Hindistondagi ayollar - Women in India - Wikipedia

Hindistondagi ayollar
Bug'doy terayotgan ayol, Reyzen tumani, Madxya-Pradesh, Hindiston ggia version.jpg
Bug'doy terayotgan ayol Mayzen tumani, Madxya-Pradesh, Hindiston
Jinslar tengsizligi indeksi-2017[2]
Qiymat0.524 (2017)
Rank160 dan 127-chi[1]
Onalar o'limi (100000 ga)174
Parlamentdagi ayollar14.5%
25 yoshdan oshgan ayollar o'rta ta'lim39% [M: 63,5%]
Ishchi kuchdagi ayollar27,2% [M: 78,8%]
Jinsiy kamchiliklar bo'yicha global indeks[3]
Qiymat0.665 (2018)
Rank153 dan 108-chi
Serialning bir qismi
Jamiyatdagi ayollar
Venera belgisi

Holati Hindistondagi ayollar yozib olingan hind tarixi davomida ko'plab o'zgarishlarga duch keldi.[4] Ularning jamiyatdagi mavqei Hindistonning qadimgi davrida, ayniqsa Hind-oriy tilida gaplashish mintaqalar,[a][5][b][6][c][7] va ularga bo'ysunish Hindistonning dastlabki zamonaviy davrida ham mustahkamlanib bordi.[d][8] Kabi amaliyotlar ayol go'dak o'ldirish, mahr, bolalar nikohi va taqiq yoqilgan beva ayol bilan qayta turmush qurish Shimoliy Hindistonda yuqori kasta hind jamiyatida boshlangan, uzoq vaqt davom etgan, ularni yo'q qilish qiyin bo'lgan va mahr misolida barcha kastalarga, sinflarga va hattoki dinlarga tarqalgan.[5][6]

Davomida Britaniyaning Ost-Hindiston kompaniyasi boshqaruvi (1757–1857) va Britaniyalik Raj (1858-1947), melioratsiyaga qaratilgan chora-tadbirlar qabul qilindi, shu jumladan Bengal Sati to'g'risidagi nizom, 1829 yil, Hind beva ayollarning qayta turmush qurish to'g'risidagi qonuni, 1856 yil, Ayollar bolalarini o'ldirishning oldini olish to'g'risidagi qonun, 1870 yil va Rozilik yoshi to'g'risidagi qonun, 1891 yil. Ostida ayollar huquqlari Hindiston konstitutsiyasi asosan tenglik, qadr-qimmat va kamsitishlardan ozodlikni o'z ichiga oladi; Bundan tashqari, Hindistonda ayollar huquqlarini tartibga soluvchi turli qonunlar mavjud.[9][10]

2018 yildan boshlab, ba'zi ayollar Hindiston hukumatida turli xil yuqori lavozimli lavozimlarda, shu jumladan Hindiston Prezidenti, Hindiston bosh vaziri, Lok Sabha spikeri. Biroq, Hindistondagi ko'plab ayollar muhim qiyinchiliklarga duch kelmoqdalar. Stavkalari to'yib ovqatlanmaslik Hindistonda o'spirin qizlar va homilador va emizikli ayollar orasida juda yuqori, buning oqibatlari bor bolalar sog'liq.[e][11] Hindistonda ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik, ayniqsa jinsiy zo'ravonlik ko'paymoqda.[12]

Angliya hukmronligi davrida Hindistondagi ayollar

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Hindiston qit'asidagi ayollar tarixi

Davomida Britaniyalik Raj kabi ko'plab islohotchilar Ram Mohan Roy, Ishvar Chandra Vidyasagar va Djotirao Fule ayollar yaxshilanishi uchun kurashgan. Peary Charan Sarkar, Xindu kollejining sobiq talabasi, Kalkutta va "Yosh Bengal" a'zosi, 1847 yilda Kalkutta atrofidagi Barasat shahrida Hindistonda qizlar uchun birinchi bepul maktabni tashkil etdi (keyinchalik maktab Kalikrishna qizlar o'rta maktabi deb nomlandi). Bu Raj davrida Britaniyaning ijobiy hissasi bo'lmaganligini ko'rsatishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, bu to'liq emas. Marta Mault need Mead va uning qizi Eliza Caldwell nee Mault singari missionerlarning xotinlari janubiy Hindistonda qizlarga ta'lim va tarbiya berishda kashshoflik qilganliklari uchun haqli ravishda esga olinadi. Ushbu amaliyot dastlab mahalliy qarshilikka duch keldi, chunki u an'analar oldida uchib ketdi. Raja Rammohan Royning harakatlari ostida Sati bekor qilindi General-gubernator Uilyam Kavendish-Bentink 1829 yilda. Ishvar Chandra Vidyasagarning beva ayollarning ahvolini yaxshilash uchun qilgan salib yurishi Beva ayolni qayta turmush qurish to'g'risidagi qonun kabi ko'plab ayol islohotchilar Pandita Ramabai shuningdek, ayollarning ishiga yordam berdi.

Kittur Chennamma, Karnatakadagi knyazlik davlati malikasi Kittur,[13] ga javoban inglizlarga qarshi qurolli isyon ko'targan Yugurish haqidagi ta'limot. Rani Lakshmi Bai, qirolichasi Jansi, olib keldi 1857 yildagi hind qo'zg'oloni inglizlarga qarshi. Hozir u keng milliy qahramon sifatida qaralmoqda. Begum Hazal Mahal, ning hamraisi Avad, 1857 yilgi qo'zg'olonni boshqargan yana bir hukmdor edi. U inglizlar bilan kelishuvlardan bosh tortdi va keyinchalik Nepalga chekindi. The Bhopalning begumlari Bu davrda ham taniqli ayol hukmdorlar hisoblangan. Ular o'qitilgan jang san'ati. Chandramuxi Basu, Kadambini Ganguli va Anandi Gopal Joshi darajaga erishgan ilk hind ayollari bo'lgan.

1917 yilda birinchi ayollar delegatsiyasi Hindiston Milliy Kongressi tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan ayollarning siyosiy huquqlarini talab qilish uchun davlat kotibi bilan uchrashdi. Butun hindistonlik ayollar ta'limi konferentsiyasi 1927 yilda Pune shahrida bo'lib o'tdi, u ijtimoiy o'zgarish uchun harakatning asosiy tashkilotiga aylandi.[14][15] 1929 yilda "Bola nikohini cheklash to'g'risida" gi qonun qabul qilindi, unda qiz uchun eng kam nikoh yoshi o'n to'rt yosh belgilandi.[14][16][to'liq iqtibos kerak ] Maxatma Gandi, o'zi qurbon bo'lgan bolalar nikohi keyinchalik o'n uch yoshida u odamlarni bolalar nikohini boykot qilishga chaqirdi va yosh yigitlarni beva ayollarga uylanishga chaqirdi.[17]

Mustaqil Hindiston

Tata strategik menejment guruhiga ko'ra har bir shtat uchun ayollar xavfsizligi indeksi. Ochiq yashil eng katta xavfsizlikni anglatadi; sariq, o'rtacha xavfsizlik va och qizil, eng kam xavfsizlik.

Hindistondagi ayollar hozirda ta'lim, sport, siyosat, ommaviy axborot vositalari, san'at va madaniyat, xizmat ko'rsatish sohalari, fan va texnologiyalar kabi sohalarda to'liq ishtirok etmoqdalar. Indira Gandi, kim sifatida xizmat qilgan Hindiston bosh vaziri Umuman olganda, o'n besh yil davomida dunyodagi eng uzoq vaqt bosh vazir bo'lgan ayol hisoblanadi.[18]

Hindiston Konstitutsiyasi barcha hind ayollariga tenglikni kafolatlaydi (14-modda),[19] davlat tomonidan kamsitilmaslik (15-moddaning 1-qismi),[20] imkoniyatlarning tengligi (16-modda),[19] teng ish uchun teng ish haqi (39-modda (d)) va 42-modda[21].[19] Bundan tashqari, u ayollar va bolalar foydasiga davlat tomonidan maxsus qoidalar qabul qilinishiga yo'l qo'yadi (15-moddaning 3-qismi), ayollarning qadr-qimmatini kamsituvchi amaliyotlardan voz kechadi (51-modda (A) (e))) va shuningdek adolatli va insoniy mehnat sharoitlarini ta'minlash va onalikni engish uchun davlat tomonidan belgilanadigan qoidalar. (42-modda).[22]

Hindistondagi feministik faollik 1970-yillarning oxirida tezlashdi. Ayollar guruhlarini birlashtirgan milliy darajadagi birinchi masalalardan biri bu Mathura zo'rlash ishi. Politsiya bo'limida yosh qiz Maturani zo'rlaganlikda ayblangan politsiyachilarning oqlanishi 1979-1980 yillarda butun mamlakat bo'ylab norozilik namoyishlariga sabab bo'ldi. Milliy ommaviy axborot vositalarida keng yoritilgan norozilik hukumatni Dalillar to'g'risidagi qonunga, Jinoyat-protsessual kodeksiga va Hindiston Jinoyat kodeksiga o'zgartirish kiritishga majbur qildi; va ozodlikdan mahrum qilish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan yangi jinoyatni sodir etdi.[22] Ayol faollar, ayollarning bolalar o'ldirish, jinsga moyillik, ayollar salomatligi, ayollar xavfsizligi va ayollarning savodxonligi kabi masalalarda ham birlashdilar.

