Robert Styuart, Viskont Kastlerag - Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

Eng sharafli

Londonderri markasi

KG GCH Kompyuter Kompyuter (Ire)
Londonderry.jpg-dan Lord Castlereagh Markes
Tashqi ishlar bo'yicha davlat kotibi
Ofisda
1812 yil 4 mart - 1822 yil 12 avgust
Bosh Vazir
OldingiMarkes Uelsli
MuvaffaqiyatliJorj konservasi
Jamoalar palatasi rahbari
Ofisda
1812 yil 8 iyun - 1822 yil 12 avgust
Bosh VazirLiverpul grafligi
OldingiSpenser Perceval
MuvaffaqiyatliJorj konservasi
Urush va mustamlakalar bo'yicha davlat kotibi
Ofisda
1807 yil 25 mart - 1809 yil 1 noyabr
Bosh VazirPortlend gersogi
OldingiUilyam Vindxem
MuvaffaqiyatliLiverpul grafligi
Ofisda
1805 yil 10-iyul - 1806 yil 5-fevral
Bosh VazirKichik Uilyam Pitt
OldingiGraf Kamden
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam Vindxem
Nazorat kengashi prezidenti
Ofisda
1802 yil 2-iyul - 1806 yil 11-fevral
Bosh Vazir
OldingiDartmut grafligi
MuvaffaqiyatliLord Minto
Irlandiya bo'yicha bosh kotib
Ofisda
1798 yil 14-iyun - 1801 yil 27-aprel
Bosh VazirKichik Uilyam Pitt
Lord leytenantMarkes Kornuollis
OldingiTomas Pelxem
MuvaffaqiyatliCharlz Abbot
Shaxsiy ma'lumotlar
Tug'ilgan
Robert Styuart

(1769-06-18)18 iyun 1769 yil
Dublin, Irlandiya
O'ldi1822 yil 12-avgust(1822-08-12) (53 yoshda)
Woollet Hall, Kent, Angliya, Buyuk Britaniya
O'lim sababiO'z joniga qasd qilish
Dam olish joyiVestminster abbatligi
MillatiIrland
Siyosiy partiya
Turmush o'rtoqlarLady Amelia Hobart
Ota-onalar
Olma materKembrijdagi Sent-Jon kolleji
Imzo

Robert Styuart, Londonderrining 2-Markizi, KG, GCH, Kompyuter, Kompyuter (Ire) (1769 yil 18 iyun - 1822 yil 12 avgust), odatda sifatida tanilgan Lord Kastlerag[1], dan olingan xushmuomalalik unvoni Viskont Castlereagh[a] (Buyuk Britaniya: /ˈkɑːsalreɪ/ KAH-sal-ray ) tomonidan u 1796 yildan 1821 yilgacha uslubda bo'lgan Angliya-Irlandiya davlat arbobi. Britaniyalik sifatida Tashqi ishlar vaziri, 1812 yildan u boshqaruv uchun markaziy bo'lgan koalitsiya mag'lub bo'ldi Napoleon. U Britaniyaning asosiy diplomati edi Vena kongressi. Castlereagh ham edi Britaniya jamoatlar palatasi rahbari ichida "Liverpul" 1812 yildan o'z joniga qasd qilishgacha bo'lgan hukumat. Kariyerasining boshida, xuddi Irlandiya bo'yicha bosh kotib, u pastga qo'yishda qatnashgan 1798 yilgi Irlandiya qo'zg'oloni ning o'tishini ta'minlashda muhim rol o'ynadi Irlandiyaning 1800 yilgi Ittifoq qonuni.

Kastleragning chet el idorasidagi vazifasi Napoleonni yo'q qilish uchun ittifoq tuzish va uni moliyalashtirish edi. U muvaffaqiyatli Napoleonning dushmanlarini birlashtirdi Chumont shartnomasi 1814 yilda. Keyinchalik u Evropaning etakchilari bilan Venadagi kongressda kunning konservativ kayfiyatiga mos tinchlikni ta'minlash uchun ishlagan. Venada u ko'p yillar davomida davom etadigan tinchlik kelishuvini yaratishning asosiy maqsadida katta muvaffaqiyatlarga erishdi. U Frantsiyadan qasos va qasos olishga asoslangan qattiq shartnoma muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishini ko'rdi va baribir konservativ Burbonlar hokimiyatga qaytishdi. Diplomatik mahoratini ishlatib, qo'pol so'zlarni to'sib qo'ydi. U Shoumont ittifoqchilarini birlashtirdi, ayniqsa, 1815 yilda Napoleonning 100 kunini nihoyasiga etkazish niyatida. U buyuk kuchlarning sa'y-harakatlarini birlashtirgan Evropada uzoq muddatli tinchlik to'g'risida tasavvurga ega edi. Shu bilan birga u Britaniyaning chet eldagi manfaatlarini kuzatib bordi. U Gollandiyadan Keyp Koloniyasi va Seylonni sotib oldi. Frantsiyaning mustamlakalari qaytarib berildi, ammo Frantsiya 1791 yildan keyin Evropadagi barcha yutuqlaridan voz kechishi kerak edi. 1820 yilda u Buyuk Britaniyaning Evropa ishlariga aralashmasligi siyosatini e'lon qildi - bu siyosat asosan 1900 yilgacha qabul qilingan edi.

1798 yilgi qo'zg'olon paytida Irlandiyalik kotib sifatida u qo'zg'olonni bostirish va tartibni tiklashda etakchilik qildi. Kastlerag isyonchilar taslim bo'lgandan keyin ularga yumshoq munosabatda bo'lishni rag'batlantirdi, ammo ko'pchilik irlandlar uni xoin deb qoraladilar. Pittning Irlandiya parlamentini bekor qilgan Ittifoq to'g'risidagi aktini qo'llab-quvvatlaganida, tanqidlar kuchaygan. Kastlerag katoliklarning ozod bo'lishining doimiy tarafdori edi. 1805 yilda u urush bo'yicha davlat kotibi bo'ldi[2] va ishga yollashni isloh qilishda va Artur Uelslining Ispaniyada qo'mondon etib tayinlanishini ta'minlashda yuqori samaradorligini isbotladi. U 1809 yilda hukumat bo'linib ketganidan va muvaffaqiyatsiz urushdan so'ng iste'foga chiqdi. Keyin u do'sti Tori Jorj Kanning bilan duel bilan kurashdi; ikkalasi ham tirik qoldi. Ham chet el idorasi, ham jamoat rahbari sifatida ko'p vazifalarni bajarishga qattiq sadoqat ila u haddan tashqari ishlagan va 1822 yilda chuqur psixologik qiynalgan. Kastler Britaniyani xalqaro kongressda qatnashishidan oldin o'z joniga qasd qilgan.

1815 yildan keyin Castlereagh uyda repressiv choralar ko'rishda etakchi bo'lgan. U ozodlik va islohotlarga qarshi qattiq hujumlari uchun nafratlanardi. Jon Byu paradoksni ta'kidlaydi:

XIX asrdagi biron bir ingliz davlat arbobi xalqaro miqyosdagi ta'sirga erisha olmagan .... Ammo juda ozchilik o'z vatandoshlari tomonidan haqoratlangan va tarixda shuncha xo'rlangan. Ushbu uyatchang va kelishgan Ulsterman, ehtimol zamonaviy Britaniya va Irlandiya siyosiy tarixidagi eng nafratlangan ichki siyosiy arbobdir.[3]

Tug'ilishi va kelib chiqishi

Robert 1769 yil 18-iyunda Genri ko'chasidagi 28-uyda tug'ilgan Dublin "s Shimoliy tomon.[4] U yagona bola edi Robert Styuart (oqsoqol) va uning rafiqasi Sara Frensis Seymur-Konvey. Uning ota-onasi 1766 yilda turmush qurishgan.[5]

A uchun g'ayrioddiy Presviterian ("Dissenter") oqsoqol Robert Styuart taniqli edi Olster er egasi.[b] 1771 yilda u saylangan Whig ga qiziqish Irlandiya jamoatlar palatasi, qaerda u tarafdori edi Lord Charlemont va uning ittifoqchilar Britaniyadan katta mustaqillikka chaqirgan.[6] U 1789 yilda Baron Londonderri, 1795 yilda Viskont Kastlerag va 1796 yilda Qirol Londonderri grafligi yaratiladi. Jorj III, unga imkon beradi 1800 yilgi Ittifoq akti dan keyin Vestminsterda o'tirish uchun Lordlar palatasi sifatida Irlandiya vakili tengdoshi. 1816 yilda u yaratildi Londonderrining markasi[7] tomonidan Shahzoda Regent ning Newtownards va Yog'och yilda County Down, Graflikdagi xususiyatlarga ega Donegal va Londonderri. Oilaviy o'rindiq edi Styuart tog'i, County Down.[6]

Yosh Robertning onasi bir yoshida tug'ruq paytida vafot etdi.[8] U xonim Sara Frensis Seymur-Konuey edi, qizi Frensis Seymur-Konvey, Xertfordning 1-Markizi va Isabella Fitzroy. Lord Xertford ilgari bo'lgan Buyuk Britaniyaning Frantsiyadagi elchisi (1764-65) va Irlandiya lord-leytenanti (1765-66). Izabella Fitsroy qizi edi Charlz FitzRoy, Graftonning 2-gersogi.

