Kanadalik hind maktablari tizimi - Canadian Indian residential school system

"Mahalliy aholi turar joylari maktablari" bu erga yo'naltiriladi. Qo'shma Shtatlardagi maktab maktablari uchun qarang Amerikalik hind maktab-internatlari. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Hind maktabi (ajralish).

Exterior view of Qu'Appelle Indian Industrial School in Lebret, District of Assiniboia, c. 1885. Surrounding land and tents are visible in the foreground.
The Qu'Appelle hind sanoat maktabi yilda Lebret, Assiniboia, shimoliy-g'arbiy hududlar, v. 1885

Yilda Kanada, Hindiston maktablari tizimi[nb 1] ning tarmog'i edi maktab-internatlar uchun Mahalliy aholi.[nb 2] Tarmoq tomonidan moliyalashtirildi Kanada hukumati "s Hindiston ishlari bo'limi va tomonidan boshqariladi Xristian cherkovlari. Maktab tizimi mahalliy bolalarni o'z madaniyati ta'siridan xalos qilish maqsadida yaratilgan o'zlashtirish ularni hukmron Kanada madaniyatiga, "bolada hindni o'ldirish uchun". Tizimning yuz yildan oshiq davom etishi davomida mahalliy bolalarning qariyb 30 foizi (150 mingga yaqin) milliy maktablarga joylashtirildi.[3][4]:2–3 Maktab bilan bog'liq o'limlar soni to'liq bo'lmagan tarixiy yozuvlar tufayli noma'lum bo'lib qolmoqda, ammo taxminlarga ko'ra 3200 dan 6000 gacha.[5][6]

Tizimning kelib chiqishi avval chiqarilgan qonunlardan kelib chiqqan Konfederatsiya, lekin u birinchi navbatda o'tish qismidan faol bo'lgan Hindiston akti 1876 ​​yilda. ga tuzatish Hindiston akti 1894 yilda tashrif buyurdi kunduzgi maktablar, sanoat maktablari yoki majburiy turar joy maktablari Birinchi millatlar bolalar. Ko'pgina jamoalarning uzoq tabiati tufayli maktablarning joylashuvi ba'zi oilalar uchun turar joy maktablari talablariga rioya qilishning yagona yo'li ekanligini anglatardi. Maktablar qasddan oilalar va ularning farzandlari o'rtasidagi aloqalarni minimallashtirish uchun tub aholi punktlaridan ancha uzoqlikda joylashgan edi. Hindiston komissari Xayter Rid oilaviy tashriflarni qisqartirish uchun uzoqroq masofadagi maktablarni taklif qildi, u mahalliy bolalarni madaniylashtirishga qaratilgan harakatlarga qarshi chiqdi deb o'ylardi. A-dan foydalanish bilan ota-onalarning tashriflari yanada cheklandi o'tish tizimi mahalliy xalqlarni cheklash uchun mo'ljallangan zaxiralar. Oxirgi federal boshqaruvdagi turar-joy maktabi, Gordonning hindistonlik yashash maktabi yilda Punnichi, Saskaçevan, 1996 yilda yopilgan. Maktablar har qanday viloyat va hududlarda bundan mustasno Nyu-Brunsvik va Shahzoda Eduard oroli.[7]

Maktablar mahalliy til va madaniyatni yo'q qilish va uning o'rnini ingliz tili va nasroniy e'tiqodlari bilan almashtirishni maqsad qildilar. Suratda NWT-ning Fort-rezolyutsiyasi.