Alkogolizm ko'pincha Hindistonda ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik bilan bog'liq bo'lganligi sababli,[23] ko'plab ayollar guruhlari ichkilikka qarshi kampaniyalarni boshladilar Andxra-Pradesh, Himachal-Pradesh, Xaryana, Odisha, Madxya-Pradesh va boshqa shtatlar.[22] Ko'plab hindistonlik musulmon ayollar shariat qonunlariga binoan ayollarning huquqlarini talqin qilishda asosiy rahbarlarning savollariga javob berishdi va tanqid qilishdi uch karra taloq tizim (taxminan 2017 yilga qarang).[14]

Meri Roy meros to'g'risidagi qonun hujjatlariga zid ravishda 1986 yilda sudda g'olib chiqqan Keralit Suriyalik nasroniy hamjamiyat Oliy sud. Sud hukmi bilan suriyalik nasroniy ayollarning ota-bobolarining mulkiga nisbatan erkak aka-ukalari bilan teng huquqlari ta'minlandi.[24][25] Shu vaqtgacha uning Suriyadagi nasroniy jamoati 1916 yildagi Travancore Vorislik to'g'risidagi qonun va 1921 yildagi Cochin Vorislik to'g'risidagi qonun qoidalariga rioya qilgan bo'lsa, Hindistonning boshqa joylarida huddi shu jamoat 1925 yildagi hindlarning merosxo'rlik to'g'risidagi qonuniga rioya qilgan.[26]

1990-yillarda xorijiy donorlik tashkilotlarining grantlari ayollarga yo'naltirilgan yangi NNTlarni shakllantirishga imkon berdi. Kabi o'z-o'ziga yordam guruhlari va nodavlat tashkilotlar O'z-o'zini ish bilan ta'minlaydigan ayollar assotsiatsiyasi (SEWA) Hindistonda ayollar huquqlarining rivojlanishida katta rol o'ynadi. Ko'plab ayollar mahalliy harakatlarning etakchilari sifatida paydo bo'lishdi; masalan, Medha Patkar ning Narmada Bachao Andolan.

1991 yilda Kerala Oliy sudi 10 yoshdan yuqori va 50 yoshdan kichik ayollarning kirishini chekladi Sabarimala Ular hayz ko'rish yoshidagi kabi ziyoratgoh. Biroq, 2018 yil 28 sentyabrda Hindiston Oliy sudi ayollarning kirib kelishiga qo'yilgan taqiqni bekor qildi. Unda aytilishicha, ayollarni har qanday asosda, hatto diniy asosda kamsitish konstitutsiyaga ziddir.[27][28]

Hindiston hukumati 2001 yilni Xotin-qizlarning imkoniyatlarini kengaytirish yili deb e'lon qildi (Swashakti).[14] Ayollarning imkoniyatlarini kengaytirish bo'yicha milliy siyosat 2001 yilda qabul qilingan.[29]

2006 yilda, ishi Imrana, musulmon zo'rlash qurboni, ommaviy axborot vositalari tomonidan ta'kidlangan. Imranani qaynotasi zo'rlagan. Ba'zi musulmon ulamolar Imrananing qaynotasi bilan turmush qurishi kerakligi haqidagi talaffuzi keng noroziliklarga sabab bo'ldi va nihoyat Imrananing qaynotasi 10 yillik qamoq jazosiga hukm qilindi. Hukm ko'plab ayollar guruhlari va Butun Hindiston musulmonlari shaxsiy huquq kengashi tomonidan mamnuniyat bilan qabul qilindi.[30]

2011 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra Tomson Reuters jamg'armasi, Hindiston ayollar uchun "to'rtinchi eng xavfli mamlakat" edi,[31][32] Shuningdek, Hindiston ayollar orasida eng yomon davlat sifatida qayd etildi G20 mamlakatlar,[33] ammo, ushbu hisobot noto'g'ri tasavvurlarni targ'ib qilish uchun tanqidlarga duch keldi.[34]2010 yil 9 martda, Xalqaro xotin-qizlar kunidan bir kun o'tib, Rajya Sabha Xotin-qizlarni bron qilish to'g'risidagi qonunni qabul qildi va Hindiston parlamenti va shtat qonun chiqaruvchi organlarida 33% o'rinlarni ayollar egallashi kerakligini talab qildi.[4] 2017 yil oktyabr oyida Thomson Reuters Foundation tomonidan e'lon qilingan yana bir so'rov natijalariga ko'ra Dehli eng xavfli to'rtinchi o'rinni egalladi megapolis (dunyodagi jami 40 ta) ayollar uchun, shuningdek, bu jinsiy zo'ravonlik, zo'rlash va ta'qib qilish xavfi haqida gap ketganda ayollar uchun dunyodagi eng yomon megapolis edi.[35]

The Ish joyidagi ayollarni jinsiy zo'ravonlik (oldini olish, taqiqlash va qayta tiklash) to'g'risidagi qonun, 2013 yil Hindistonda ayollarni ish joyidagi jinsiy zo'ravonlikdan himoya qilishga qaratilgan qonunchilik akti. Qonun 2013 yil 9 dekabrdan kuchga kirdi Jinoyat qonuni (o'zgartirish) to'g'risidagi qonun, 2013 y Hindiston Jinoyat kodeksiga o'zgartishlar kiritib, jinsiy zo'ravonlikni 354 A bo'limiga binoan ifoda etilgan jinoyatga aylantirdi, bu uch yilgacha ozodlikdan mahrum qilish yoki jarima bilan jazolanadi. Tuzatish, shuningdek, ayolning roziligisiz nomuvofiqlik qilish kabi harakatlarni amalga oshiradigan yangi bo'limlarni kiritdi, ta'qib qilish va vakolatli shaxs tomonidan sodir etilgan jinsiy harakatlar jinoyat. Shuningdek, u kislota hujumlarini o'ziga xos jinoyatga aylanib, kamida 10 yilgacha ozodlikdan mahrum qilish jazosi bilan qamoq jazosini va umrbod qamoq jazosiga qadar uzaytirishi mumkin.[36]

2014 yilda Hindiston oilaviy sudi Mumbay er xotiniga kiyinishiga e'tiroz bildirganiga qaror qildi kurta va jinsi shimlar va uni kiyishga majbur qilish sari er tomonidan qilingan shafqatsizlikka teng va ajrashish uchun asos bo'lishi mumkin.[37] Shunday qilib, xotin 1954 yildagi "Maxsus nikoh to'g'risida" gi Qonunning 27-moddasi 1-qismi (d) bandiga binoan shafqatsizlik sababli ajrashdi.[37]

2017 yil 22-avgustda Hindiston Oliy sudi tezkor deb topdi uch karra taloq (taloq-e-biddat) konstitutsiyaga zid.[38][39]