Uning otasi besh yildan so'ng qizi Ledi Frensis Pratt bilan qayta turmush qurgan Charlz Pratt, 1-graf Kamden (1714–94),[9] etakchi ingliz huquqshunosi va ikkalasining taniqli siyosiy tarafdori Uilyam Pitt, Chatamning birinchi grafligi va uning o'g'li, Kichik Uilyam Pitt. Oqsoqol Robert Styuartning nikohlari uning oilasini ingliz zodagonlari va siyosiy elitalarining yuqori darajalari bilan bog'ladi. Kembden aloqasi katta va kichik Robert Styuartning siyosiy martabasi uchun ayniqsa muhim bo'lishi kerak edi.[6] Frensis Pratt tomonidan, otasining ikkinchi xotini, yosh Robert o'n bitta edi birodarlar, shu jumladan uning akasi Charlz Uilyam Styuart (keyinchalik Veyn), Styuart sudidagi Baron Styuart va Donal okrugidagi Ballylaun (1814) va Londonderrining 3-Markizi (1822).[10]

Robert Styuartning qurollari, Londonderrining 2-Markizi, KG, GCH, PC, PC (Irlandiya)

Dastlabki hayot va martaba

Kichkina Robert Styuart bolaligida sog'lig'i bilan bog'liq muammolar bilan azoblanib, unga yuborilgan Armagh qirollik maktabi O'rta ma'lumot uchun Angliyaga emas.[11] Unga katta qiziqish bilan qaragan va unga qon bilan nevarasidek munosabatda bo'lgan birinchi Kempden grafligi Charlz Prattning da'vati bilan u keyinchalik qatnashdi. Kembrijdagi Sent-Jon kolleji (1786–87),[12] u erda o'zini aristokratdan kutilganidan ko'ra ko'proq tirishqoqlik bilan qo'llagan va oxirgi imtihonlarida birinchi sinfni olgan. U uzoq davom etgan kasalligi sababli Kembrijni tark etdi va Irlandiyaga qaytib kelgandan keyin qo'shimcha rasmiy ta'lim olmadi.[6][13]

1790 yilda Styuart a Irlandiya parlamenti a'zosi uning oilasi uchun Down saylov okrugi. Viloyat markazining ko'pligi sababli qirq shiling bepul egalari bu juda raqobatbardosh va qimmat saylovlar edi.[14][15][c] U qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan platformada yugurdi Whig saylov islohotlari printsiplari va Buyuk Britaniya hukumatining Irlandiyadagi siyosatiga qarshi, ammo u bu siyosatga kirdi Irlandiya jamoatlar palatasi mustaqil sifatida va boshidan bosh vazir Uilyam Pittning shaxsiy tarafdori edi. Styuart katolik imtiyozlarining umrbod himoyachisi edi, garchi o'ziga xos masalada uning pozitsiyasi Katolik ozodligi siyosatning boshqa ustuvor yo'nalishlariga ta'sirini baholashiga qarab o'zgarib turdi.[6]

Oila daraxti
Robert Styuart (Castlereagh) rafiqasi, ota-onasi va boshqa tanlangan qarindoshlari bilan. Uning bolalari yo'q edi.
Uilyam
Styuart
Polkovnik		Jon
Kovan
d. 1733
Aleksandr
1699–1781		Meri
Kovan
d. 1788		Robert
Kovan
d. 1737
Bombay
Hokim
Sara
Frensis
Seymur
1747–1770		Robert
1-chi
Markes
1739–1821		Frensis
Pratt
v. 1751 -
1833
Robert
2-chi
Markes
1769–1822
Castlereagh		Ameliya
Xobart
1772–1829		Ketrin
Bligh
d. 1812		Charlz
3-chi
Markes
1778–1854		Frensis
Vane
1800–1865
Frederik
4-chi
Markes
1805–1872		Jorj
5-chi
Markes
1821–1884
Charlz
6-chi
Markes
1852–1915		Tereza
Talbot
d. 1919 yil
Afsona
XXXRobert Styuart
(Castlereagh)		XXXRobert
Kovan		XXXMarkeslari
Londonderri
Otasining birinchi xotini chapda, ikkinchisi o'ngda.

Frantsiya bilan urush Britaniya hukumatining frantsuz istilosining mumkin bo'lgan joyi sifatida Irlandiyaga e'tiborini kuchaytirganda Irlandiyalik ko'ngillilar, norozilikning mumkin bo'lgan manbai sifatida ko'rilgan, tomonidan tarqatib yuborilgan Dublin qal'asi va qayta tashkil etilgan Militsiya 1793 yilda yaratilgan.[16] Styuart zobit sifatida ro'yxatdan o'tgan, bu yosh protestant aristokrati uchun odatiy holdir va xotinining amakisi Tomas Konolining buyrug'i bilan podpolkovnik bo'lib xizmat qilgan. Styuartning militsiya vazifalarida qatnashishi, Londonda madaniy, oilaviy va siyosiy manfaatlarni ko'zlashi, qit'aga ikki safari (1791 yilda, u inqilobiy Parijga tashrif buyurganida va 1792 yilda) va 1794 yilda uylangan rafiqasi bilan uchrashish o'rtasida. , bu davrda uning hayoti Irlandiyaning jamoatlar uyi faoliyatida emas edi, u erda u hurmat bilan tinglangan, ammo u hali muhim o'yinchi bo'lmagan. U, shuningdek, o'z saylov okrugidagi ba'zi radikal asl tarafdorlarini xafa qila boshladi. Sifatida Frantsiya inqilobi Frantsiyadan kelgan tahdidlar Irlandiyaning Angliya bilan aloqalarini buzishga qodir bo'lsa, Styuart ko'proq qonli va Irlandiyada isyonkor bo'lib o'sdi. U Irlandiyadagi siyosatda aniq bir yo'nalishni ma'qullamagan taqdirda ham, nafaqat Pittni shaxsan, balki Britaniya hukumatini ham qo'llab-quvvatlashga moyil bo'ldi.[6]

1794 yilda qisman Styuartning manfaatlarini o'zining Kamden aloqalari bilan ilgari surishi natijasida unga hukumat tomonidan boshqariladigan o'rindiq taklif qilindi. Tregoniya uchun saylangan Kornuolda Britaniya jamoatlar palatasi shunga o'xshash islohot printsiplari platformasida va Vestminsterda u tomonda o'tirgan Pittni qo'llab-quvvatladi. 1796 yilda u o'tiradigan joyga o'tirdi Suffolk saylov okrugi Orford, bu uning onasining oilasi Seymour-Conways (Xertfordning markasi ). U bu o'rindiqlarni pastki o'rindig'i bilan bir vaqtning o'zida ushlab turdi.[6][17]

Nikoh

1794 yilda Styuart uylandi Ameliya (Emili) Xobart, qizi Jon Xobart, Bukingemshirning ikkinchi grafligi,[18] avvalgi Buyuk Britaniyaning Rossiyadagi elchisi (1762–65) va Irlandiya lord-leytenanti (1776-80). Uning onasi Karolin Konoli nabirasi edi Uilyam Konoli, Spiker Irlandiya jamoatlar palatasi 18-asrning boshlarida va Irlandiyaning eng boy er egalaridan biri. Kerolaynning akasi Tomas Konolli turmushga chiqqan Luiza Lennoks, singlisi Emili FitsGerald, Leinster gersoginyasi, uning o'g'li va Emilining amakivachchasi, aristokratik isyonchi Lord Edvard FitsJerald, ning lideri edi Birlashgan Irlandiyaliklar va ularning shahidlaridan biri dastlabki bosqichlarida 1798 yilgi Irlandiya qo'zg'oloni.

Emili Styuart Irlandiyada ham, Londonda ham, uning eng muhim diplomatik missiyalarida ham eri uchun styuardessa sifatida tanilgan. Keyingi yillarda u rahbar edi Regency London yuqori jamiyat xonim patronessalaridan biri sifatida Almackniki. U jozibadorligi, o'zgaruvchanligi va zamonaviyligi bilan ajralib turadi ekssentrikliklar.[6] Umuman aytganda, ikkalasi oxirigacha bir-biriga sadoqatli bo'lib qolishdi, ammo ularning bolalari yo'q edi.[d] Biroq, er-xotin yoshlarga g'amxo'rlik qildi Frederik Styuart, uning otasi, Styuartning ukasi Charlz xizmat qilayotgan paytda armiya.[19]

Irlandiya bo'yicha bosh kotib

Shuningdek qarang: Irlandiyadagi Cornwallis
Qonli Kastlerag, 1798

Birlashgan Irlandiyaliklarni bostirish

1795 yilda Pitt mashhur Irlandiyalik leytenant o'rnini egalladi, Lord Fitsvilliam, Styuartning amakisi bilan Ikkinchi graf Kamden. Kamdenning Dublinga kelishi tartibsizliklar bilan kutib olindi va o'sha yili Styuart Buyuk Britaniya hukumati tarafdorlariga qo'shilish uchun polni kesib o'tdi.[e] Styuart tajribasiz va mashhur bo'lmagan Lord leytenantning muhim maslahatchisi bo'ldi, u Styuartning atigi o'n yil katta bo'lgan.

1796 yilda, qachon Frantsiyaning Irlandiyaga bosqini muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi da Bantri ko'rfazi yomon ob-havo tufayli va Irlandiyaning harbiy tayyorgarligi yoki Britaniya dengiz kuchlari uchun emas, Kastlerag Militsiya etakchisi sifatida birinchi navbatda Irlandiyaning Britaniyadan ajralib chiqib, yana bir frantsuz sun'iy yo'ldoshiga aylanish uchun pishganligini ko'rdi. Keyingi bir necha yil ichida Irlandiyani bosqinchilik bilan tahdid qilishgan bo'lsa, Britaniyadan o'z vaqtida harbiy yordam olishdan umidini uzgan, u tobora ko'proq buzilib ketish va bostirish choralarida ishtirok etmoqda. Birlashgan Irlandiyaliklar. Presviterian shimoli-sharqida kelib chiqqan va yaxshi tashkil etilgan respublika fitnasi o'sib borayotgan ijarachilar va uning oilasining tanishlari Styuart tog'i, County Down.

