonlar orasida o'tkazuvchan.

T. gondii birinchi marta 1939 yilda inson patogenasi sifatida tasvirlangan Chaqaloqlar kasalxonasi yilda Nyu-York shahri.[10][87] Bo'ri, Koven va Peyj aniqlandi T. gondii tug'ruqdan oldin tug'ilgan chaqaloqdagi infektsiya Kesariya Bo'lim.[38] Kichkintoyda tutilishlar rivojlanib, uch kun davomida ikkala ko'zida ham chorioretinit bor edi. Keyin chaqaloq ensefalomiyelitni rivojlantirdi va bir oyligida vafot etdi. Bo'ri, Koven va Peyj izolyatsiya qilingan T. gondii miya to'qimalarining shikastlanishlaridan. Sichqonlarga, quyonlarga va kalamushlarga miya va orqa miya namunalarini intrakranial ravishda yuborish hayvonlarda ensefalitni keltirib chiqardi.[10] Wolf, Cowen and Page qo'shimcha ishlarni ko'rib chiqdilar va shunday xulosaga kelishdi T. gondii taniqli alomatlar paydo bo'ldi va onadan bolaga yuqishi mumkin edi.[38]

Birinchi kattalarda toksoplazmoz kasalligi 1940 yilda qayd etilgan bo'lib, unda nevrologik belgilar mavjud emas. Pinkerton va Vaynman borligi haqida xabar berishdi Toksoplazma keyingi bakterial infeksiya va isitmadan vafot etgan Perudan kelgan 22 yoshli yigitda.[38]

1948 yilda Sabin va Feldman tomonidan bemorning antikorlari binoni o'zgartirish qobiliyati asosida serologik bo'yoq testi yaratildi. Toksoplazma.[10][88] Sabin Feldman Bo'yoq sinovi endi identifikatsiyalash uchun oltin standart hisoblanadi Toksoplazma infektsiya.[10]

Uzatish Toksoplazma xom yoki pishmagan go'shtni iste'mol qilish orqali Desmonts va boshq. 1965 yilda Parij.[10] Desmonts a-da xom mol yoki ot go'shtining terapevtik iste'mol qilinishini kuzatdi sil kasalligi kasalxona yiliga 50% o'sishi bilan bog'liq edi Toksoplazma antikorlar.[10] Bu shuni anglatadiki, ko'proq T. gondii xom go'sht orqali yuqtirilayotgandi.

1974 yilda Desmonts va Couvreur dastlabki ikki trimestrda infektsiya homila uchun eng katta zarar etkazishini, yuqtirish onalarning homiladorlik paytida yuqtirganiga bog'liqligini, homiladorlikdan oldin antikorlari bo'lgan onalar homilaga yuqtirmaganligini va spiramitsin homilaga uzatishni pasaytirdi.[38]

Toksoplazma 1970-yillarda organlar yoki suyak iligi transplantatsiyasidan so'ng immunitetni bostiruvchi davo kuchayishi va OITS 1980-yillarning epidemiyasi.[10] Immunitet tizimi pasaygan bemorlar kasallikka juda moyil.

Jamiyat va madaniyat

"Telba mushuk-xonim"

"Aqlsiz mushuk-xonim sindromi" - bu parazitni bog'laydigan ilmiy natijalarni tavsiflovchi yangiliklar tashkilotlari tomonidan kiritilgan atama Toxoplasma gondii bir nechtasiga ruhiy kasalliklar va yurish-turish muammolari.[89][90] Bolalikda mushukka egalik qilish va keyinchalik rivojlanishi o'rtasidagi shubhali korrelyatsiya shizofreniya bolalar uchun xavf omilini aniqlash uchun qo'shimcha tadqiqotlar o'tkazish zarurligini ta'kidladi;[91] ammo, keyingi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki T. gondii keyingi psixozlarda sababchi omil bo'lmagan.[92] Tadqiqotchilar mushuk egaligi a xavfini keskin oshirmasligini ham aniqladilar T. gondii homilador ayollarda infektsiya.[55][93]

Atama aqldan ozgan mushuk-ayol sindromi stereotip va mashhur madaniy ma'lumotlarga asoslanadi. Bu xalq orasida yuqorida aytib o'tilgan azob-uqubatlar qayd etilgani sababli paydo bo'ldi. A mushuk ayol ayolning madaniy stereotipidir, ko'pincha a spinster, majburiy ravishda kim xazinalar va mushuklarga nuqta. Biolog Jaroslav Flegr toksoplazmoz inson xatti-harakatlariga ta'sir qiladi degan nazariyaning tarafdoridir.[94][95]