2018 yilda, tomonidan so'rovnoma Tomson Reuters jamg'armasi jinsiy zo'ravonlik xavfi yuqori bo'lganligi sababli Hindistonni ayollar uchun dunyodagi eng xavfli mamlakat deb atadi.[40] Garchi Ayollar uchun milliy komissiya degan bayonotni rad etdi so'rovda qatnashganlarning soni bo'yicha namuna hajmi kichik bo'lgan va hech qanday tarzda 1,3 milliard kishilik mamlakatdagi ishlarning holatini aks ettira olmagan. Ayollar uchun milliy komissiya (NCW), shuningdek, Hindiston ayollar huquqlari bo'yicha bir qator mamlakatlardan ancha oldinda ekanligiga shubha bo'lmasligi mumkinligini ta'kidladi.[41] So'rov xuddi shunday rad etilgan Rivojlanayotgan jamiyatlarni o'rganish markazi unga nisbatan shaffoflik yo'qligi sababli namuna hajmi va mumkin tanlovning noto'g'ri tomoni.[42] Hisobot Hindiston hukumati tomonidan ham rad etilgan. Ittifoq vaziri Rajyavardxan Singh Rathore tanqid qildi Hindiston milliy kongressi obro'siga putur etkazish uchun ushbu so'rovnomadan foydalanganligi uchun Modi hukumati va "idrok" va "har qanday aniq faktlar yoki raqamlardan uzoqroqqa" asoslangan so'rovnoma.[43]

Shuningdek, 2018 yilda Hindiston Oliy sudi erkakning turmush qurgan ayol bilan erining ruxsatisiz jinsiy aloqada bo'lishini jinoyat deb hisoblaydigan qonunni bekor qildi.[44]

2018 yil noyabrgacha ayollarga ko'tarilish taqiqlangan edi Agasthyarkoodam. Sud qarori bilan taqiq olib tashlandi.[45]

Hindistonda ayollarning yutuqlari xronologiyasi

Ruxmabai, Hindistonda ikkinchi amaliyotchi ayol vrach, uning bolaligida turmush qurishi va keyinchalik tarqatib yuborilishi sabab bo'lgan ommaviylik Rozilik yoshi to'g'risidagi qonun, 1891 yil
Sarla Thakral 1936 yilda samolyotda uchgan birinchi hindistonlik ayol bo'ldi.

Mamlakatdagi ayollar erishgan yutuqlarga qarab, ayollar pozitsiyasining izchil o'zgarishini ta'kidlash mumkin:

Siyosat

Hindiston ayol siyosatchilar soni bo'yicha dunyoda birinchi o'rinda turadi. Ayollar Hindistonda, shu jumladan, yuqori lavozimlarda ishlagan Prezident, Bosh Vazir, Lok Sabha spikeri va Muxolifat lideri.Hind shtatlari Madxya-Pradesh, Bihar, Uttaraxand, Himachal-Pradesh,[59] Andxra-Pradesh, Chattisgarx, Jarxand, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajastan va Tripura PRIda ayollar uchun 50% rezervatsiyani amalga oshirdilar.[60][61] Ushbu Panchayatlardagi nomzodlarning aksariyati ayollardir. Ayni paytda 100 foiz saylangan a'zolar Kodassery Panchayat Kerala ayollardir.[62] Hozirda mavjud 2 ayol bosh vazir Hindistonda 2018 yil sentyabr oyidan boshlab.

2018 yilga kelib, 29 shtatdan 12 tasi va Dehli ittifoqi hududida kamida bitta ayol Bosh vazir bo'lgan.

Madaniyat

Hindistondagi ayollarning mavqei juda bog'liq oila munosabatlar. Hindistonda oila hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega deb qaraladi va mamlakatning aksariyat qismida oila birligi hisoblanadi patilineal. Oilalar odatda ko'p avlodli bo'lib, kelin qaynona-qaynota bilan yashashga o'tishadi. Oilalar odatda ierarxik bo'lib, oqsoqollar yosh avlodlar ustidan, erkaklar ayollar ustidan vakolat berishadi. Nikohlarning katta qismi monogam (bitta er va bitta xotin), lekin ikkalasi ham ko'pburchak va Hindistondagi poliandriya Hindistondagi ba'zi aholi orasida an'anaga ega.[63] Hindistondagi to'ylar juda qimmat bo'lishi mumkin. Hindistondagi ko'pchilik nikohlar joylashtirilgan.[64]

Kiyim-kechak bilan bog'liq holda, a sari (tanaga o'ralgan uzun mato parchasi) va salvar kameez butun Hindiston ayollari tomonidan kiyiladi. A bindi ayol makiyajining bir qismidir. Oddiy e'tiqodga qaramay, peshonadagi bindi oilaviy ahvolni anglatmaydi; ammo Sindur qiladi.[65]

Rangoli (yoki Kolam) - hind ayollari orasida juda mashhur bo'lgan an'anaviy san'at.

1991 yilda Kerala Oliy sudi 10 yoshdan yuqori va 50 yoshdan kichik ayollarning kirishini chekladi Sabarimala Ular hayz ko'rish yoshidagi kabi ziyoratgoh. 2018 yil 28 sentyabrda Hindiston Oliy sudi ayollarning kirishiga qo'yilgan taqiqni bekor qildi. Unda aytilishicha, ayollarni har qanday asosda, hatto diniy asosda kamsitish konstitutsiyaga ziddir.[27][28]

Harbiy va huquqni muhofaza qilish

Asosiy maqola: Hindiston qurolli kuchlaridagi ayollar

The Hindiston qurolli kuchlari 1992 yilda ayollarni tibbiy bo'lmagan lavozimlarga jalb qilishni boshladi.[66] The Hindiston armiyasi 1992 yilda ayol zobitlarni jalb qila boshladi.[67] Chegara xavfsizligi kuchlari (BSF) 2013 yilda ayol zobitlarni jalb qila boshladi. 2017 yil 25 martda Tanushri Pareek BSF tomonidan buyurtma qilingan birinchi ayol jangovar ofitser bo'ldi.[56]

2015 yil 24 oktyabrda Hindiston hukumati ayollarda qiruvchi uchuvchi sifatida xizmat qilishi mumkinligini e'lon qildi Hindiston havo kuchlari (IAF), ilgari faqat transport samolyotlari va vertolyotlarini boshqarishga ruxsat berilgan. Qaror shuni anglatadiki, endi ayollar IAFdagi har qanday rolda induksiya olish huquqiga ega.[68] 2016 yilda Hindiston o'z armiyasi va dengiz flotining barcha bo'limlarida ayollarga jangovar rollarni bajarishga ruxsat berish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilganligini e'lon qildi.[68]

2014 yilga kelib, ayollar Hindiston armiyasining 3%, dengiz floti xodimlarining 2,8% va havo kuchlari xodimlarining 8,5% ni tashkil etdi.[69] 2016 yil holatiga ko'ra, Hindiston qurolli kuchlari tarkibidagi barcha faol va zaxira xodimlarining 5% ayollar tashkil etdi.[68]

1972 yilda Kiran Bedi birinchi xonimga aylandi Hindiston politsiya xizmati Zobit va 80 nafar IPS ofitserlari tarkibidagi yagona ayol edi, u AGMUT kadriga qo'shildi. 1992 yilda Asha Sinha 1982 yildagi IPS xodimi birinchi ayol komendantga aylandi Hindistonning harbiylashtirilgan kuchlari u komendant lavozimiga joylashtirilganida, Markaziy sanoat xavfsizligi kuchlari yilda Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited. Kanchan Chaudhari Battacharya Hindistonning 1973 yildagi partiyasiga mansub ikkinchi IPS xodimi birinchi xonimga aylandi Politsiya bosh direktori DGP etib tayinlanganda Hindistondagi bir shtat Uttaraxand politsiyasi. 2018 yilda 1980-yilgi IPS xodimi Archana Ramasundram birinchi bo'lgan ayol bo'ldi Politsiya bosh direktori DG sifatida harbiylashtirilgan kuchlar, Sashastra Seema Bal. 2018 yil mart oyida Dehli politsiyasi SWAT jamoasiga ayollarni jalb qilishni boshlashini e'lon qildi.[70]

2020 yil 17 fevralda Hindiston Oliy sudi ayollar dedi zobitlar ichida Hindiston armiyasi erkak zobitlar bilan bir qatorda qo'mondonlik lavozimlarini egallashi mumkin. Sud hukumatning unga qarshi argumentlari kamsituvchi, bezovta qiluvchi va stereotipga asoslangan deb aytdi. Sud shuningdek, barcha ofitser ayollar uchun doimiy komissiya, ishlagan yillaridan qat'i nazar, mavjud bo'lishi kerakligini aytdi.[71] Hukumat ilgari ayol qo'mondonlar ba'zi qo'shinlarga ma'qul kelmasligini aytgan edi.[72]