1797 yilda nihoyat Kastlerag tayinlandi Dublin qal'asi ma'muriyati Irlandiya uchun Qirol imzosini saqlovchi sifatida.[f] Harbiy holat e'lon qilinganidan keyin u ikkala a Xazina Rabbisi va a'zosi Irlandiyaning Maxfiy Kengashi (1797–1800).[g] Kamdenning da'vati bilan Kastlerag ko'pincha yo'q bo'lganlarning ko'plab og'ir vazifalarini o'z zimmasiga oldi Irlandiya bo'yicha bosh kotib u kundalik ma'muriyat va jamoatlar palatasida Dublin qal'asining ta'sirini tasdiqlash uchun mas'ul bo'lgan.[h] Ushbu lavozimda va 1798 yil martidan keyin bosh kotib vazifasini bajaruvchi sifatida Kastlerag Birlashgan Irlandiyani ko'tarilishida eng muhim rol o'ynadi, 1798 yilgi qo'zg'olon.

Uilyam Porterning qatl etilishi

Castlereaghning umumiy siyosati isyonchilarning oddiy odamlariga (ularning aksariyati keyinchalik xayrixohlikka jalb qilingan) afv etishni taklif qilish edi. Shunga qaramay, u 1798 yil iyul oyida muhtaram Uilyam Porterning qatl qilinishi bilan shaxsiy qasoskorligi uchun obro'ga ega bo'ldi. Porter 1790 yilgi saylovda Castlereaghga murojaat qilgan va Styuart tog'iga tez-tez tashrif buyurgan.

O'tgan yillarda Porter County Down-ning qiziqishi bilan mashhur va siyosiy yo'naltirilgan satirasini yozdi Billi Bluff, Birlashgan Irlandiyada seriyalangan Belfast qog'oz, Shimoliy yulduz.[20] 1798 yil fevralda u Styuart tog'i yonidagi (o'shanda qurollangan qo'riqchilar ostida va ijaraga beruvchilar ijaraga olgan), o'zining presviterlik jamoatidan nega Irlandiyaning urush olib borayotganini so'radi: "bu bizning Angliya bilan aloqamizning natijasi". Frantsiya bosqini, deya e'lon qildi u, xalqqa emas, faqat hukumatga tahdid qildi. Isyonchilar bilan birlashishning noaniq dalillari bilan birga, bu Porterni xoinlikda ayblash uchun etarli edi. Keyin uning rafiqasi Ledi Kastlerag va uning singlisi Ledi Yelizaveta sil kasalligidan vafot etganiga qaramay, Kastlerag afv etish to'g'risida apellyatsiya berishdan bosh tortdi. Porter o'z cherkovi oldida osib qo'yilgan edi, keyinchalik da'vo qilinganidek, Styuart tog'ining ijarachilari, buyurtma asosida, ishtirok etishgan.[21]

Ittifoq akti va ozodlik va'dasi

1799 yilda ham o'zining siyosiy qarashlari, ham Pitt siyosati asosida Kastlerag Irlandiya va Britaniya parlamentlarida tarkibiga kiradigan ittifoq uchun lobbichilik qila boshladi. Irlandiya bilan Buyuk Britaniya Birlashgan Qirollikda. Frantsuzlarga qarshi xavfsizlik bilan bir qatorda, Castlereagh Irlandiyani to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qo'l ostiga olishning asosiy xizmatini ko'rdi toj ichida Vestminster Parlament, katolik masalasi, oxir-oqibatda mamlakatni boshqarish uchun muhim bo'lgan qarorning qarori sifatida.[22] U "Angliya bilan bog'langan", u "protestantlar o'zlarini ozroq his qilsalar, o'ziga ishonganroq va liberalroq bo'lishadi", deb o'ylardilar, katoliklar esa katta qirollikda ozchilikni tashkil qilgan holda, ularning umidlarini pasaytiradi va talablarini mo'tadil qiladi.[23]

Birlashish to'g'risidagi aktsiya davomida Castlereagh va Cornwallis ham vijdonan Pitt kabinetidan olgan norasmiy kafolatlarini Irlandiya katoliklari ularga Buyuk Britaniyaning yangi parlamentida o'tirishga ruxsat berilishi haqida. Biroq, Angliyadagi oppozitsiya va eng kamida qirol tomonidan, Jorj III, Castlereaghga "Ittifoqning mantig'i" deb qarashga majbur bo'ldi.[24] The Birlik hisobi unvonlari va ne'matlarini saxiy taqsimlash bilan, u Irlandiya parlamentida katoliklarning ozodligi to'g'risidagi qoidalarni bekor qilinishiga yordam berdi. Dublindagi alohida Irlandiyalik ijrochi saqlanib qoldi, ammo hali ham butunlay protestantlik vakili Vestminsterga o'tkazilib, Parlamentning parlamenti sifatida tashkil etildi. Buyuk Britaniya va Irlandiyaning Birlashgan Qirolligi.[6][16]

Pitt o'z majburiyatini bajarishga harakat qilgan edi, ammo yorug'lik paydo bo'lganda, Shoh yaqinlashdi Genri Addington, uning o'rnini egallash uchun Bosh vazir bo'lish to'g'risida katoliklarning ozod bo'lishiga qarshi bo'lgan Kastlerag va Pitt ham iste'foga chiqdilar. Kastlerag uzoq vaqt davomida Irlandiyadagi ko'plab katoliklar tomonidan va'dalarning buzilishi va Buyuk Britaniya hukumatining o'z huquqlariga xiyonati uchun shaxsan javobgar bo'ladi.[6][16]

Dublinda bo'lganida, Castlereagh a'zosi edi Kildare ko'cha klubi.[25] U saylandi Qirollik jamiyatining a'zosi 1802 yilda.[26]

Vestminsterda va hukumatda

1801 yilda Buyuk Britaniyaning yangi birlashgan parlamenti yig'ilganda, Kastler o'zining Down saylov okrugidan jamoalar palatasidagi o'rnini egalladi. 1802 yilga kelib, ozodlikni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi Tori va unga qarshi bo'lganlar o'rtasidagi ziddiyatlar yumshadi va Addington Frantsiya bilan urushni to'xtatishni xohladi (va Amiens tinchligi ). Tarkibidagi siljish paytida Addington hukumati, Castlereagh vazirlar mahkamasiga kirish taklifini qabul qildi Nazorat kengashi prezidenti, bu erda u o'rtasidagi achchiq nizolarga vositachilik qilgan Hindiston general-gubernatori, Richard Uelsli, va Direktorlar ning East India kompaniyasi, odatda Lord Uelsli siyosatini qo'llab-quvvatlagan holda janjallarni yumshatish.[27]

Yangilanganidan keyin urush qarshi Napoleon, Kastlerag va boshqa uzoq yillik tarafdorlarining da'vati bilan 1804 yilda Pitt Bosh vazir lavozimiga qaytdi va Kastlerag lavozimiga ko'tarildi. Urush va mustamlakalar bo'yicha davlat kotibi. Ning boshqa a'zosi sifatida Pittning kabineti jamoalar palatasida Kastlerag Pittning sog'lig'i yomonlashishda davom etar ekan, ko'proq og'irliklarni ko'tarib, Pittning siyosiy o'rinbosari bo'ldi.[6] Pitt 1806 yilda vafot etganidan so'ng, Kastlerag tartibsizliklar orasida iste'foga chiqdi Barcha iste'dodlar vazirligi. Ushbu hukumat yiqilganda, Kastler yana 1807 yilda urush va mustamlakalar bo'yicha davlat kotibi bo'ldi, bu safar vazirlik ning Portlend gersogi.[28]

Konservalash bilan duel

Urush bo'yicha vazir sifatida Kastlerag tortishuvlarga aralashdi Tashqi ishlar vaziri Jorj konservasi ustidan Walcheren ekspeditsiyasi va uning muvaffaqiyatsizligi. Konservalash uni qo'shinlarni boshqa tomonga yo'naltirish sifatida qabul qildi Yarim urush umidsiz rejaga asoslanib. Biroq, Kastlerag Lord Lord Uelslining ukasi tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlandi General Artur Uelsli (kelajakdagi Vellington gersogi) va keyinchalik Konservning o'zi rejani tanlab, rejaga aralashgani haqida dalillar paydo bo'ldi. Chatham grafligi ekspeditsiyani boshqarish.[29] Ikki kishi o'rtasidagi tortishuvlar tufayli Portlend hukumati tobora falaj bo'lib qoldi. Portlend sog'lig'i yomonlashayotgan edi va hech qanday qo'rg'oshin bermaguncha, Kanning Kastlereag olib tashlanmasa va uning o'rniga Lord Uelsli tayinlanmasa, istefoga tahdid qilmaguncha. Uelleslining o'zi bu tartib bilan na sherik bo'lgan va na undan xabardor bo'lgan, ammo Portlend bu o'zgarishni imkoni boricha yashirincha qabul qilishga rozi bo'lgan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Kastlerag bitimni 1809 yil sentyabrda kashf etdi va uning o'rnini qoplashni talab qildi. U konservani duelga chorladi, uni konservatsiya qabul qildi. Konservalash hech qachon to'pponchadan o'q uzmagan edi. Duel 1809 yil 21 sentyabrda bo'lib o'tdi Putney Xit.[30] Konservalar o'tkazib yuborilgan, ammo Kastlerag raqibining sonidan jarohat olgan. Ikki vazir vazirining bunday usulni qo'llagani juda g'azablandi va ular ikkalasi ham hukumatdan iste'foga chiqishga majbur bo'lishdi. Olti oy o'tgach, Canning ishdagi harakatlari to'g'risida to'liq hisobotni e'lon qildi va dastlab unga miting qilganlarning ko'pchiligi Kastlerning kabinetdagi hamkasbi tomonidan xiyonat qilinganiga amin bo'lishdi.[31][sahifa kerak ]

Diplomatik martaba

Marmar büstü Castlereagh tomonidan Jozef Nollekens, 1821. Yel Britaniya san'ati markazi

Uch yildan so'ng, 1812 yilda Kastlerag hukumatga qaytib keldi, bu safar u tashqi ishlar vaziri bo'lib, keyingi o'n yil davomida xizmat qildi. Shu bilan birga u jamoatlar palatasining etakchisiga aylandi Spenser Percevalning o'ldirilishi 1812 yilda.