Turarjoy maktablari tomonidan mahalliy aholiga jiddiy zarar etkazildi ularni oilalaridan olib tashlash, ularni ulardan mahrum qilish ajdodlar tillari, ularning ko'pchiligini fosh qilish jismoniy va jinsiy zo'ravonlik. Talabalar ham bo'ysundirildi majburiy enfranchisement hindular sifatida qonuniy shaxsini olib tashlagan "assimilyatsiya qilingan" fuqarolar sifatida. Oilalari va madaniyatidan uzilib, ingliz yoki frantsuz tillarida gaplashishga majbur bo'lgan talabalar turar-joy maktablari tizimida tahsil olishgan, ko'pincha o'z jamoalariga moslasha olmagan, ammo Kanadaning asosiy jamiyatidagi irqchilik nuqtai nazaridan qolgan. Tizim oxir-oqibat mahalliy urf-odatlar va e'tiqodlarning avlodlarga etkazilishini buzishda muvaffaqiyat qozondi. Tizimning merosi tarqalishining ko'payishi bilan bog'liq shikastlanishdan keyingi stress, alkogolizm, giyohvand moddalarni suiiste'mol qilish Bugungi kunda mahalliy jamoalarda saqlanib kelayotgan va o'z joniga qasd qilish.

2008 yil 11 iyunda, Bosh Vazir Stiven Xarper Kanada hukumati va boshqasining rahbarlari nomidan ommaviy ravishda kechirim so'radi federal partiyalar ichida Jamiyat palatasi. To'qqiz kun oldin Haqiqat va yarashtirish komissiyasi (TRC) maktablar haqidagi haqiqatni aniqlash uchun tashkil etilgan. Komissiya maktabdagi omon qolganlarning 7000 ga yaqin bayonotlarini yig'di[nb 3] Kanada bo'ylab turli xil mahalliy, mintaqaviy va milliy tadbirlarda ommaviy va xususiy uchrashuvlar orqali. 2008-2013 yillarda o'tkazilgan ettita milliy tadbir internat maktablarining sobiq o'quvchilari tajribasini yodga oldi. 2015 yilda TRC Milliy Haqiqat va Yarashtirish Markazining tashkil etilishi va omon qolganlarning guvohliklari va o'sha paytdagi tarixiy hujjatlar batafsil bayon qilingan ko'p jildli hisobotni nashr etish bilan yakunlandi. TRC hisobotida maktab tizimi tashkil etdi degan xulosaga kelishdi madaniy genotsid.

Tarix

Shuningdek qarang: Kanadadagi ta'lim tarixi
Illustration of fur traders trading with an Indigenous person
Mo'yna savdogarlar, hozirgi Kanadada 1777 yilda tub aholi bilan savdo qilmoqda

Assimilyatsiya qilishga urinishlar Mahalliy aholi ildiz otgan imperatorlik mustamlakachiligi madaniy amaliyotning Evropa dunyoqarashi va erga egalik tushunchasi atrofida joylashgan kashfiyot haqidagi ta'limot.[4]:47–50 Ning qisqacha bayonida aytib o'tilganidek Kanada haqiqati va yarashtirish komissiyasi (TRC) yakuniy hisoboti: "Ushbu dalillarning tagida mustamlakachilar hech qachon o'zlarini madaniylashtira olmaydigan vahshiy odamlarga tsivilizatsiyani olib kelmoqda, degan ishonch yotardi." Tsivilizatsiya missiyasi "irqiy va madaniy ustunlikka ishongan."[4]:50

Assimilyatsiya harakatlari XVII asrdayoq frantsuz mustamlakachilari kelishi bilan boshlangan Yangi Frantsiya.[9] Ularga bolalarini uzoq muddat tark etishni istamagan va birlashishga kelgan mahalliy jamoalar qarshilik ko'rsatdilar missionerlar bilan mahalliy aholini vayron qiluvchi kasalliklar.[10] Kunduzgi va internat maktablarini guruhlar, shu jumladan tashkil etish Rekolletlar, Iezuitlar va Ursulinlar 1690-yillarda katta darajada tark qilingan. Ta'lim dasturlarini to'xtatishga qaror qilishda siyosiy beqarorlik va mustamlakachilik hayoti haqiqati ham rol o'ynadi.[11] Yetim va tirik qolgan mustamlakachi bolalarning ko'payishi cherkov mablag'larini cheklab qo'ydi va mustamlakachilar ikkala mintaqada ham tub xalqlar bilan bo'lgan yaxshi aloqalardan bahramand bo'lishdi. mo'yna savdosi va harbiy mashg'ulotlar.[12]:3[13]:58–60