Ta'lim va iqtisodiy rivojlanish

1992–93 raqamlarga ko'ra, Hindistondagi uy xo'jaliklarining atigi 9,2 foizini ayollar boshqargan. Biroq, kambag'allik chegarasidan past bo'lgan uy xo'jaliklarining taxminan 35 foizini ayollar boshqarishi aniqlandi.[73]

Ta'lim

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Hindistondagi ta'lim va Hindistonda ayollar ta'limi tarixi
Ayollar kattalar savodxonligi darsida qatnashadilar Thiruputkuzhi, Tamil Nadu davlat. 2011 yilda shtatdagi ayollar savodxonligining umumiy darajasi 73,44% ni tashkil etdi.[74] Oldingi o'n yillikda u 9 foizga o'sdi.[75]

Garchi u keskin o'sib borayotgan bo'lsa ham,[76] Hindistondagi ayollarning savodxonlik darajasi erkaklar savodxonligi darajasidan kam.[77] O'g'il bolalarga qaraganda qizlar kam sonli maktabga yoziladi va ko'plab qizlar maktabni tashlab ketishadi.[22] Shaharlik Hindistonda qizlar ma'lumot jihatidan o'g'il bolalar bilan deyarli tenglashmoqdalar. Biroq, Hindistonning qishloqlarida qizlar o'g'il bolalarga qaraganda kam ma'lumotli bo'lib qolmoqdalar. 1997 yilgi milliy namunaviy so'rov ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, faqat shtatlar Kerala va Mizoram universal ayol savodxonligiga yaqinlashdilar. Olimlarning fikriga ko'ra, Keralada ayollarning ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy ahvoli yaxshilanishining asosiy omili bu savodxonlikdir.[22]

Rasmiy bo'lmagan ta'lim dasturi (NFE) bo'yicha shtatlarda NFE markazlarining taxminan 40% va 10% markazlarda UT faqat himoyalangan ayollar uchun. 2000 yil holatiga ko'ra 300 mingga yaqin NFE markazlari 7,42 million bolani qamrab olgan. Taxminan 120,000 NFE markazlari faqat qizlar uchun edi.[78]

AQSh Savdo vazirligining 1998 yilgi hisobotiga ko'ra, to'siqlar to'sqinlik qilmoqda ayollar ta'limi Hindistonda maktab binolari etarli emas (masalan, sanitariya inshootlari), ayol o'qituvchilarning etishmasligi va o'quv rejasidagi gender tarafkashligi (ayol belgilar zaif va yordamsiz sifatida tasvirlangan).[79]

The savodxonlik darajasi ayollar uchun erkaklar bilan taqqoslaganda: savodxonlik darajasi ayollar uchun 60,6%, erkaklar uchun esa 81,3%. Ammo 2011 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish 2001-2011 yillarda o'n yillik savodxonlikning 9,2 foizga o'sishini ko'rsatdi, bu avvalgi o'n yillikda kuzatilgan ko'rsatkichdan sekinroq. Hindistonda savodxonlik darajasida juda katta gender tafovuti mavjud: savodxonlikning samarali darajasi (7 yosh va undan yuqori) 2011 yilda erkaklar uchun 82,14% va ayollar uchun 65,46% ni tashkil etdi. (15 yoshdan katta aholi, 2015 yildagi ma'lumotlar).[80]

Ishchilarning ishtiroki

Anda ishlaydigan ayol Aadhaar Hindistondagi markaz.

Oddiy tushunchadan farqli o'laroq, Hindistondagi ayollarning katta qismi an'anaviy va noan'anaviy ishlarda faol ishtirok etmoqda.[81] Ma'lumot yig'ish bo'yicha milliy agentliklar statistika ayollarning ishchi sifatida qo'shgan hissasini jiddiy ravishda kamaytiradi, deb qabul qiladi.[22] Biroq, pullik ishchi kuchida ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ancha kam. Shahar Hindistonida ayollar ishchi kuchida juda ko'p sonda qatnashadilar. Masalan, dasturiy ta'minot sohasida ishchilarning 30% ayollardir.[82]

Qishloq xo'jaligida qishloq xo'jaligi va ittifoqdosh sanoat sohalarida ayollar ishchi kuchining 89,5 foizini tashkil qiladi.[73] Umumiy fermer xo'jaliklarida ayollarning o'rtacha hissasi umumiy mehnatning 55% dan 66% gacha baholanmoqda. 1991 yilgi Jahon bankining hisobotiga ko'ra, Hindistonda sut ishlab chiqarishda ish bilan ta'minlangan ayollarning umumiy ulushi 94% ni tashkil etgan.

O'rmonga asoslangan kichik korxonalarda ish bilan band bo'lganlarning 51 foizini ayollar tashkil etadi.[73]

Jinslar bo'yicha ish haqi bo'yicha farq

2017 yilda Monster Salary Index (MSI) tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar umumiy natijalarni ko'rsatdi Hindistondagi ish haqi bo'yicha gender farqi 20 foizni tashkil etdi. Tajribaning dastlabki yillarida bu bo'shliq torayganligi aniqlandi.[83]

0-2 yillik tajribaga ega bo'lgan erkaklar o'rtacha ish haqini ayollarga qaraganda 7,8 foizga ko'proq olishgan bo'lsa, 6-10 yillik tajriba guruhida ish haqidagi farq 15,3 foizni tashkil etdi. Yuqori va yuqori lavozimlarda ish haqining farqi yanada kengaydi, chunki 11 va undan ortiq yil ishlagan erkaklar o'rtacha ish haqini ayollarga qaraganda 25 foizga ko'proq olishdi.

Ma'lumoti asosida bakalavr darajasiga ega bo'lgan erkaklar 2015, 2016 va 2017 yillarda ayollarga qaraganda o'rtacha 16 foizga ko'proq o'rtacha ish haqi olishgan, magistrlar esa ish haqi farqida yanada yuqori. To'rt yoki besh yillik diplomga yoki unga tenglashtirilgan magistr darajasiga ega bo'lgan erkaklar o'rtacha ish haqi ayollarga qaraganda o'rtacha 33,7 foizga ko'pdir.

1976 yilda Hindiston Teng mehnatga haq to'lash to'g'risidagi qonunni qabul qilgan bo'lsa-da, bu qonun bo'yicha, jinsiy aloqada kamsitishni taqiqlaydi. Ammo amalda ish haqi nomutanosibligi hanuzgacha mavjud.

Ayollarga qarashli biznes

Qishloq sektoridagi ayollarning biznesdagi eng mashhur muvaffaqiyatlaridan biri bu Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad. 1959 yilda etti ayol tomonidan boshlangan Mumbay faqat urug 'kapitali bilan Rs. 80, uning yillik aylanmasi Rupiydan ortiq edi. 800 crore (109 million dollardan ortiq) 2018 yilda. Bu mamlakat bo'ylab 43000 (2018 yilda) ayollarni ish bilan ta'minlaydi.[84]

Dunyodagi eng yirik sut kooperativlaridan biri, Amul, qishloq ayollarini safarbar qilish bilan boshlandi Anand g'arbiy shtatida Gujarat.[85]

Biznesda taniqli ayollar

2006 yilda, Kiran Mazumdar-Shou Hindistonning birinchi biotexnika kompaniyalaridan biri bo'lgan Biocon kompaniyasiga asos solgan, Hindistonning eng boy ayollari deb topilgan. Lalita D. Gupte va Kalpana Morpariya 2006 yilda Forbes dunyosining eng qudratli ayollari ro'yxatiga kiritilgan Hindistondagi yagona ishbilarmon ayollar edi. Gupte yugurdi ICICI banki, 2006 yil oktyabrgacha Hindistonning ikkinchi yirik banki[86] va Morparia - JP Morgan India kompaniyasining bosh direktori.[87]

Shou 2018 yilda o'zini o'zi ishlab chiqargan eng boy ayol bo'lib qoldi,[88] sof qiymat jihatidan 72-o'rinda turadi Forbes yillik boy ro'yxat. U ro'yxatdagi to'rtinchi va oxirgi ayol bo'lib, shu bilan mamlakatdagi eng boy 100 kishidan 96 tasi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita erkaklar tomonidan boshqarishda davom etayotganligini ko'rsatdi.