Chumont shartnomasi

Tashqi ishlar vaziri rolida u "nima" deb nomlangan muzokaralarda muhim rol o'ynadi to'rt karra ittifoq Britaniya, Avstriya, Rossiya va Prussiya da Chumont 1814 yil mart oyida Parij shartnomasi[29] bu Frantsiya bilan tinchlik olib keldi va Vena Kongressida. The Chumont shartnomasi taklif qilingan yakuniy bitimning bir qismi edi Napoleon Bonapart 1814 yilda Napoleon buni rad etdi va u hech qachon kuchga kirmadi. Biroq, asosiy shartlar allaqachon qabul qilingan qarorlarni tasdiqladi. Ushbu qarorlar yana ratifikatsiya qilindi va kuchga kirdi Vena kongressi 1814-1815 yillar. Shartlar asosan boshqa armiyalarni Napoleonga qarshi maydonda ushlab turish uchun naqd subsidiyalar taklif qilgan Lord Kastlerag tomonidan yozilgan.[32] Asosiy shartlar tarkibiga birlashgan Germaniyani barpo etish, mustaqil davlatlarga bo'linish, Ispaniyaning Burbon qirollarini tiklash va 1830 yilda zamonaviy Belgiyaga aylangan narsani qo'shish uchun Niderlandiyaning kengayishi kiradi. Chumont shartnomasi o'nlab yillar davomida kuchlar muvozanatini shakllantirgan Evropa Ittifoqining asosi bo'ldi.[33]

Tarixchi G. M. Trevelyan bahslashadi:

1813 va 1814 yillarda Kastlerag Uilyam III va Marlboro bundan yuz yildan ko'proq vaqt oldin o'ynagan rolini o'ynagan, hasadgo'y, xudbin, kuchsiz davlatlar va knyazlar ittifoqini birlashtirgan. Metternich, podshoh va Prussiya qiroli maqsadga erishguncha umumiy yo'lda. Ehtimol, Kastleragning ittifoqchilar maslahatida etakchilik qilishi uchun Frantsiya hech qachon o'zining qadimiy chegaralariga tushib qolmagan va Napoleon taxtdan tushirilmagan bo'lar edi.[34]

Vena kongressi

Da Vena kongressi, Castlereagh Evropa uchun kollektiv va hamkorlikda xavfsizlik shaklini ishlab chiqdi va taklif qildi, keyinchalik u Kongress tizimi. Kongress tizimida imzolagan asosiy vakolatlar vaqti-vaqti bilan (har ikki yilda bir marta) uchrashib turdi va Evropa ishlarini jamoaviy ravishda boshqardi. Ushbu tizim manzilga murojaat qilishda ishlatilgan Polsha-Sakson inqirozi Vena va Yunoniston mustaqilligi masalasi Leybaxda. Keyingi o'n yil ichida beshta Evropa Kongressi bo'lib o'tdi, u erda tortishuvlar samaradorligi pasayib ketar edi. Nihoyat, 1822 yilga kelib Angliya, Avstriya va Rossiya o'rtasidagi murosasiz fikrlar farqi va Britaniya jamoatchilik fikrida Kongress tizimini qo'llab-quvvatlamaganligi sababli butun tizim qulab tushdi. The Muqaddas ittifoq, Castlereagh qarshi bo'lgan, biroz ko'proq vaqtni ushlab turdi. The buyurtma Vena kongressi tomonidan yaratilgan kayfiyat ancha uzoq davom etgan va shu paytgacha Evropadagi yirik urushlarning oldini olish uchun ishlagan Birinchi jahon urushi 1914 yilda. Ba'zi olimlar va tarixchilar Kongress tizimini zamonaviylarning kashfiyotchisi sifatida ko'rishgan jamoaviy xavfsizlik, xalqaro birlik va kooperatsiya shartnomalari NATO, Evropa Ittifoqi, Millatlar Ligasi va Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti.[35][sahifa kerak ]

1812 yildan 1822 yilgacha Kastlerag Buyuk Britaniyaning tashqi siyosatini boshqarishda davom etdi va umuman XIX asrda Angliya tashqi siyosatiga xos bo'lmagan kontinental qo'shilish siyosatini olib bordi. Castlereagh samarali notiq emas edi va uning diplomatik taqdimot uslubi ba'zida abstrakt edi.[29] Genri Kissincer u yaxlitligi, izchilligi va xayrixohligi bilan obro'sini rivojlantirganini aytadi, bu o'sha davrning biron bir diplomati bilan tengsiz.[35][sahifa kerak ]

Qul savdosining bekor qilinishi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Atlantika qul savdosi § Atlantika qul savdosining oxiri

Buyuk Britaniyadagi abolitsionistik fikr 1807 yilda barcha ingliz mulklaridagi qul savdosini bekor qilish uchun etarlicha kuchli edi - garchi qullikning o'zi 1833 yilgacha mustamlakalarda saqlanib qolgan bo'lsa ham.[36] 1807 yildan keyin abolitsionistlar asosiy e'tiborni Atlantika qul savdosini bekor qilish to'g'risidagi xalqaro shartnomalarga qaratdilar. Kastler o'z pozitsiyasini o'zgartirdi va harakatning kuchli tarafdoriga aylandi. Buyuk Britaniya 1810–1814 yillarda Portugaliya, Shvetsiya va Daniya bilan shartnomalar tuzdi va shu orqali ular o'z savdolarini cheklashga kelishdilar. Bu Kastlerag hukmronlik qilgan va qul savdosini qoralovchi umumiy deklaratsiyani qabul qilgan Vena Kongressining dastlabki muzokaralari edi.[37] Muammo shundaki, xususiy manfaatlar uchun juda yuqori foyda keltirganligi sababli, shartnomalar va deklaratsiyalarni bajarish qiyin edi. Tashqi ishlar vaziri sifatida Castlereagh qullar kemalarini aniqlash va qo'lga olish uchun qirollik flotidan foydalanish uchun yuqori lavozimli amaldorlar bilan hamkorlik qildi; ozod qilingan qullar yangi Britaniya mustamlakasida ozodlikka jo'natildi Serra-Leone. U diplomatiyadan foydalanib, kemalari savdo qilayotgan barcha mamlakatlar bilan qidiruv-qidiruv shartnomalarini tuzdi. Janubiy qul manfaati siyosiy jihatdan kuchli bo'lgan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari bilan jiddiy ishqalanish mavjud edi. Vashington Buyuk Britaniyaning ochiq dengizdagi politsiyasida orqaga chekindi. Ispaniya, Frantsiya va Portugaliya ham o'zlarining mustamlaka plantatsiyalarini etkazib berishda xalqaro qul savdosiga tayanganlar. Kastlerag tomonidan tobora ko'proq diplomatik kelishuvlar amalga oshirilayotganligi sababli, qul kemalari egalari kelisha olmagan davlatlarning, xususan AQShning soxta bayroqlarini ko'tarib yurishni boshladilar. Amerika kemalari qul savdosi bilan shug'ullanishi Amerika qonunchiligiga binoan noqonuniy edi, ammo Angliyaning Amerika qonunlarini bajarishi g'oyasi Vashington uchun nomaqbul edi. Lord Palmerston Castlereagh siyosatini davom ettirdi. Oxir oqibat, 1842 yilda 1845 yilda London va Vashington o'rtasida kelishuvga erishildi. 1861 yilda Vashingtonga quldorlikka qarshi qat'iy hukumat kelishi bilan Atlantika qul savdosi halok bo'ldi. Uzoq muddatda Castlereaghning savdoni qanday qilib bo'g'ish bo'yicha strategiyasi muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi.[38]

Evropa ishlariga aralashmaslik

1820 yil may oyida Kastlerag amaldorlarga asrning qolgan qismidagi Buyuk Britaniyaning asosiy siyosatini belgilab beruvchi yirik davlat hujjatini tarqatdi. Temperli va Penson buni "Buyuk Britaniya tarixidagi eng taniqli davlat hujjati va eng keng oqibatlaridan biri" deb atashadi.[39] Kastlerag Britaniyaning qit'a ishlariga aralashishiga yo'l qo'ymaslikka chaqirdi. U to'rt kishilik alyansning maqsadi Frantsiyani qamrab olish va inqiloblarni to'xtatish edi. Ammo Ispaniyaning qo'zg'oloni Evropaning tinchligiga va biron bir buyuk davlatga tahdid solmadi. Kastleragning aytishicha, kuchlarning amaldagi amaliyoti kamdan-kam hollarda kelishilgan harakatlar to'g'risida kelisha oladi va u Britaniya jamoatchilik fikri aralashuvlarni qo'llab-quvvatlamasligini ta'kidladi. U alohida davlatlar haqiqatan ham tan olingan manfaatlar sohasidagi ishlarga, masalan, Avstriyaning Italiyaga aralashuviga aralashishi mumkinligini tan oldi.