XVII asrda mahalliy missionerlar tomonidan mahalliy bolalarni o'zlashtira olmaganidan so'ng, 1820-yillarga qadar, davlat tomonidan tasdiqlangan operatsiyalar joriy etilishidan oldin, diniy amaldorlar tomonidan ma'rifiy dasturlar yana bir bor urinib ko'rilmadi.[14] Ular orasida tashkil etilgan maktab ham bor edi John West, anglikalik missioner Red River mustamlakasi bugungi kunda Manitoba.[4]:50 Hozirgi vaqtda protestant missionerlari turar-joy maktablarini ham ochdilar Ontario xristianlikni yoyib, mahalliy aholini farzandlikka olishga undash uchun ish olib boradigan mintaqa yordamchi qishloq xo'jaligi Bitirgandan keyin ularning asl, ko'chmanchi turmush tarziga qaytmasliklarini ta'minlash usuli sifatida.[15]

Exterior view of Mohawk Institute Residential School
Mohawk instituti turar-joy maktabi, v. 1932

Ushbu dastlabki maktablarning aksariyati qisqa vaqt ichida ochilgan bo'lsa ham, harakatlar davom etdi. The Mohawk instituti turar-joy maktabi, 1834 yilda ochilgan Kanadadagi eng qadimgi, doimiy ravishda ishlaydigan turar-joy maktabi Buyuk daryoning oltita xalqi yaqin Brantford, Ontario. Anglikan cherkovi tasarrufidagi ushbu bino 1828 yilda O'g'il bolalar uchun kunduzgi maktab - Mexanika Instituti sifatida ochilgan va to'rt yil o'tgach, u o'zining birinchi internatini qabul qilib, qiz talabalarni qabul qila boshlagach, maktab-internatga aylangan. U 1970 yil 30-iyungacha ishlaydi.[16]

1800-yillarning boshlarida turar-joy maktablariga bo'lgan qiziqish qayta tiklanishi ingliz ko'chmanchilari duch kelgan harbiy dushmanlikning pasayishi bilan bog'liq, ayniqsa, 1812 yilgi urush. Amerika kuchlari tomonidan bosib olinish xavfi minimallashtirilganligi sababli, mahalliy jamoalar endi ittifoqchi sifatida emas, balki doimiy yashash uchun to'siq sifatida qaraldi.[17][12]:3 Ushbu istiqbol mahalliy aholining urf-odatlari va turmush tarzini yaxshi biladigan va ularga hamdard bo'lgan harbiy amaldorlardan faqat doimiy mustamlakachilik yo'li bilan manfaatdor bo'lgan fuqarolarning vakillariga topshirilishi bilan yana bir bor ta'kidlandi.[13]:73–5

1800-yillarning oxiridan boshlab, Kanada hukumatining Hindiston ishlari bo'yicha departamenti (DIA) mahalliy aholini mahalliy aholini integratsiyalash siyosatining qimmatli komponenti sifatida turar-joy maktablari tizimini o'sishini rag'batlantirdi. Evropa-Kanada jamiyat.[12] Mahalliy bolalarni oilalari va jamoalaridan ajratish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan ushbu jarayon TRC tomonidan topilgan madaniy genotsid, bu tizimning maqsadi "bolada hindularni o'ldirish" deb ta'kidlagan tarixchi Jon S. Milloyning so'zlariga o'xshash xulosa.[18][19][15]:42 Tizim suvga cho'mish dasturi sifatida ishlab chiqilganligi sababli, mahalliy bolalar ko'plab maktablarda o'z tillarida gaplashishlari yoki o'z dinlariga amal qilishlari taqiqlangan va ba'zan jazolangan.[20] Asosiy maqsad - mahalliy bolalarni nasroniylikka qabul qilish va ularni madaniyatlashtirish edi.[13]