"Kotak Wealth Hurun - 2018 yilgi etakchi boy ayollar" ro'yxatiga ko'ra, Hindistonning eng badavlat 100 ayollarini o'zlarining boyliklariga qarab, ularning 2018 yil 30-iyundagi holatiga ko'ra, faqat ikkita ayoldan bittasi, ikkinchisi esa Jeyshri Ullal, birinchi o'ntalikdagi oilaviy qarindoshlaridan hozirgi boyligini meros qilib olmagan.[89]

Shu bilan birga, Hindiston meros qilib olingan boylikka ega bo'lgan ko'plab ayollarning yirik korxonalarni yaratganligi yoki o'z huquqlari bo'yicha muvaffaqiyatli martaba ochganligi haqida kuchli tarixga ega.[90]

Er va mulk huquqi

Guruch sholini terayotgan ayollar Tamil Nadu. Ayollar kamdan-kam hollarda o'zlarining nomlariga egalik qilishadi, garchi ular ko'pincha qishloq xo'jaligida ishlashadi.

Ko'pgina hind oilalarida ayollar o'z nomlarida biron bir mulkka ega emaslar va ota-ona mulkidan ulush olishmaydi.[22] Ularni himoya qiluvchi qonunlarning sust ijro etilishi tufayli ayollar er va mulkdan foydalanish huquqidan mahrum bo'lib qolmoqdalar.[91] Hindistonda ayollarning mulk huquqi diniga va qabilalariga qarab farqlanadi va qonun va urf-odatlarning murakkab aralashmasiga bo'ysunadi,[92] ammo printsipial jihatdan bu harakat ayollarga teng qonuniy huquqlarni berishga qaratilgan bo'lib, ayniqsa, 2005 yilgi hinduiyat merosxo'ri (o'zgartirish) to'g'risidagi qonun qabul qilingandan keyin.[93]

1956 yildagi hindlarning shaxsiy qonunlari (tegishli Hindular, Buddistlar, Sixlar va Jeynlar ) ayollarga meros huquqlarini berdi. Biroq, o'g'il bolalar ajdodlar mulkida mustaqil ulushga ega edilar, qizlarning ulushlari esa otalari olgan ulushga asoslangan edi. Demak, ota ota-bobolar mulkidan o'z ulushidan voz kechib, qizini haqiqatan ham meros qilib qoldirishi mumkin edi, ammo o'g'il o'z huquqida o'z ulushini davom ettiradi. Bundan tashqari, turmush qurgan qizlari, hatto oiladagi zo'ravonlik va tazyiqlarga uchraganlar ham ajdodlar uyida yashash huquqiga ega emas edilar. 2005 yilda hindu qonunlarining o'zgartirilishi tufayli ayollar endi erkaklar bilan bir xil maqomga ega.[94]

1986 yilda Hindiston Oliy sudi shunday qaror chiqardi Shoh Bano, keksa yoshdagi ajrashgan musulmon ayol huquqiga ega edi aliment. Biroq, qarorga fundamentalist musulmonlar rahbarlari qarshilik ko'rsatib, sud ularning shaxsiy qonunlariga aralashayotganini iddao qildilar. The Ittifoq hukumati keyinchalik o'tgan Musulmon ayollari (Taloq paytida huquqlarni himoya qilish) to'g'risidagi qonun.[95]

Xuddi shunday, Nasroniy yillar davomida ayollar ajralish va merosxo'rlikda teng huquqlar uchun kurashdilar. 1994 yilda barcha cherkovlar ayollar tashkilotlari bilan birgalikda "Xristianlarning nikohi va nikohsizlikning sabablari to'g'risida" gi qonun loyihasini ishlab chiqdilar. Biroq, hukumat hali ham tegishli qonunlarga o'zgartirishlar kiritmagan.[14] 2014 yilda Hindiston Qonunchilik Komissiyasi hukumatdan nasroniy ayollarga teng mulk huquqini berish uchun qonunga o'zgartirish kiritishni so'radi.[96]

Ayollarga qarshi jinoyatlar

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Hindistonda ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik
Xaritada 2012 yilgi Hindiston shtatlari va ittifoq hududlarida ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlikning solishtirma darajasi ko'rsatilgan. Ushbu xaritadagi 100000 ayolga nisbatan jinoyatchilik darajasi to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlar Hindiston qonunchiligida ayollarga qarshi jinoyatchilikning eng keng ta'rifidir. Bu zo'rlash, jinsiy tajovuz, kamtarlikni haqorat qilish, odam o'g'irlash, o'g'irlash, yaqin sherigi yoki qarindoshlari tomonidan shafqatsizlik, odam savdosi, mahr uchun ta'qib qilish, mahr o'limi, beadablik va hind Jinoyat kodeksida sanab o'tilgan barcha boshqa jinoyatlar.[97][98]

Zo'rlash kabi ayollarga qarshi jinoyatlar, kislota tashlash, mahrni o'ldirish, qasddan o'ldirish, va majburiy fohishalik Hindistonda yosh qizlarning soni qayd etilgan.[99][100][101] Hindistondagi politsiya yozuvlari ayollarga qarshi jinoyatlar soni yuqori ekanligini ko'rsatadi. Milliy jinoyatlarni ro'yxatga olish byurosi 1998 yilda 2010 yilga kelib ayollarga qarshi jinoyatlar sonining o'sishi aholi sonining o'sish sur'atlaridan oshib ketishi to'g'risida xabar bergan.[22] Ilgari, ayollarga qarshi ko'plab jinoyatlar, zo'rlash va tahqirlash bilan bog'liq ijtimoiy tamg'a tufayli politsiyaga xabar berilmagan. Rasmiy statistik ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, ayollarga nisbatan sodir etilgan jinoyatlar soni keskin o'sgan.[22]

Kislota tashlash

Tomas Reuters Jamg'arma tadqiqotlari[102] buni aytadi Hindiston ayollar yashashi uchun dunyodagi eng xavfli to'rtinchi o'rin.[103] So'rovning o'zi xolislik uchun tanqid qilindi.[34] Har qanday sinfga, kastaga, e'tiqodga yoki dinga mansub ayollar ushbu shafqatsiz zo'ravonlik va qiyofaning qurbonlari bo'lishlari mumkin, bu qasddan qilingan jinoyat, doimiy ravishda o'ldirish yoki mayib-majruh qilish va ayolni o'z o'rniga qo'yish uchun saboq bo'lishga qaratilgan. Hindistonda ayollarga kislota hujumi[104] erkakning turmush qurish taklifini rad etishga jur'at etgan yoki ajrashishni so'ragan[105] qasos olishning bir shakli. Kislota arzon, oson topiladi va ayol hayotini yo'q qilishning eng tezkor usuli. Kislota hujumlari soni tobora ko'payib bormoqda.[106]

Bolalar nikohi

Asosiy maqola: Hindistonda bolalar nikohi

Bolalar nikohi an'anaviy ravishda Hindistonda keng tarqalgan, ammo hozirgi kungacha Zamonaviy Hindistonda u qadar davom etmagan. Tarixga ko'ra, bolalar kelinlari balog'at yoshiga etguncha ota-onalari bilan yashaydilar. Ilgari, beva-beva bolalar katta azob-uqubatlarga mahkum etilgan, sochlarini oldirishgan, alohida yashashgan va jamiyat ularni chetlab o'tishgan.[17] Garchi 1860 yilda bolalar nikohi taqiqlangan bo'lsa-da, bu hali ham odatiy holdir.[107] The Bolalar nikohini cheklash to'g'risidagi qonun, 1929 yil mamlakatdagi tegishli qonunchilik hisoblanadi.