Tomas Mur tomonidan chiroqni bo'yash

Matbuot sifatida yoki kaltak, Whigs uchun yozuvchi, Tomas Mur, yaxshiroq Irlandiyaning esida qoldi milliy bard,[40] shafqatsizlarcha chirog'li Castlereagh. "O'sha kunning siyosiy karikaturalarining og'zaki ekvivalenti" nimada edi,[41]Tom Kribning Kongressga yodgorligi (1818) va "Muqaddas ittifoq uchun afsonalar" (1823), Mur Kastleragning Britaniyaning reaktsion kontinental ittifoqchilari bilan piruet qilishini vahshiylashtirmoqda.[42]

Mur oxir-oqibat uning davomini yaratishi uchun keng o'qing, uning she'riyat romani edi Parijdagi Faj oilasi (1818). Parijdagi Castlereagh uchun targ'ibotchi sifatida ishlagan irlandiyalikning oilasi, Fudjesga mohir o'qituvchi va klassitsist Pelim Konnor hamrohlik qilmoqda. To'g'ri, ammo ko'ngli qolgan irland katoliksi, uning do'stiga yozgan xatlari Murning o'z qarashlarini aks ettiradi. Konnorning Kastlereagni muntazam ravishda epistolyariya denonsatsiyalari ikkita takrorlanadigan mavzuga ega edi. Birinchidan, Kastlerag "Irlandiya Buyuk Britaniya siyosatiga ittifoq natijasida yuqtirgan kasallikning timsoli".[43]: "Biz senga Castlereaghni yubordik - o'liklarning uyumlari singari, ularning qotillarini yoyilgan zararkunanda bilan o'ldiringlar". Ikkinchisi - bu vaqtda Ittifoq aktlari Kastlereagning katoliklarning ozod bo'lishini qo'llab-quvvatlashi bir-biriga zid edi. Kastlerag "qulni aravaga soladigan, u ozod bo'ladi deb qasam ichadigan" imonsiz hunarmandchilikning ustasi bo'lgan, ammo keyin "ochko to'planganda" uni "aylantiradi".[44]

1798 yilda o'z vataniga xiyonat qilgani, qo'llarini qonga to'kkanligi va Ittifoq davrida katoliklarni qasddan aldaganligi haqidagi bu taxmin Kastlerega jarohat etkazdi. Mur o'zaro bog'liqlikdan Kastlerning "kulgili va kulgili gaplarni u umuman o'ylamaganligini, balki o'qituvchining oyatlaridagi Fudge oilasi Bu boshqa narsadir va haqiqatan ham juda yomon ta'mga ega edi ".[45]

Rad etish va o'lim

Kastlerning uyi, Woollet Hall (endi Loring Hall deb nomlanadi), yilda Shimoliy Cray yilda Bexli, London janubi
Shimoliy Cray yo'li bo'ylab ko'k plaket

Napoleonni mag'lub etish va tinchlikni tiklashga qo'shgan hissalariga qaramay, Kastler o'z uyida juda mashhur bo'lmagan. U oppozitsiya tomonidan repressiv Evropa hukumatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlagani uchun jamoatlar palatasida hujumga uchradi, [46] jamoatchilik uning Commons tomonini boshqarishdagi rolidan norozi bo'lsa Jorj IV va qirolicha Kerolaynning ajrashishi.[47] Shuningdek, u repressiv choralar bilan bog'liqligi uchun mahkum etildi Uy kotibi, Lord Sidmut (sobiq bosh vazir Addington).[29] Sifatida Jamoalar palatasi rahbari uchun Liverpul hukumati, uni tez-tez chaqirishardi hukumat siyosatini himoya qilish uyda. U Sidmut va boshqalar tomonidan, shu jumladan, shafqatsizlar tomonidan amalga oshirilgan keng haqoratli choralarni qo'llab-quvvatlashi kerak edi Olti Havoriylar, vazirlar mahkamasida qolish va diplomatik ishini davom ettirish. Shu sabablarga ko'ra Kastlerag "Liverpul" ning boshqa kabinet a'zolari bilan birga paydo bo'ladi Shelli she'r Anarxiya masjidi dan ilhomlangan va qattiq tanqid qilingan Peterloo qirg'ini:

Qotillik bilan yo'lda uchrashdim -
Uning Castlereagh kabi niqobi bor edi -
U juda silliq ko'rinardi, ammo xunuk;
Uning orqasidan ettita qonli it tushdi
Hammasi semiz edi; va ular yaxshi
Hayratlanarli ahvolda bo'ling,
Birma-bir, ikkitadan ikkitadan,
U ularni odam qalbini chaynash uchun tashladi
U keng plashidan qaysi birini tortdi.[48]

Kuzatuvchilar 1817 yilda uning "odatiy odat" (jasoratli) holga kelgani haqida xabar berishgan. Uelsli Pole o'zini kasal bo'lib ko'rindi deb o'ylardi ("juda muloyim ko'rinish"), lekin "Men bunga hayron bo'lmayman, chunki uning parlamentdagi vakolatxonasi va jamoatlar palatasidagi sergakligi Geraklning sog'lig'ini yo'q qilish uchun etarli" deb aytdi. Kastlereag 1817 yil fevral va mart oylarida "o'tkir" gut xurujlarini boshdan kechirdi va keyinchalik uning takrorlanishi xavotirda edi.[49] Shuningdek, u otasining sog'lig'i yomonlashgani tufayli uni qiynagan. Lord Londonderri Irlandiyadagi oilaviy o'rindiqda yashar edi va Kastlerag uni tez-tez ko'rishga qodir emas edi: u 1820 yilda, Daun okrugidagi saylov okrugidagi saylovlarda kurash olib borganida, bir marta tashrif buyurishga muvaffaq bo'lgan, ammo 1820 yil oxiriga kelib u "juda achinarli" [otasini] ko'rishga ruxsat berilmaganda. " Kastlereagning muammolarini yanada kuchaytirar ekan, u otasining o'limi Irlandiyalik saylov okrugidan voz kechishni talab qilishini bilar edi, chunki u qo'rqib, kechikish va noaniqlikni keltirib chiqaradi.[50]

1821 yil aprelida otasi vafot etganidan so'ng, "uni juda azoblagan", Kastlerag Londonderrining 2-Markesiga aylandi.[51] Irlandiyalik saylov okrugida o'tirishni davom ettirish huquqiga ega bo'lmasa-da, u vakili bo'lmagan irlandiyalik tengdosh sifatida u jamoat palatasida inglizcha o'rin uchun o'tirish huquqiga ega edi. Tayyorgarlik allaqachon olib borilgan edi va u Downni bo'shatib, amakisi Lord Xertfordning Orford tumaniga (u 1796 va 1797 yillarda deputat bo'lgan) saylovda tezda g'alaba qozonishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.[52] Shuningdek, u yangi qirol Jorj IV bilan yaxshi munosabatda bo'ldi, u Lord Liverpoolni istefoga chiqarishni va uning o'rniga Kastleragni tayinlashni ochiqchasiga taklif qildi. Ammo Kastlereagning hamkasblari bilan munosabatlari, ehtimol paranoyaning ta'sirida buzila boshlagan edi. 1821 yil mart oyida u akasiga hukumat skameykalarida etarlicha qo'llab-quvvatlanmasligini va uning parlamentdagi mehnatiga 'chidash qiyin' ekanligini aytdi. Shunga qaramay, u Tori partiyasining ko'tarilayotgan yulduzi Robert Peeldan tobora ko'proq shubhalana boshladi, Peelga xazina rolini berishga urinishlarni (shu jumladan, byudjet kansleri) qat'iyan himoya qilib, Peel yangi rolini qarshi fitna uyushtirish uchun imkoniyat sifatida ishlatishdan qo'rqardi. u; Lord Liverpool, Peelni har qanday lavozimga tayinlashdan oldin, "boshqa birovni afzal ko'rganligi uchun Lord Castlereaghning istaklari va hissiyotlari bilan maslahatlashib olaman" degan va'dasi bilan uni tinchitishi kerak edi. Iyun oyida Castlereaghning do'stlari unga "u bo'yinini yoqasidan siljitib, hamma narsani qilsa edi" deb aytishdi va yil oxiriga kelib u "juda bezovta" bo'lib qoldi. "ko'k shaytonlar" va "g'amgin savdosi" dan norozi.[53]

1822 yilga kelib, u bir shaklning aniq belgilarini ko'rsatmoqda paranoya yoki a asab buzilishi. U Palatadagi hukumatni boshqarishdagi vazifalari va boshqa yirik davlatlar o'rtasidagi ziddiyatlarni boshqarish uchun zarur bo'lgan tugamas diplomatiya bilan ham haddan tashqari ishlangan.[54] Uning Uydagi notiqligi hech qachon eng yuqori kalibrda bo'lmagan, ammo endi u aslida nomuvofiq deb topilgan.[55] Agar ishlar yaxshilanmasa, u o'z lavozimini tark etish haqida gapirdi. Uning ukasi Charlz Kastleragning "hamma narsadan nafratlangani", u Pildan shubhali ekanligi va barcha hamkasblari, shu jumladan Vellington, unga qarshi fitna uyushtirayotganiga va u "... ko'ngli buzilganiga va [Charlz] hech qachon bunday ahvolda bo'lgan odamni ko'rmagan edi ". U bilan ozgina tanish bo'lgan Whig Lord Tavistok bilan uchrashgan Kastler "... mamlakatning umumiy sharoitida hukumatni boshqarish azobini chidamlilikdan tashqari deb ta'rifladi va agar u bundan bir marta chiqib keta olsam bo'ladimi? , er yuzidagi hech qanday kuch uni yana unga undashi kerak emas. " Do'stlar va hamkasblar uning charchagan, kasal, qarigan, singan ko'rinishga ega ekanligini aytishdi. O'sha paytda u "Mening fikrim, go'yo yo'q bo'lib ketgan" dedi. Ham zamondosh, ham keyingi xotiralardagi ma'ruzalarda juda kuchli g'azablar va o'ziga xos bo'lmagan unutuvchanlikning to'satdan to'qnashuvlari haqida gap boradi. U ruhlarga va boshqa g'ayritabiiy mavjudotlarga, xususan, "nurli bola" ga, olovdan paydo bo'lgan va o'limni bashorat qilishi kerak bo'lgan odamga bo'lgan ishonchini tan olib, Irlandiyada yosh yigit sifatida ko'rganini tan olib, do'stlarini hayratda qoldirdi.[56][57]