E'tiborga loyiq holatlar

Boshqa hayvonlar

Toxoplasma gondii deyarli barcha issiq qonli hayvonlarni yuqtiradi; bular taxizoidlar qushda topilgan[104]
Toxoplasma gondii a o'pkasida Gigant panda.[105] Ok: makrofaglar o'z ichiga olgan taxizoidlar

Garchi T. gondii deyarli barcha issiq qonli hayvonlarni yuqtirish qobiliyatiga ega, yuqtirishga moyilligi va darajasi turli xil darajada farq qiladi avlodlar va turlari.[106][107] Xuddi shu turdagi populyatsiyalarda yuqtirish darajasi, joylashishi, ovqatlanish tartibi va boshqa omillarning farqi tufayli ham keng farq qilishi mumkin.

Garchi infektsiya T. gondii Osiyo primatlarining seroprevalentligi bir nechta turlarida qayd etilgan T. gondii birinchi marta tokat makakalarida antitellar topildi (Macaca sinica ) Shri-Lanka oroliga xosdir.[108]

Avstraliyalik marsupials ayniqsa toksoplazmozga sezgir.[109] Wallabies, koalalar, Wombats, akademiklar va kichik dasyuridlar tomonidan o'ldirilishi mumkin, bilan sharqiy taqiqlangan bandiklar odatda infektsiyadan taxminan 3 hafta ichida vafot etadi.[110]

Dunyo bo'ylab yovvoyi cho'chqalarning 23% seropozitiv hisoblanadi T. gondii.[111] Seroprevalans butun dunyoda o'zgarib turadi, eng yuqori seroprevalans Shimoliy Amerika (32%) va Evropada (26%), eng pasti Osiyoda (13%) va Janubiy Amerikada (5%).[111] Yuqori kengliklarda joylashgan va issiq, nam iqlimga ega bo'lgan geografik mintaqalar seroprevalentlikning oshishi bilan bog'liq. T. gondii yovvoyi cho'chqa orasida.[111] Yovvoyi cho'chqa yuqtirgan T. gondii go'shtini iste'mol qiladigan odamlar uchun salomatlikka xavf tug'dirishi mumkin.[111]

Chorvachilik

Ular orasida chorva mollari, cho'chqalar, qo'ylar[112] and goats have the highest rates of chronic T. gondii infektsiya.[113] Ning tarqalishi T. gondii in meat-producing animals varies widely both within and among countries,[113] and rates of infection have been shown to be dramatically influenced by varying farming and management practices.[13] For instance, animals kept outdoors or in bepul environments are more at risk of infection than animals raised indoors or in commercial confinement operations.[13][43]

In the United States, the percentage of pigs harboring viable parasites has been measured (via bioassay in mice or cats) to be as high as 92.7% and as low as 0%, depending on the farm or herd.[43] Surveys of seroprevalence (T. gondii antibodies in blood) are more common, and such measurements are indicative of the high relative seroprevalence in pigs across the world.[114] Along with pigs, sheep and goats are among the most commonly infected livestock of epidemiological significance for human infection.[113] Prevalence of viable T. gondii in sheep tissue has been measured (via bioassay) to be as high as 78% in the United States,[115] and a 2011 survey of goats intended for consumption in the United States found a seroprevalence of 53.4%.[116]

Due to a lack of exposure to the outdoors, chickens raised in large-scale indoor confinement operations are not commonly infected with T. gondii.[13] Free-ranging or backyard-raised chickens are much more commonly infected.[13] A survey of free-ranging chickens in the United States found its prevalence to be 17–100%, depending on the farm.[117] Because chicken meat is generally cooked thoroughly before consumption, poultry is not generally considered to be a significant risk factor for human T. gondii infektsiya.[118]

Although cattle and buffalo can be infected with T. gondii, the parasite is generally eliminated or reduced to undetectable levels within a few weeks following exposure.[13] Tissue cysts are rarely present in buffalo meat or beef, and meat from these animals is considered to be low-risk for harboring viable parasites.[113][43]

Horses are considered resistant to chronic T. gondii infektsiya.[13] However, viable cells have been isolated from US horses slaughtered for export, and severe human toxoplasmosis in France has been epidemiologically linked to the consumption of Qazi.[43][119]