Hukumat tomonidan boshqariladigan ko'plab turar-joy maktablari turli mazhabdagi cherkovlar tomonidan boshqarilgan, aksariyati ular tomonidan boshqarilgan Rim katoliklari. 1867-1939 yillarda bir vaqtning o'zida faoliyat yuritgan maktablar soni 1931 yilda 80 ga etdi. Ushbu maktablarning 44 tasini Rim katoliklari boshqargan; 21 tomonidan boshqarilgan Angliya cherkovi / Kanadaning Anglikan cherkovi; 13 tomonidan operatsiya qilingan Kanadaning birlashgan cherkovi, va 2 tomonidan operatsiya qilingan Presviterianlar.[21]:682 Missionerlar tomonidan tashkil etilgan maktab maktablaridan foydalanishning yondashuvi federal hukumat tomonidan iqtisodiy maqsadga muvofiqligi uchun ishlatilgan: hukumat binolar va texnik xizmat ko'rsatishni ta'minlagan, cherkovlar o'qituvchilar va o'zlarining darslarini rejalashtirishgan.[22] Natijada, har bir mazhabga to'g'ri keladigan maktablarning soni ularning aholining kamchiligida aks etgan, aksincha ularning missionerlik ishlarida qolganligi.[21]:683

Hukumat ishtiroki

Garchi Kanadada ta'lim tomonidan viloyat hukumatlarining yurisdiksiyasi bo'lgan Britaniya Shimoliy Amerika qonuni, Mahalliy aholi va ularning shartnomalari federal hukumat yurisdiktsiyasida edi.[22] Uy-joy maktablari mablag'lari ostida moliyalashtirildi Hindiston akti o'sha paytda federal bo'lgan Ichki ishlar boshqarmasi. 1876 ​​yilda qabul qilingan Hindlarga tegishli qonunlarni o'zgartirish va birlashtirish to'g'risidagi qonun, unda mahalliy jamoalar, er va moliya federal nazorat ostida bo'lgan barcha avvalgi qonunlar birlashtirildi. TRC tomonidan tushuntirilganidek Harakat "hindularni shtat palatalariga aylantirdi, viloyat yoki federal saylovlarda ovoz bera olmaydi yoki o'z maqomidan voz kechmasa, kasb-hunarga kira olmaydi va ma'naviy va madaniy amaliyotlarda qatnashish erkinligini keskin cheklaydi."[21]:110

Photocopied, front cover view of Statistics Respecting Indian Schools, 1898
Old qopqoq Hind maktablariga tegishli statistika, 1898 yil, shu jumladan Egerton Ryerson xati "Doktor Ryersonning sanoat maktablari to'g'risida hisoboti"

General-gubernatorning hisoboti Charlz Bagot, "Kanadadagi hindularning ishlari to'g'risida hisobot".[23][15]:12–17 Bagot hisoboti deb yuritilgan, bu federal turar-joy maktablari tizimining asos hujjati sifatida qaraladi.[24] Bu qo'llab-quvvatlandi Jeyms Bryus, Elginning 8-grafligi, yilda sanoat maktablari taassurot qoldirgan edi G'arbiy Hindiston va Egerton Ryerson, keyinchalik u Ta'limning bosh qo'mondoni bo'lgan Yuqori Kanada.[15]:15

1847 yil 26-mayda Ryerson Hindiston ishlari bo'yicha boshlig'ining yordamchisi Jorj Vardonga maktub yozib, "Shimoliy Amerika hindulari tsivilizatsiya holatida (shu jumladan sanoat va hushyorlik odatlari bilan) madaniylashtirilishi yoki saqlanib qolishi mumkin emasligi, agar nafaqat diniy ko'rsatmalar va hissiyotlar, balki diniy his-tuyg'ular ta'sirida bo'lsa. "[25]:3 U mahalliy o'quvchilarni alohida, diniy mazmundagi, faqat ingliz tilida ishlab chiqarishni o'rganishga yo'naltirilgan tizimda o'qitishni aniq tavsiya qildi.[11][14][24] Ushbu xat "Hind maktablarini hurmat qiladigan statistika" deb nomlangan kattaroq hisobotga ilova sifatida nashr etilgan.[25]