Kastlerag o'sha paytda jinoiy harakatlar bo'lganini tan olishni boshladi. U allaqachon do'sti Arbutnot xonimga gomoseksual jinoyat uchun shantaj qilinayotganini aytgan edi; va 9 avgust kuni qirol bilan bo'lgan uchrashuvda Castlereagh chalg'itdi, uni xizmatkor sirli ravishda kuzatayotganini, u har xil jinoyatlarni sodir etganini aytdi va shunday dedi: "Meni Kloger yepiskopi ayblagan. " Persi Jozelin kim edi Kloger episkopi o'tgan oygacha, gomoseksualizm uchun jinoiy javobgarlikka tortilgan. Qirol Kastlerag xuddi shu sabab bilan shantaj qilinayotganiga ishonganini taxmin qildi, ammo o'zini yomon deb xulosa qildi va uni shifokorga murojaat qilishga undadi. Keyin qirol Lord Liverpulga Kastlereagning kasalligi to'g'risida ogohlantirgan xabar yubordi; Avvaliga "Liverpul" bu masalani jiddiy qabul qila olmadi va xabarni rad etdi. Biroq, o'sha kuni Kastlerag o'z kabinetidagi hamkasbi Vellington gersogi bilan uchrashdi. Kastlerag qirol bilan qilganidek o'zini tutdi; Vellington Kastlereagga ochiqchasiga uning aqli yo'qligini aytdi, unga shifokorga murojaat qilishni maslahat berdi va Kastlerning shaxsiy shifokori doktor Charlz Bankxedni, shuningdek Kastlereagning do'stlari Arbutnotlarni ogohlantirdi. [58] [59]

Doktor Bankxidning maslahati bilan Kastler o'z mamlakatidagi joyiga bordi Woollet Hall suv yo'lida, Shimoliy Cray, Kent, bir hafta oxiri qolish uchun. U o'z hayotiga, do'stlari va oilasi tashvishlariga qarshi fitnalar va tahdidlar to'g'risida vahshiyona gapirib, qiynalishda davom etdi. Uning qo'lida soat yo'q edi, ammo uning to'pponchalari va jiletlari yashiringan edi.[60] [61] 1822 yil 12-avgust kuni ertalab soat 7.30 da u Bankxedni chaqirdi, u uni o'z kiyimini kesgandan keyin bir necha soniya o'tgach kiyinish xonasida topdi. tomoq, e'tibordan chetda qolgan kichik pichoq yordamida. U Bankxed kirganida qulab tushdi va deyarli bir zumda vafot etdi.[62][29][63]

Retrospektiv spekulyativ tashxislar har xil. O'sha paytda, uning akasi "qirolni o'rab turgan ayollar tomonidan qilingan fitnalarni" aybladi (qirolning ma'shuqasi, Ledi Koninxem Kastlerning rafiqasi bilan yaxshi munosabatda bo'lmagan). Boshqa tomondan, Jorj Agar Ellis Kastleragni "insoniyat ulug'vorligining yo'qligi ... umidsizlik va xafagarchilik dinni ustun qo'ymaydigan ongga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan achinarli ta'sirlardan hafsalasi pir bo'lgan", degan xulosaga keldi, chunki men ayanchli ekaniga shubha qilmayman. and apparently irretrievable state of affairs in England was the real cause of ... [his] unfortunate state of mind." Later verdicts attribute the problem to overwork and mental stress, or to 'a psychotic depressive illness.' [64] Other theories link various instances of (at the time) little explained illness to sifiliz, possibly contracted at Kembrij. Stewart's undergraduate studies were interrupted by a mysterious illness first apparent during the closing months of 1787, and which kept him away from Cambridge through the summer of 1788. Later, there were unexplained illnesses in 1801 and 1807, the first described by a contemporary as "brain fever" which would be consistent with sifilitli meningit.[65]

The Suicide of Lord Castlereagh by Jorj Kruikshank, 1822

Uning o'limiga munosabat

An inquest concluded that the act had been committed while insane, avoiding the harsh strictures of a felo de se hukm.[men] The verdict allowed Lady Londonderry to see her husband ko'milgan with honour in Vestminster abbatligi[66] near his mentor, William Pitt. The pallbearers included the Prime Minister Lord Liverpool, sobiq Bosh vazir Lord Sidmut and two future Prime Ministers, the Vellington gersogi va Frederik Robinson.[67] Some radicals, notably Uilyam Kobbet, claimed a "cover-up" within the government and viewed the verdict and Castlereagh's public funeral as a damning indictment of the elitism and privilege of the unreformed electoral system. At his funeral on 20 August, the crowds which lined the funeral route were generally respectful and decorous, but some jeering and insults were heard (although not to the level of unanimity projected in the radical press); and there was cheering when the coffin was taken out of the hearse at the Abbey door. [68] A funeral monument was not erected until 1850 when his half-brother and successor, Charles Stewart Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry shunday qildi.[69]

Some time after Castlereagh's death, Lord Bayron wrote a savage quip about his grave:

Posterity will ne'er survey
A nobler grave than this:
Here lie the bones of Castlereagh:
Stop, traveller, and piss.[70]

Some of his opponents were damning in their verdicts. Thomas Creevy defied "any human being to discover a single feature of his character that can stand a moment’s criticism. By experience, good manners and great courage, he managed a corrupt House of Commons pretty well, with some address. This is the whole of his intellectual merit. He had a limited understanding and no knowledge, and his whole life was spent in an avowed, cold-blooded contempt of every honest public principle." Sir Robert Wilson believed that there had never been "a greater enemy to civil liberty or a baser slave."

Others of Castlereagh's political opponents were more gracious in their epigrams. Genri Brougham, a Whig politician and later the Lord Kantsler, who had battled frequently with Castlereagh, once almost to the point of calling him out, and had denigrated his skills as Leader,[71] wrote in the week following Castlereagh's death:[72]

Put all their other men together in one scale, and poor Castlereagh in the other – single he plainly weighed them down ... One can't help feeling a little for him, after being pitted against him for several years, pretty regularly. It is like losing a connection suddenly. Also he was a gentleman, and the only one amongst them.[73]

Modern historians stress the success of Castlereagh's career in spite of the hatred and ignominy he suffered. Trevelyan contrasts his positive achievements and his pitiful failures.[74] His diplomacy was applauded by historians. For example, in 1919 diplomatic historians recommended his wise policies of 1814–1815 to the British delegation to the Paris peace conferences that ended the First World War. Tarixchi Charlz Vebster underscores the paradox:

There probably never was a statesman whose ideas were so right and whose attitude to public opinion was so wrong. Such disparity between the grasp of ends and the understanding of means amounts to a failure in statesmanship.[75]

Uslublar

Robert Stewart acquired the xushmuomalalik unvoni Viscount Castlereagh in 1796 when his father was created Earl of Londonderry in the Irlandiyalik tengdoshlik.[80][81] Upon his father's death in 1821, he succeeded as 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, a title to which his father had been raised in 1816. His younger half-brother, the soldier, politician and diplomat Charles Stewart (later Vane) succeeded him as 3rd Marquess of Londonderry in 1822.

He was styled through his life as follows:[6][82][83]

Yodgorlik va o'lpon

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar va ma'lumotnomalar

  1. ^ Ism Castlereagh derives from the barony of Castlereagh in which lie the towns of Newtownards and Comber. The estates included the demesne land of Mount Pleasant, later Styuart tog'i, which became the family seat of the Londonderrys (see Leigh, Castlereagh, p. 15).
  2. ^ Uning otasi jiyan edi Robert Kovan, a wealthy and successful Bombay gubernatori uchun British East India kompaniyasi, whose heir was the elder Stewart's mother, Cowan's sister Mary. Much of the Stewart family wealth was based on the estates which came into the family through the Cowan inheritance, which put the family squarely in the qo'ndi janob sinf Ulster Presbyterians whose ancestors first arrived in Ireland during the Ulster plantatsiyasi. (Qarang "Kovan merosi". Shimoliy Irlandiyaning jamoat yozuvlari idorasi. 7 sentyabr 2006. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2007 yil 14-noyabrda. Olingan 6 iyul 2009.).
  3. ^ The Down election of 1790 was fought against the elder Stewart's rival for influence in Ulster, Wills Hill, Daunshirning 1-Markizi, who controlled both Down seats. The elder Stewart, who had been raised to the Irish peerage the previous year and was thereby ineligible, persuaded his son to stand for the seat. His son was backed, as he had been, by Whigs and Muxoliflar. The election expenses to the Stewarts reached the extraordinary sum of £60,000, financed by a mortgage of Mount Stewart, which Castlereagh's father spent much of the next decades paying off. (See Leigh, Castlereagh.)
  4. ^ In a profile of Castlereagh published within months of his death, he was reported to have had, prior to his marriage, a son by a maidservant who lived near the Mount Stewart estate, and whom it was rumoured he supported. (Dr. Felton Reede, Private Life of the Marquess of Londonderry, (1822), cited in Leigh, Castlereagh, pp 34 and 144.)
  5. ^ The war with France absorbed much of the attention of Government and Parliament, and what attention was paid to an increasingly radicalised Ireland was confused and inconsistent. Pitt's dismissal of the popular Lord Fitsvilliam in 1795, over Fitzwilliam's aggressive support of Whig patronage and Catholic emancipation, produced outrage and rioting in Dublin. Castlereagh had watched the unravelling of Irish policy with deep concern and knew what sort of reaction to expect to Fitzwilliam's dismissal. But he was in no position to steer Irish policy nor could he object to the inevitable departure of Fitzwilliam, especially as the person appointed to replace Fitzwilliam was the brother of Stewart's step-mother, John Jeffreys Pratt, who had recently succeed as 2nd Earl Camden. (See Leigh, Castlereagh, Ch. 3.)
  6. ^ Castlereagh had been re-elected without opposition from Down in 1797 and continued to hold this seat while in office in Ireland. He could not continue to hold both Irish office and the seat in Westminster for Orford, which he therefore resigned. (See Leigh, Castlereagh, Ch 4.) In the Irish election of 1798, he stood for Newtown Limavady as well as for Down. He was successful for both constituencies and chose to sit for the latter.[iqtibos kerak ]
  7. ^ In Council, though he was active in pursuing plots against the Government, he countered the influence of the more extreme members of the Protestant ko'tarilishi who, against especially the policies of the new Commander-in-Chief for Ireland, Ser Ralf Aberkrombi, called for indiscriminate violence to suppress all threat of rebellion. (See Leigh, Castlereagh, Ch 4).
  8. ^ The Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1795–98 was Tomas Pelxem, but he was continually absent from his duties due to illness. Camden pressed London to replace Pelham, recommending in his stead Castlereagh, whose performance in office was admired by those in London concerned with Irish policy. But as an example of the perverse prejudices of the era, Castlereagh, who might have been especially competent in this delicate and demanding office because he was an Irishman, was also ineligible to represent the Crown in Ireland because he was an Irishman, even though this Irishman was grandson of an English Marquess, great-grandson of an English Duke and son-in-law of an English Earl. After pressure by Pitt on Jorj III who shared the prejudice against appointments of Irish as representatives of the Crown in Ireland, Castlereagh was appointed Acting Chief Secretary in March 1798. But it was only in November 1798, after the Rebellion had been put down that, in response to imperious demands from the next influential Lord Lieutenant, Markes Kornuollis, Castlereagh was given the permanent office, and for the first time the Chief Secretary for Ireland was an Irishman. The next month, Castlereagh was admitted to the King's Privy Council. (See Leigh, Castlereagh Ch 4, and "London gazetasi". (112 KiB ) 18 December 1798, p. 1 (1 page pdf).)
  9. ^ Suicide was illegal in England 1961 yilgacha. Prior to the Right to Burial Act of 1823, a suicide was denied a Christian burial and, until the Abolition of Forfeiture Act of 1870, his property was forfeited to the Crown. These cruel penalties were less and less frequently applied over the course of the 18th century, especially in the case of wealthier perpetrators. Inquests were likely to view suicide as itself evidence of the disturbed state of the perpetrator's mind. (Masalan, qarang, Klifton D. Brayant, O'lim va o'lim to'g'risida qo'llanma, Sage Publications (2003) pp. 316–17.)