Uy mushuklari

In 1942, the first case of feline toxoplasmosis was diagnosed and reported in a domestic cat in Middletown, NY.[120] The investigators isolated oocysts from feline feces and found that the oocysts could be infectious for up to 12 months in the environment.[121]

The seroprevalence of T. gondii yilda uy mushuklari, worldwide has been estimated to be around 30–40%[122] and exhibits significant geographical variation. In the United States, no official national estimate has been made, but local surveys have shown levels varying between 16% and 80%.[122] A 2012 survey of 445 zotli pet cats and 45 shelter cats in Finlyandiya found an overall seroprevalence of 48.4%,[123] while a 2010 survey of feral cats from Giza, Misr found a seroprevalence rate of 97.4%.[124] Another survey from Colombia recorded seroprevalence of 89.3%, whereas a Chinese study found just a 2.1% prevalence.[106]

T. gondii infection rates in domestic cats vary widely depending on the cats' diets and lifestyles.[125] Yirtqich mushuklar that hunt for their food are more likely to be infected than domestic cats, and naturally also depends on the prevalence of T. gondii-infected prey such as birds and small sutemizuvchilar.[126]

Most infected cats will shed oocysts only once in their lifetimes, for a period of about one to two weeks.[122] This shedding can release millions of oocysts, each capable of spreading and surviving for months.[122] An estimated 1% of cats at any given time are actively shedding oocysts.[13]

It is difficult to control the cat population with the infected oocysts due to lack of an effective vaccine. This remains a challenge in most cases and the programs that are readily available are questionable in efficacy.[127]

Kemiruvchilar

Yuqtirish T. gondii ga ko'rsatildi alter the behavior of mice and rats in ways thought to increase the rodents' chances of being preyed upon by cats.[128][129][130] Infected rodents show a reduction in their innate aversion to cat odors; while uninfected mice and rats will generally avoid areas marked with cat siydik or with cat body odor, this avoidance is reduced or eliminated in infected animals.[128][130][131] Moreover, some evidence suggests this loss of aversion may be specific to feline odors: when given a choice between two yirtqich odors (cat or norka ), infected rodents show a significantly stronger preference to cat odors than do uninfected boshqaruv elementlari.[132][133]

In rodents, T. gondii–induced behavioral changes occur through epigenetic remodeling in neurons associated with observed behaviors;[134][135] for example, it modifies epigenetik metilatsiya to induce hypomethylation of argininli vazopressin -related genes in the medial amygdala to greatly decrease predator aversion.[134][135] Similar epigenetically-induced behavioral changes have also been observed in mouse models of addiction, where changes in the expression of histone-modifying enzymes orqali genlarni nokaut qilish yoki fermentlarni inhibatsiyasi in specific neurons produced alterations in drug-related behaviors.[136][137][138] Keng tarqalgan histone–lysine acetylation in cortical astrotsitlar appears to be another epigenetic mechanism employed by T. gondii.[139][140]

T. gondii-infected rodents show a number of behavioral changes beyond altered responses to cat odors. Rats infected with the parasite show increased levels of activity and decreased neophobic xulq-atvor.[141] Similarly, infected mice show alterations in patterns of harakatlanish and exploratory behavior during experimental tests. These patterns include traveling greater distances, moving at higher speeds, accelerating for longer periods of time, and showing a decreased pause-time when placed in new arenas.[142] Infected rodents have also been shown to have lower tashvish, using traditional models such as elevated plus mazes, open field arenas, and social interaction tests.[142][143]

Dengiz sutemizuvchilar

A Kaliforniya universiteti, Devis study of dead dengiz samurlari collected from 1998 to 2004 found toxoplasmosis was the cause of death for 13% of the animals.[144] Proximity to freshwater outflows into the ocean was a major risk factor. Yutish ookistalar from cat feces is considered to be the most likely ultimate source.[145] Yuzaki suv oqimi containing wild cat feces and litter from domestic cats flushed down toilets are possible sources of oocysts.[146][147] These same sources may have also introduced the toxoplasmosis infection to the endangered Gavayi rohibining muhri.[148] Infection with the parasite has contributed to the death of at least four Hawaiian monk seals.[148] A Hawaiian monk seal's infection with T. gondii was first noted in 2004.[149] The parasite's spread threatens the recovery of this highly endangered pinniped. The parasites have been found in dolphins and whales.[150][151] Researchers Black and Massie believe anchovies, which travel from estuaries into the open ocean, may be helping to spread the disease.[152]

Gigant panda

Toxoplasma gondii has been reported as the cause of death of a ulkan panda kept in a zoo in China, who died in 2014 of acute gastroenterit va nafas olish kasalligi.[105] Aftidan latif, this report emphasizes that all warm-blooded species are likely to be infected by T. gondii, including endangered species such as the giant panda.