YuNISEFning "Dunyo bolalarining holati-2009" hisobotiga ko'ra, 20-24 yoshdagi Hindiston ayollarining 47 foizi 18 yoshga to'lgunga qadar turmush qurgan va qishloq joylarda 56 foizgacha ko'tarilgan.[108] Hisobotda shuni ko'rsatdiki, dunyodagi bolalarning 40 foiz nikohi Hindistonda sodir bo'ladi.[109]

Oiladagi zo'ravonlik

Asosiy maqola: Hindistondagi oilaviy zo'ravonlik

Hindistondagi oilaviy zo'ravonlik endemik hisoblanadi.[110] Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, Hindistondagi ayollarning taxminan 70 foizi oiladagi zo'ravonlik qurbonidir Renuka Chodri, sobiq Ittifoqning ayollar va bolalarni rivojlantirish vaziri.[111] Oilaviy zo'ravonlik qonuniy ravishda 1980-yillarda, 1983 yilgi Jinoyat qonuni to'g'risidagi qonun qabul qilinganida ko'rib chiqilgan 498A bo'lim "Shafqatsizlikka duchor bo'lgan ayolning eri yoki erining qarindoshi".[112]

Milliy jinoyatlarni qayd etish byurosi ayolga qarshi jinoyat har uch daqiqada, ayol har 29 daqiqada zo'rlanganini, mahr o'lim har 77 daqiqada sodir bo'ladi, yoki eri yoki erining qarindoshi tomonidan qilingan shafqatsizlik har to'qqiz daqiqada sodir bo'ladi.[111] Bu Hindistonda ayollar qonun ostida oilaviy zo'ravonlikdan himoyalangan bo'lishiga qaramay sodir bo'ladi Ayollarni oiladagi zo'ravonlikdan himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun.[111]

Hindistonda ayollarga nisbatan oiladagi zo'ravonlik tahdid deb hisoblanishi mumkin bo'lgan har qanday zo'ravonlik turi sifatida qaraladi; hozirgi yoki sobiq sherigiga jismoniy, psixologik yoki jinsiy zo'ravonlik ham bo'lishi mumkin.[113] Oiladagi zo'ravonlik jinoyat yoki shikoyat sifatida ko'rib chiqilmaydi, u ko'proq shaxsiy yoki oilaviy ish sifatida qaraladi.[113] Shikoyat toifasini aniqlashda u kasta, sinfiylik, diniy tarafkashlik va irqqa asoslangan bo'lib, u ham choralar ko'rish zarurligini belgilaydi.[113] Ko'pgina tadqiqotlar zo'ravonlikning tarqalishi haqida xabar bergan va jinoiy-odil sudlov yondashgan, ammo ayollarning aksariyati bu haqda xabar berishdan bosh tortgan.[113] Ushbu ayollarga konstitutsiyaviy adolat, qadr-qimmat va tenglik kafolatlangan, ammo o'zlarining ijtimoiy-madaniy sharoitlariga qarab rad etishda davom etishmoqda.[113] Ayollar zo'ravonlik haqida gapirishdan va yordam topishdan bosh tortganliklari sababli, ular ham tegishli davolanishni olmayapti.[113]

Mahr

Asosiy maqolalar: Hindistondagi mahr tizimi, Mahr o'lim va Hindistonda mahr qonuni
Hindistonning 100 ming kishiga to'g'ri keladigan mahr o'limining xaritasi, 2012 yil.

1961 yilda Hindiston hukumati mahrni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi qonunni qabul qildi,[114] to'y marosimlarida mahr talablarini noqonuniy qilish. Shu bilan birga, mahr bilan bog'liq bo'lgan oiladagi zo'ravonlik, o'z joniga qasd qilish va qotillik kabi ko'plab holatlar qayd etilgan. 1980-yillarda ko'plab bunday holatlar qayd etilgan.[81]

1985 yilda Mahrni taqiqlash (kelin va kuyovga sovg'alar ro'yxatini tuzish) qoidalari tuzildi.[115] Ushbu qoidalarga ko'ra, kelin va kuyovga nikoh paytida sovg'alar imzolangan ro'yxat saqlanishi kerak. Ro'yxatda har bir sovg'aning qisqacha tavsifi, uning taxminiy qiymati, sovg'ani kim bergani va qabul qiluvchiga bo'lgan munosabati bo'lishi kerak. Biroq, bunday qoidalar kamdan-kam hollarda qo'llaniladi.

1997 yilgi hisobotda ta'kidlanishicha, har yili Hindistonda kamida 5000 ayol mahr bilan bog'liq holda vafot etadi va har kuni kamida o'nlab kishi "oshxona yong'inlarida" qasddan o'ladi.[116] Buning muddati "kelin kuyish "va Hindistonning o'zida tanqid qilinmoqda.

2011 yilda Jinoyatlarni ro'yxatga olish bo'yicha milliy byuro 8618 ta ma'lumot bergan mahr o'lim. Norasmiy taxminlarga ko'ra bu ko'rsatkichlar kamida uch baravar yuqori.[112]

Ayollarni go'dak o'ldirish va jinsiy tanlab abort qilish

2011 yil, Hindistonning bolalar jinsiy nisbati xaritasi.
Asosiy maqolalar: Hindistondagi ayol fetiid va Osiyoning bedarak yo'qolgan ayollari

Hindistonda erkak-ayol jinsiy nisbati erkaklar foydasiga keskin ravishda buziladi, asosiy sababi voyaga etmaguncha vafot etgan ayollarning ko'pligi.[22] Hindistondagi qabila jamiyatlari jinsiy nisbatga nisbatan kamroq chayqalgan boshqa kast guruhlari. Bu qabilaviy jamoalarning daromad darajasi ancha past, savodxonlik darajasi past va sog'liqni saqlash muassasalari etarli emasligiga qaramay.[22] Ko'pgina mutaxassislarning ta'kidlashicha, Hindistonda erkaklar sonining ko'payishi ayollarning go'dak o'ldirishi va jinsiy tanlab olingan abortlar bilan bog'liq. Mamlakatning shimoliy-g'arbiy qismida, ayniqsa, jinsning nisbati yomon Xaryana va Jammu va Kashmir.[117]

Ultratovushli skanerlash ona va chaqaloqni parvarish qilishda katta sakrashni tashkil etadi va skanerlar ko'chma bo'lib qolishi bilan ushbu afzalliklar qishloq aholisiga ham tarqaldi. Biroq, ultratovush tekshiruvi ko'pincha chaqaloqning jinsini aniqlaydi, bu homilador ayollarga ayol homilasini abort qilishga qaror qilib, keyinroq erkak bola uchun qayta urinib ko'rishga imkon beradi. Ushbu amaliyot odatda tug'ilishning erkak va ayol bolalar nisbati o'zgarishining asosiy sababi hisoblanadi.[118]

1994 yilda Hindiston hukumati ayollarga yoki ularning oilalariga ultratovush tekshiruvidan so'ng (yoki bunday ma'lumot beradigan boshqa testlardan) chaqaloqning jinsi to'g'risida so'rashni taqiqlovchi qonun qabul qildi va shuningdek, shifokorlarga yoki boshqa shaxslarga ushbu ma'lumotni taqdim etishni qat'iyan taqiqladi. Amalda ushbu qonunga (mahr berishni taqiqlovchi qonunga o'xshab) umuman e'tibor berilmaydi va ayollarning homilalarida abort qilish darajasi yuqoriligicha qolmoqda va tug'ilish paytida jins nisbati tobora keskinlashib bormoqda.[118]

Ayollarning bolalarini o'ldirish (chaqaloq qizlarni o'ldirish) hali ham ba'zi qishloq joylarda keng tarqalgan.[22] Ba'zan bu beparvolik tufayli bolalarni o'ldirishdir, masalan, oilalar tanqidiy dori-darmonlarga pul sarflamasliklari yoki kasal qizga yordam ko'rsatmasliklari mumkin.

Mahr urf-odatlarining doimiy ravishda suiiste'mol qilinishi, Hindistonda jinsiy tanlab abort qilish va ayollarning chaqaloqlarini o'ldirishining asosiy sabablaridan biri bo'ldi.