Izohlar

  1. ^ A practice established shortly after his death, for example in Sir C. K. Webster's 1822 work Foreign Policy of Castlereagh 1812-1815, 1815-1822 and his own half-brother's 1848-53 Toshlar. and Corresp. Visct. Castlereagh. It reflects his having used the name of Castlereagh so long, and the name of Londonderri so briefly, and having earned most of his reputation under the former name. Furthermore, it avoids confusion with his father, who also was Robert Stewart, Lord Londonderry. cf [1]
  2. ^ Wills 1817, p.128: "In 1806, he was appointed secretary at war and for the colonies."
  3. ^ John Bew, "Castlereagh: enlightened conservative" Bugungi tarix, (2011) 61#11
  4. ^ a b Bew 2012, p.6: "On 18 June 1769 ... Robert Stewart, the future Lord Castlereagh was born into a politically active and ambitious family in an elegant townhouse at 28 Henry Street, in the north side of Dublin."
  5. ^ Debrett 1828 yil, p.635, line 3: "The marquess m. 1st, 3 June 1766, Sarah-Frances Seymour, 2nd da. of Francis, 1st marquess of Hertford, K. G. ..."
  6. ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l Leigh, Ione (1952). "Castlereagh". Dublin jurnali. Kollinz. 27 (January–March): 72–74.
  7. ^ a b Kokayne 1893 yil, p.131, line 9: "... and finally on 13 Jan. 1816 cr. MARQUESS OF LONDONDERRY [I.]"
  8. ^ a b Debrett 1828 yil, p.635, line 5: "... by her (who d. 17 July 1770) had issue ..."
  9. ^ a b Debrett 1828 yil, p.635, line 8: "The marquess m. 2ndly, 7 June 1775, Frances, eldest da. of Charles Pratt, 1st earl Camden ..."
  10. ^ Debrett 1828 yil, p.635, line 43: "CHARLES-WILLIAM, present and third Marquess of Londonderry, and 1st baron Stewart, and Earl Vane in the peerage of the United Kingdom."
  11. ^ Bew 2012, p.3: "At the age of eight Robert was sent to the Royal School Armagh, a well-known Anglican grammar school ..."
  12. ^ Leigh 1951, p. 22: "Camden, interested as ever in his future, advised his father to send him up to Cambridge."
  13. ^ "Stewart, Robert (STWT786R)". Kembrij bitiruvchilarining ma'lumotlar bazasi. Kembrij universiteti.
  14. ^ a b Jamiyatlar palatasi 1878 yil, p.683: "Hon. Robert Stewart DOWN County."
  15. ^ Bartlett 1966, p.7, last line: "The cost ... was staggering; the Stewart alone spent £60,000, a staggering sum ..."
  16. ^ a b v Politics and Administration in Ireland, 1750–1815 Arxivlandi 2009 yil 12-noyabr kuni Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, James Kelley, University College Cork, Multitext Project in Irish History
  17. ^ [2]
  18. ^ Debrett 1828 yil, p.635, line 38: "... m. 9 Jan. 1794 Amelia Hobart, youngest da. and co-h. of John, 2nd Earl of Buckinghamshire ... "
  19. ^ "Kovan merosi". Shimoliy Irlandiyaning jamoat yozuvlari idorasi. 7 sentyabr 2006. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2007 yil 14-noyabrda. Olingan 6 iyul 2009.
  20. ^ Brendan Klifford, tahrir. (1991). Billi Bluff va Skvayr [1796] va Re tomonidan yozilgan boshqa yozuvlar. Jeyms Porter. Belfast: Athol kitoblari. p. 80. ISBN  9780850340457.
  21. ^ Bew, Jon (2011). Castlereagh: ma'rifat, urush va zulm. London: Quercus. pp. 107–108, 118. ISBN  9780857381866.
  22. ^ John Bew, Castlereagh. Enlightenment, War and Tyranny. Quercas. London 2012. P. 127
  23. ^ Castlereagh to Sir Laurence Parsons, 28 November 1798, Castlereagh Correspondence, vol. 11, pp. 32-35
  24. ^ Bew (2012). 126-bet
  25. ^ Eskott 1914 yil, p.331: "Other Kildare Street Opposition champions were Lord Henry Fitzgerald, Arthur O'Connor of the Birlashgan Irlandiyalik, and Robert Stewart who a few years later, as Lord Castlereagh, by a corruption more lavish than Barrington's was to overthrow the national Legislature of which he had been a bulwark."
  26. ^ "Kutubxona va arxiv". Qirollik jamiyati. Olingan 3 avgust 2012.
  27. ^ Bartlett 1966, p.41: "Castlereagh found much of his time devoted to the thankless task of acting as a mediator between the influential Court in London and its formidable Governor-General in India, the irascible and autocratic Richard Wellesley."
  28. ^ "Spartak ta'lim". Spartak Ta'lim. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008 yil 24 oktyabrda. Olingan 29 may 2009.
  29. ^ a b v d e "Profile: Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh". NNDB. Olingan 29 may 2009.
  30. ^ Tomoshabin. "Pistols at dawn". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2010 yil 5 fevralda. Olingan 3 aprel 2010.
  31. ^ Hunt 2008.
  32. ^ Gregory Fremont-Barnes; Todd Fisher (2004). Napoleon urushlari: imperiyaning ko'tarilishi va qulashi. Osprey nashriyoti. pp. 302–5. ISBN  9781841768311.
  33. ^ Frederick B. Artz, Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832 (1934), p. 110
  34. ^ Trevelyan 1922, p.133:as quoted.
  35. ^ a b Kissinger 1964.
  36. ^ Seymur Drescher, "Kimning bekor qilinishi? Ommaviy bosim va ingliz qul savdosining tugashi." O'tmish va hozirgi 143 (1994): 136–166. Onlayn
  37. ^ Jerome Reich, "The Slave Trade at the Congress of Vienna—A Study in English Public Opinion--." Negr tarixi jurnali 53.2 (1968): 129–143. Onlayn
  38. ^ Jeyms C.Duram, "Umidsizlikni o'rganish: Buyuk Britaniya, AQSh va Afrikaning qul savdosi, 1815-1870". Ijtimoiy fanlar (1965): 220–225. Onlayn
  39. ^ H.V.V. Temperley, and Lillian M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: 1792–1902 (1938) Quote page 47, the paper itself pp 48–63.
  40. ^ Sevgi, Timo'tiy (2017 yil bahor). "Jins va millatchilik balladasi: Tomas Devis, Tomas Mur va ularning qo'shiqlari". Yangi Hibernia sharhi. Sent-Tomas universiteti huzuridagi Irlandiya tadqiqotlari markazi. 21 (1): 76. doi:10.1353 / nhr.2017.0005. ISSN  1534-5815. S2CID  149071105. 660979.
  41. ^ "Tomas Mur". poetfoundation.org. She'riyat fondi. Olingan 10 avgust 2020.
  42. ^ Kelly, Ronan (2008). Bard of Eri:n: The Life of Thomas Moore. Dublin: Penguen Irlandiya. 322-377 betlar. ISBN  9781844881437.
  43. ^ Bew, Jon (2011). Castlereagh: ma'rifat, urush va zulm. London: Quercas. 530-531 betlar. ISBN  9780857381866.
  44. ^ Moore, Thomas (1818). Parijdagi Faj oilasi. London: Longmans. pp. 69, 76.
  45. ^ Bew, Jon (2011). Castlereagh: ma'rifat, urush va zulm. London: Quercas. p. 531. ISBN  9780857381866.
  46. ^ "...he deplored the frequent attacks made in the House on the conduct of foreign governments … he defended his part in the recent negotiations, designed to secure European equilibrium, and justified the high peacetime establishment. His chief opponent in foreign affairs was now Brougham, whose motion in favour of the Spanish Liberals he deprecated as typical of the kind of meddling in the affairs of other countries that was increasingly resented on the Continent." cf [3]
  47. ^ [4]
  48. ^ David C. Hanrahan (2011). Assassination of the Prime Minister: John Bellingham and the Murder of Spencer Perceval. Tarix Matbuot. p. 24. ISBN  9780752478050.
  49. ^ [5]
  50. ^ https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1820-1832/member/stewart-robert-1769-1822
  51. ^ a b Burke 1869, p.704, chap ustun, 71-qator: "The marquess d. 8 Apr. 1821, and was s. by the son of his first marriage."
  52. ^ [6]
  53. ^ https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1820-1832/member/stewart-robert-1769-1822
  54. ^ Bartlett 1966, p.262: "Meanwhile, the burden of the poorly organised Foreign Office remained as heavy as ever. Castlereagh's private secretary, Planta, complained bitterly of the burden of work, and though one can hardly argue from the evidence that Castlereagh's mental instability was caused by overwork alone, it cannot be discounted."
  55. ^ On one occasion: "Such hash was never delivered by man. The folly of him - his speech as a composition in its attempt at style and ornament and figures, and in its real vulgarity, bombast and folly, was such as, coming from a man of his order, with 30 years parliamentary experience and with an audience quite at his devotion, amounted to a perfect miracle ... Brougham ... played the devil with him." On another, when trying to explain the Government's financial plans: "so confused and involved in his language that the House did not in the least understand." cf [7]
  56. ^ Bew 2012, p.538, line 14: "The story of the 'radiant boy' was a common tale at the time, said to foretell of a violent death for those who saw him."
  57. ^ https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1820-1832/member/stewart-robert-1769-1822
  58. ^ It remains unclear whether there was some sort of extortion attempt, and if so, whether such attempt represented a real threat of exposure, or whether the purported blackmail was a symptom of paranoia. See H. Montgomery Hyde, Trials of Oscar Wilde, Dover nashrlari, ISBN  0-486-20216-X.
  59. ^ "There is no concrete evidence that Londonderry had committed a homosexual act, but it seems that a few years earlier he had been enticed into a brothel by a man disguised as a woman, and that he was being blackmailed on that score. The case of the bishop of Clogher, which was currently the talk of the town, probably impinged on his disturbed mind." [8]
  60. ^ [9]
  61. ^ Bew p.543
  62. ^ "He died almost instantly, but not before he had exclaimed, ‘My dear Bankhead, let me fall upon you; it is all over’." cf [10]
  63. ^ Bew 2012, p.544: "... as Castlereagh sank to the floor with blood running from his neck and a small pen-knife in his hand with which he had cut the carotid artery in his neck."
  64. ^ [11]
  65. ^ Hunt 2008, p. 189: "Aet. 31 (1801) 'brain fever' - lasted about two months and seems to have been a physical illness with a fever."
  66. ^ Chester 1876, p.498: "1822 Aug. 20 The most Hon. Robert, marquis of Londonderry, etc., in Ireland; St. James's Square, St. James's, Westminster; died on the 12th, aged 53: in the North Cross."
  67. ^ Bew, Jon (2011). Castlereagh: ma'rifat, urush va zulm (1-nashr). Quercus. p. 549. ISBN  9780857381866.
  68. ^ [12]
  69. ^ Gates 2014, p.3: "What our juryman and eleven others had to decide was whether his lordship was insane at the time of his death or was felo-de-se, a self-murderer. These were the choices for the legal verdicts in 1822 ..."
  70. ^ Sanftleben, Kurt A. "Epitaphs A–C". So'nggi so'zlar. Olingan 29 may 2009.
  71. ^ Henry Lord Brougham, "Lord Castlereagh", Historical Sketches of Statesmen in the Time of George III, London: Charles Knight & Co. (1845), Second Series, Vol I, pp. 149–61.
  72. ^ Sir Herbert Maxwell, ed. (1904), "Henry Brougham M.P. to Thomas Creevey, August 19, 1822," The Creevey Papers, London: John Murray, 2nd edition, Vol II, p 44. Internet Archive retrieved on 9 July 2009.
  73. ^ Less flatteringly, Brougham remarked "his capacity was greatly underrated from the poverty of his discourse" and that his natural gifts were "of the most commonplace" kind. He thought less of Canning though, judging that he succeeded to "all of Castlereagh, except his good judgment, good manners and bad English." cf [13], [14]
  74. ^ Trevelyan 1922, p.141: "The policy embodied in the treaties of 1815 was, in some of its chief aspects, generous and wise. It prevented a war of revenge by France, and it gave security to the British Empire for a hundred years; on both counts the policy of Castlereagh had been the decisive factor. The defect of the settlement, destined to imperil Britain once more when the wheel had come full circle, was its entire neglect of the craving of the European people for nationality and for freedom."
  75. ^ Charlz Vebster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh (1931) P 231
  76. ^ "Yo'q, 13131". London gazetasi. 9 sentyabr 1789. p. 597. To'g'ri hurmatli Robert Styuart, Baron Londonderri
  77. ^ "№ 13821". London gazetasi. 1795 yil 10 oktyabr. P. 1052. Robert Lord Londonderriga va uning tanasining qonuniy ravishda tug'ilgan merosxo'rlariga, County Down shahridagi Castlereaghning Viscount Castlereagh qadr-qimmati.
  78. ^ "№ 13922". London gazetasi. 1796 yil 10-avgust. P. 781. Robert Lord Viskont Kastlerag va uning tanasining merosxo'rlari, Londonderri grafligidagi Londonderri grafining nomi va nomi bilan qonuniy ravishda tug'ilgan.
  79. ^ Smit 1839 yil, p.xiii, 26-qator: "Jorj IV. [Kirish] 29 yanvar, 1820 yil"
  80. ^ Anonymous 1846, p.372, right column: "CASTLEREAGH, a hamlet in the district of Castlereagh ... This place gives the title of Viscount to the Marquis of Londonderry."
  81. ^ "№ 13922". London gazetasi. 16 avgust 1796. p. 781.
  82. ^ Chisholm, Xyu, nashr. (1911). "Londonderry, Earls and Marquesses of" . Britannica entsiklopediyasi. 16 (11-nashr). Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. p. 968.
  83. ^ Garter ritsarlari ro'yxati (1348 - hozirgacha) www.heraldica.org
  84. ^ "History of Sydney Streets" (MS Excel (for download)). Sydney Streets. Sidney shahri. 2012 yil 4-dekabr. Olingan 13 yanvar 2017.
  85. ^ Macquarie, Lachlan. "6-payshanba. Dekabr.". 6-seshanba kuni boshlangan gubernator Macquari-ning koloniyaning ichki qismidagi birinchi inspektsiyasi jurnali. Novr. 1810 yil. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 10 martda - orqali Macquarie universiteti.
  86. ^ "Kastlerag daryosi". NSW ning geografik nomlari registri (GNR). Yangi Janubiy Uelsning geografik ismlar kengashi. Olingan 18 yanvar 2013. Buni Vikidatada tahrirlash