Tadqiqot

Mikrograf of a lymph node showing the characteristic changes of toxoplasmosis (scattered epithelioid histiocytes (pale cells), monocytoid cells (top-center of image), large germinal centers (left of image)) H&E binoni

Surunkali infektsiya T. gondii has traditionally been considered asemptomatik in people with normal immune function.[153] Some evidence suggests latent infection may subtly influence a range of human behaviors and tendencies, and infection may alter the susceptibility to or intensity of a number of psixiatrik or neurological disorders.[154][153]

In most of the current studies where positive correlations have been found between T. gondii antibody titers and certain behavioral traits or neurological disorders, T. gondii seropositivity tests are conducted after the onset of the examined disease or behavioral trait; that is, it is often unclear whether infection with the parasite increases the chances of having a certain trait or disorder, or if having a certain trait or disorder increases the chances of becoming infected with the parasite.[155] Groups of individuals with certain behavioral traits or neurological disorders may share certain behavioral tendencies that increase the likelihood of exposure to and infection with T. gondii; as a result, it is difficult to confirm causal relationships between T. gondii infections and associated neurological disorders or behavioral traits.[155]

Ruhiy salomatlik

Some evidence links T. gondii ga shizofreniya.[153] Two 2012 meta-analyses found that the rates of antikorlar ga T. gondii in people with schizophrenia were 2.7 times higher than in controls.[156][157] T. gondii antibody positivity was therefore considered an intermediate risk factor in relation to other known risk factors.[156] Cautions noted include that the antibody tests do not detect toxoplasmosis directly, most people with schizophrenia do not have antibodies for toxoplasmosis, and nashr tarafkashligi mavjud bo'lishi mumkin.[157] While the majority of these studies tested people already diagnosed with schizophrenia for T. gondii antibodies, associations between T. gondii and schizophrenia have been found prior to the onset of schizophrenia symptoms.[128] Sex differences in schizophrenia onset may be explained by a second peak of T. gondii infection incidence during ages 25–30 in females only.[158] Although a mechanism supporting the association between schizophrenia and T. gondii infection is unclear, studies have investigated a molecular basis of this correlation.[158] Antipsikotik dorilar used in schizophrenia appear to inhibit the replication of T. gondii tachyzoites in cell culture.[128] Supposing a causal link exists between T. gondii and schizophrenia, studies have yet to determine why only some individuals with latent toxoplasmosis develop shizofreniya; some plausible explanations include differing genetic susceptibility, parasite strain differences, and differences in the route of the acquired T. gondii infektsiya.[159]

Correlations have also been found between antibody titrlar ga T. gondii va OKB, o'z joniga qasd qilish in people with mood disorders including bipolyar buzilish.[154][160] Positive antibody titers to T. gondii appear to be uncorrelated with katta depressiya yoki distimiya.[161] Although there is a correlation between T. gondii and many psychological disorders, the underlying mechanism is unclear. A 2016 study of 236 persons with high levels of Toxoplasmosis antibodies found that "there was little evidence that T. gondii was related to increased risk of psychiatric disorder, poor impulse control, personality aberrations or neurocognitive impairment".[162]

Asab kasalliklari

Latent infection has been linked to Parkinson kasalligi va Altsgeymer kasalligi.[154]

There is a negative association between an infection with the parasite T. gondii va skleroz; researchers have concluded that toxoplasmosis infection may be a protective factor.[163]

Traffic accidents

Yashirin T. gondii infection in humans has been associated with a higher risk of avtohalokatlar, potentially due to impaired psixomotor performance or enhanced risk-taking personality profiles.[154]

Iqlim o'zgarishi

Climate change has been reported to affect the occurrence, survival, distribution and transmission of T. gondii.[164] T. gondii has been identified in the Canadian arctic, a location that was once too cold for its survival.[165] Higher temperatures increase the survival time of T. gondii.[164] More snowmelt and precipitation can increase the amount of T. gondii oocysts that are transported via river flow.[164] Shifts in bird, rodent, and insect populations and migration patterns can impact the distribution of T. gondii due to their role as reservoir and vector.[164] Urbanization and natural environmental degradation are also suggested to affect T. gondii transmission and increase risk of infection.[164]

Shuningdek qarang

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