Qadrli qotillik

Qadrli qotillik haqida xabar berilgan Hindistonning shimoliy hududlari asosan Hindiston shtatlarida Panjob, Rajastan, Xaryana va Uttar-Pradesh, qiz oilani qabul qilmasdan turmushga chiqishi natijasida, ba'zan esa undan tashqarida turmushga chiqishi uchun kast yoki din. Xaryana "Haryana qishloqlarida sovuqqonlik bilan keng tarqalgan" deb ta'riflangan sharafli o'ldirish hodisalari bilan mashhur.[119] Aksincha, nomusga qasd qilish kamdan kam uchraydi Janubiy Hindiston va g'arbiy Hindiston shtatlari Maharashtra va Gujarat. Hindistonning ba'zi boshqa joylarida, xususan G'arbiy Bengal, sharafli qotillik bir asr oldin, asosan, faolligi va ta'siri tufayli butunlay to'xtatildi islohotchilar kabi Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Vidyasagar va Raja Ram Mohan Roy.[120]2010 yilda Hindiston Oliy sudi shtatlariga qasddan qilingan qotilliklar to'g'risida xabarnoma bergan Panjob, Xaryana, Bihar, Uttar-Pradesh, Rajastan, Jarxand, Himachal-Pradesh va Madxya-Pradesh.[121]

Jodugarlikda ayblash

Jodugarlikda ayblash bilan bog'liq ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik Hindistonda, xususan, ayrim joylarda sodir bo'ladi Shimoliy Hindiston. Hindiston aholisi orasida g'ayritabiiy narsalarga ishonish kuchli va linchings sehr-jodu uchun ommaviy axborot vositalari xabar beradi.[122] Yilda Assam va G'arbiy Bengal 2003 yildan 2008 yilgacha sehrgarlikda ayblanish bilan bog'liq 750 ga yaqin o'lim yuz berdi.[123] Shtat rasmiylari Chattisgarx 2008 yilda har yili kamida 100 ayol jodugarga gumon qilinib yomon muomalada bo'lishlari haqida xabar bergan.[124]

Zo'rlash

Asosiy maqola: Hindistonda zo'rlash
Insonlar Dehli, Hindiston yosh talaba bo'lganidan keyin norozilik Dehlida guruh tomonidan zo'rlangan 2012 yil dekabrda.

Hindistonda zo'rlash tomonidan tasvirlangan Radha Kumar Hindistonning ayollarga qarshi eng keng tarqalgan jinoyatlaridan biri sifatida[125] va tomonidan BMT Inson huquqlari bo'yicha boshlig'i "milliy muammo" sifatida.[126] 1980-yillardan boshlab ayollar huquqlarini himoya qilish tashkilotlari lobbichilik qildi oilaviy zo'rlash noqonuniy deb e'lon qilish,[125] lekin Jinoyat qonuni (o'zgartirish) to'g'risidagi qonun, 2013 y 375-bo'limning istisno bandida: "Erkak o'z xotini bilan jinsiy aloqada bo'lishi yoki jinsiy xatti-harakatlari qilishi mumkin.", degan xulosaga kelib, nikohdan ozod qilishni davom ettiradi.[127] Aholi jon boshiga to'g'ri keladigan hodisalar boshqa mamlakatlar, hatto rivojlangan mamlakatlar bilan taqqoslaganda juda past bo'lsa ham,[128][129] har 20 daqiqada yangi holat qayd etiladi.[130][131] Aslida, Hindiston hukumati tomonidan 2018 yilda e'lon qilingan NCRB ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, har 15 daqiqada Hindistonda zo'rlash haqida xabar beriladi.[132]

Nyu-Dehli zo'rlash haqidagi xabarlarni Hindiston shaharlari orasida eng yuqori ko'rsatkichlardan biriga ega.[131] Manbalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, 1990 yildan 2008 yilgacha Hindistonda zo'rlash holatlari ikki baravarga oshgan.[133][134]

Jinsiy shilqimlik

Asosiy maqola: Momo Havo

Momo Havo uchun ishlatiladigan evfemizmdir jinsiy shilqimlik yoki erkaklar tomonidan ayollarni buzish. Many activists blame the rising incidence of sexual harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed[135] to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings or in any other manner.

Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related to molestation and harassment in the workplace.[22] In 1997, in a landmark judgement[noaniq ], the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.[22] In 2013 India's top court investigated on a law graduate's allegation that she was sexually harassed by a recently retired Supreme Court judge.[136] The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act came into force in December 2013, to prevent Harassment of women at workplace.

According to a report from Human Rights Watch, despite women increasingly denunciate sexual harassment at work, they still face stigma and fear retribution as the governments promote, establish and monitor complaint committees.[137] As South Asia director at Human Rights Watch explained, “India has progressive laws to protect women from sexual abuse by bosses, colleagues, and clients, but has failed to take basic steps to enforce these laws”.[137]

Tomonidan o'rganish ActionAid UK found that 80% of women in India had experienced sexual harassment ranging from unwanted comments, being groped or assaulted. Many incidents go unreported as the victims fear being shunned by their families.[138]

Odam savdosi

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.[139] However many cases of odam savdosi of young girls and women have been reported.

Women's safety laws

  1. Guardians & Wards Act, 1890[140]
  2. Hindiston Jinoyat kodeksi, 1860 yil
  3. Christian Marriage Act, 1872
  4. Indian Evidence Act, 1872[141]
  5. Turmush qurgan ayollarning mulk to'g'risidagi qonuni, 1874 yil
  6. Workmen's compensation Act, 1923
  7. Indian Successions Act, 1925
  8. Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act, 1956
  9. Mahrni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi qonun, 1961 yil[114]
  10. Commission of Sati(Prevention) Act, 1987
  11. Cinematograph Act, 1952
  12. Births, Deaths & Marriages Registration Act, 1886
  13. Minimum Wages Act, 1948
  14. Prevention of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012
  15. Bolalar nikohini cheklash to'g'risidagi qonun, 1929 yil
  16. Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application,1937
  17. Indecent Representation of Women(Prevention) Act,1986
  18. Maxsus nikoh to'g'risidagi qonun, 1954 yil[142]
  19. Hindlarning nikoh to'g'risidagi qonuni, 1955 yil
  20. Hindu Successions Act, 1956
  21. Foreign Marriage Act, 1969
  22. Family Courts Act, 1984
  23. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
  24. Hindu Adoption & Maintenance ACT, 1956
  25. Jinoyat-protsessual kodeksi, 1973 yil
  26. Homiladorlikni tibbiy tugatish to'g'risidagi qonun, 1971 yil
  27. National Commission for Women Act, 1990
  28. The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994
  29. Ayollarni oiladagi zo'ravonlikdan himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, 2005 y
  30. Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition & Redressal) Act, 2013[143]
  31. Indian Divorce Act, 1969
  32. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
  33. Hindu beva ayollarni qayta turmush qurish to'g'risidagi qonun, 1856 yil
  34. Muslim women (protection of rights on divorce) Act, 1986

Boshqa tashvishlar

Social opinions

Asosiy maqola: Hindistonda jinsiy aloqa tarixi

In the wake of several brutal rape attacks in the capital city of Delhi, debates held in other cities revealed that some men believed women who dressed provocatively deserved to get raped; many of the correspondents stated women incited men to rape them.[144][145]

Participation of women in social life

The degree to which women participate in public life, that is being outside the home, varies by region and background. Masalan, Rajputs, a patrilineal clan inhabiting parts of India, especially the north-western area, have traditionally practiced ghunghat, and many still do to this day. In recent years however, more women have started to challenge such social norms: for instance women in rural Xaryana are increasingly rejecting the ghunghat.[146] In India, most population (about two thirds)[147] is rural, and, as such, lives in tight-knit communities where it is very easy for a woman to ruin her family's 'honor' through her behavior. Tushunchasi oilaviy sharaf is especially prevalent in northern India. Izzat is a concept of honor prevalent in the culture of North India and Pokiston.[148] Izzat applies to both sexes, but in different ways. Women must uphold the 'family honor' by being chaste, passive and submissive, while men must be strong, brave, and be willing and able to control the women of their families.[149] The rural areas surrounding Dehli are among the most conservative in India: it has been estimated that 30% of all honor killings of India take place in G'arbiy Uttar-Pradesh,[150] while Haryana has been described as "one of India's most conservative when it comes to caste, marriage and the role of women. Deeply patriarchal, caste purity is paramount and marriages are arranged to sustain the status quo."[151]

In 2018 the Supreme Court of India lifted a centuries-old ban prohibiting women between the ages of 10 and 50 from entering Sabarimala ibodatxonasi yilda Kerala. In 2019 two women entered the temple under police protection. Hind millatchilari protested the women's entry and Sredxaran Pillay, State President of the Kerala branch of the nationalist Bharatiya Janata partiyasi (of which Indian prime minister Narendra Modi is a member) described the women's entry into the temple as "a conspiracy by the atheist rulers to destroy the Hindu temples."[152] Prime Minister Modi said, "We knew that the communists do not respect Indian history, culture and spirituality but nobody imagined they will have such hatred," The shrine is dedicated to the worship of Lord Ayyappa, a celibate deity, and adherents believe the presence of women would "pollute" the site and go against the wishes of the patron deity. The two women had to go into hiding after entering the temple and were granted 24 hour police protection. One of the women was locked out of her home by her husband and had to move in to a shelter. Dozens of women seeking entry to temple have since been turned back by demonstrators.[153]