Kitoblar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Yaxshi, Jon. Castlereagh: ma'rifat, urush va zulm, London: Quercus (2011) ISBN  978-0-85738-186-6
    • review essay by Jack Gumpert Wasserman, in Bayron jurnali (2013) Vol. 41, № 1 onlayn
  • Sesil, Algernon. British Foreign Secretaries 1807-1916 (1927) pp 1–52.onlayn
  • Charmley, John, "Castlereagh and France." Diplomatiya va davlatchilik 17.4 (2006): 665–673.
  • Coburn, Helen. A Gentleman Among Them: The Public and Private Life of Viscount Castlereagh (Cestus 2016). Available as e-book at amazon.com.
  • Derry, John W. Castlereagh, London: A. Lane (1976)
  • Gladlad, Grem. "From Castlereagh to Canning: Continuity and Change in British Foreign Policy," Tarixni ko'rib chiqish (2008) Issue: 62. pp10+ onlayn
  • Xeys, Pol. Modern British Foreign Policy: The nineteenth century, 1814–80 (1975).
  • Hinde, Wendy (1981), Castlereagh, London: Kollinz, ISBN  9780002163088
  • Hyde, H. Montgomery (1933), The Rise of Castlereagh, London: MakMillan
  • Jarrett, Mark (2013), Vena kongressi va uning merosi: Napoleondan keyingi urush va buyuk kuch diplomatiyasi, London: I. B. Tauris & Company, Ltd., ISBN  978-1780761169
  • Lawrence, Thomas, and C. J. Bartlett. The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812–1815, Britain and the European Alliance (1925) onlayn
  • Shoh Dovud. Vienna 1814; How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna, (Random House, 2008) ISBN  978-0-307-33716-0
  • Muir, Rori. Britain and the defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815, New Haven: Yale University Press (1966) ISBN  978-0-300-06443-8
  • Garold Nikolson, Vena kongressi, Constable & Co Ltd, UK/Harcourt Brace and Company (1946)onlayn
  • Perkins, Bredford. Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823, Berkeley: University of California Press (1964)
  • Shreder, Pol V. Evropa siyosatining o'zgarishi, 1763–1848 (1996), European diplomatic history onlayn
  • White, R. J. "Castlereagh" Bugungi tarix (May 1956) 6#5 pp 326–333.
  • Zamoyski, Odam. Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna, HarperCollins Publishers (2007) ISBN  978-0-06-077518-6

Birlamchi manbalar

Ushbu maqola hozirda nashrdagi matnni o'z ichiga oladi jamoat mulki: Chisholm, Xyu, nashr. (1911). "Londonderry, Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of ". Britannica entsiklopediyasi. 16 (11-nashr). Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 969-972 betlar.

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