Prior to November 2018, women were forbidden to climb Agasthyarkoodam. A court ruling removed the prohibition.[45]

Sog'liqni saqlash

Community health worker preparing a emlash yilda Odisha
Asosiy maqola: Hindistonda ayollar salomatligi

The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, especially rural ones, girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.[22] Almost half of adolescent girls are chronically malnourished.[154] In addition, poor nutrition during pregnancy often leads to birth complications.[154]

The onalar o'limi in India is the 56th highest in the world.[155] 42% of births in the country are supervised in Medical Institution. In rural areas, most of women deliver with the help of women in the family, contradictory to the fact that the unprofessional or unskilled deliverer lacks the knowledge about pregnancy.[22]

Oilani rejalashtirish

Asosiy maqola: Hindistonda oilani rejalashtirish

The average woman living in a rural area in India has little or no control over becoming pregnant. Women, particularly in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilisation accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations.[22] The contraceptive prevalence rate for 2007/2008 was estimated at 54.8%.[147]

Women from lower castes

Lower caste women in India have seen significant improvement in their status. Educated and financially well-off Dalit women used politics to achieve status, however, that many Dalit women who were involved in politics later declined due to increasing income and educational levels.[156] The status of Dalit women within households is also noted to have been improved.[157]

Jinsiy munosabatlar

Hindiston kasalxonasida tug'ruqdan oldin jinsiy qaror qilish jinoyat ekanligi to'g'risida belgi.

India has a highly skewed sex ratio, which is attributed to sex-selective abortion and female infanticide affecting approximately one million female babies per year.[158] In, 2011, government stated India was missing three million girls and there are now 48 less girls per 1,000 boys.[159] Despite this, the government has taken further steps to improve the ratio, and the ratio is reported to have been improved in recent years.[160]

The number of missing women totaled 100 million across the world.[161] The male-to-female ratio is high in favor toward men in developing countries in Asia, including India, than that of areas such as North America. Along with abortion, the high ratio of men in India is a result of sex selection, where physicians are given the opportunity to incorrectly[tushuntirish kerak ] determine the sex of a child during the ultrasound.[162] India currently has a problem known as the "missing women", but it has been present for quite some time.[vaqt muddati? ] The female mortality in 2001 was 107.43.[163] The deaths of these "missing women" were attributed to the death history rate of women in India starting in 1901.

The gap between the two gender titles is a direct response to the gender bias within India. Men and women in India have unequal health and education rights. Male education and health are more of a priority, so women's death rates are increasing.[163] The argument continues[kimga ko'ra? ] that a lack of independence that women are not allowed to have is a large contributor to these fatalities. Women in India have a high fertility rate and get married at a young age. Those who are given more opportunity and rights are more likely to live longer and contribute to the economy rather than that of a woman expected to serve as a wife starting at a young age and continuing the same responsibilities for the rest of her life.[tahrir qilish ] As women continue to "disappear," the sex ratio turns its favor toward men. In turn, this offsets reproduction and does not allow for a controlled reproductive trend. While the excess mortality of women is relatively high, it cannot be blamed completely for the unequal sex ratio in India.[betaraflik bu bahsli] However, it is a large contributor considering the precedence that Indian men have over women.

Sanitariya

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Hindistondagi sanitariya

In rural areas, schools have been reported to have gained the improved sanitation facility.[164] Given the existing socio-cultural norms and situation of sanitation in schools, girl students are forced not to relieve themselves in the open unlike boys.[165] Lack of facilities in home forces women to wait for the night to relieve themselves and avoid being seen by others.[166] Access to sanitation in Bihar has been discussed. According to an estimate from 2013, about 85% of the rural households in Bihar have no access to a toilet; and this creates a dangerous situation for women and girls who are followed, attacked and raped in the fields.[167]

In 2011 a "Right to Pee" (as called by the media) campaign began in Mumbay, India's largest city.[168] Women, but not men, have to pay to urinate in Mumbai, despite regulations against this practice. Women have also been sexually assaulted while urinating in fields.[168] Thus, activists have collected more than 50,000 signatures supporting their demands that the local government stop charging women to urinate, build more toilets, keep them clean, provide sanitary napkins and a trash can, and hire female attendants.[168] In response, city officials have agreed to build hundreds of public toilets for women in Mumbai, and some local legislators are now promising to build toilets for women in every one of their districts.[168]

Shuningdek qarang

Lists of Indian women by profession:

Izohlar

  1. ^ "Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women’s purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: ‘wives are there for having sons’. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time, especially among higher caste people. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day.[5]"
  2. ^ "Darkness can be said to have pervaded one aspect of society during the inter-imperial centuries: the degradation of women. In Hinduizm, the monastic tradition was not institutionalized as it was in the heterodoxies of Buddizm va Jaynizm, where it was considered the only true path to spiritual liberation. (p. 88) Instead, Hindu men, particularly those of the upper castes, passed through several stages of life: that of initiate, when those of the ikki marta tug'ilgan kastalar received the sacred thread; that of student, when the upper castes studied the Vedalar; that of the married man, when they became householders; ... Since the Hindu man was enjoined to take a wife at the appropriate period of life, the roles and nature of women presented some difficulty. Unlike the monastic ascetic, the Hindu man was exhorted to have sons, and could not altogether avoid either women or sexuality. ... Manu approved of child brides, considering a girl of eight suitable for a man of twenty-four, and one of twelve appropriate for a man of thirty.(p. 89) If there was no dowry, or if the groom’s family paid that of the bride, the marriage was ranked lower. In this ranking lay the seeds of the curse of dowry that has become a major social problem in modern India, among all castes, classes and even religions. (p. 90) ... the widow’s head was shaved, she was expected to sleep on the ground, eat one meal a day, do the most menial tasks, wear only the plainest, meanest garments, and no ornaments. She was excluded from all festivals and celebrations, since she was considered inauspicious to all but her own children. This penitential life was enjoined because the widow could never quite escape the suspicion that she was in some way responsible for her husband’s premature demise. ... The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and the other commentators and writers of Dharmashastra are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown."[6]
  3. ^ "The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling."[7]
  4. ^ "In regions where social life was not influenced significantly by great warrior lineages – on the fringes of Mughal power, in the north-eastern mountains, the southern peninsula, Sri Lanka, and Nepal – marriage customs tend to elaborate local family ties, enhancing local identities. Women typically marry in or near their natal village. Marriage to kin is preferred. Female seclusion (pardah) is rare and rates of female participation in higher education and wage labour are normal. Women commonly work in public in fields, in shops, and in offices. Unmarried women often walk the streets and use public transport alone or with friends, both male and female. By contrast, in regions ruled by great warrior clans – in the heartlands of Mughal power across Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and east across Bangladesh – extensive marriage networks are typical and the regional rank of families is critical. Marriage is normally forbidden within villages and to close kin. Families prefer women to marry at some distance from the natal village, and more so in high-status families. Pardah is widely practised, and as a result, women’s participation in education and wage labour is low. A woman’s place is definitely at home, where her virtue is the family honour. It is thus less common to see women working in public or travelling without male kin."[8]
  5. ^ "Reports of National Health & Family Survey, United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, and WHO have highlighted that rates of malnutrition among adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, and children are alarmingly high in India. Factors responsible for malnutrition in the country include mother’s nutritional status, lactation behaviour, women’s education, and sanitation. These affect children in several ways including stunting, childhood illness, and retarded growth."[11]

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Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Ali, Azra Asg'ar (2000). Hindiston musulmon ayollari orasida feminizmning paydo bo'lishi 1920-1947 yillar. Oksford universiteti matbuoti.
  • Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1956). Tarixdan to hozirgi kungacha hind tsivilizatsiyasida ayollarning mavqei. Motilal Banarsidass.
  • Amin, Sonia Nishat (1996). Mustamlaka Bengalidagi musulmon ayollar olami, 1876–1939. Brill.
  • Anagol, Padma (2010). "Feministik meros va merosxo'rlar: zamonaviy Hindistondagi feminizmning boshlanishi". Ayollar tarixi sharhi. 19 (4): 523–546. doi:10.1080/09612025.2010.502398. S2CID  144279774.
Zamonaviy Hindistondagi feminizmning boshlanishini G'arbiy Hindistonning Maxarashtra shahridagi ijtimoiy va diniy islohotlar harakatlari bilan bog'laydi.

Tarixnoma

Tashqi havolalar