The Asta-sekin tsivilizatsiya to'g'risidagi qonun 1857 yil va Asta-sekin Enfranchisement to'g'risidagi qonun 1869 yil Konfederatsiyadan oldin ushbu tizim uchun asos yaratgan. Ushbu xatti-harakatlar frantsuz va ingliz yo'llarining o'ziga xos ustunligini va mahalliy xalqlarning frantsuz yoki ingliz tilida so'zlashuvchilar, nasroniylar va dehqonlar bo'lishlarini talab qildi. O'sha paytda ko'plab mahalliy liderlar ushbu harakatlar bekor qilinganligini ta'kidlashdi.[26] The Asta-sekin tsivilizatsiya to'g'risidagi qonun 50 gektar (200,000 m) bilan taqdirlangan2) er uchastkalari "ta'limning boshlang'ich tarmoqlarida etarlicha rivojlangan" deb hisoblangan va har qanday qabila mansubligi yoki shartnoma huquqlarini olib tashlagan holda uni avtomatik ravishda "enfranchize" qiladigan har qanday mahalliy erkak uchun.[15]:18[27] Ushbu qonun bilan va turar-joy maktablarini yaratish orqali hukumat tub xalqlar oxir-oqibat keng aholi tarkibiga singib ketishi mumkinligiga ishongan. Bitiruvchilar uchun qishloq xo'jaligi erlarining yakka tartibdagi ajratmalarini olish uchun kommunal sohada o'zgartirishlar kiritilishi kerak zaxira tizim, Birinchi Millatlar hukumatlari tomonidan qattiq qarshilik ko'rsatadigan narsa.[15]:18–19

1879 yil yanvar oyida, Ser Jon A. Makdonald, Hozir bo'lganlarning bosh vaziri Konfederatsiyadan keyingi Kanada, buyurtma qilingan siyosatchi Nikolin toshqin Davin Qo'shma Shtatlardagi sanoat maktab-internatlari tizimi to'g'risida hisobot yozish.[21]:154[28] Hozir Davin hisoboti deb nomlanuvchi "Hindlar va yarim nasllar uchun sanoat maktablari to'g'risidagi hisobot" 1879 yil 14-martda Ottavaga taqdim etildi va Kanada hukumati va cherkovi o'rtasida "agressiv" ni amalga oshirish uchun kooperativ yondoshishga sabab bo'ldi. assimilyatsiya "tomonidan ta'qib qilingan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti, Uliss S. Grant.[29][28]:1 Davinning hisobotida hukumat amaldorlari va vakillari bilan maslahatlashuvlar natijasida topilgan ma'lumotlarga asoslanadi Beshta madaniyatli qabila yilda Vashington, DC va cherkov rasmiylari Vinnipeg, Manitoba. U faqat bitta sanoat kunduzgi maktabiga tashrif buyurgan Minnesota, uning topilmalarini topshirishdan oldin.[21]:154–8 Davin o'z ma'ruzasida, tub aholini tsivilizatsiyalashning eng yaxshi usuli, ularni "doimiy ravishda madaniyatli sharoitlar doirasida ushlab turish" uchun o'z oilalaridan uzoqroq joyda joylashgan bolalardan boshlash edi.[21]:157[28]:12

Davinning topilmalari tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlandi Vital-Jastin Grandin, madaniyatli kattalar ehtimolligi past bo'lsa-da, mahalliy bolalar haqida gap ketganda umid borligini kim sezdi. U xatida tushuntirdi Jamoat ishlari Vazir Ektor-Lui Langevin bolalarning "ota-onalaridan farqli hayot kechirishi va ularning ota-bobolarining urf-odatlari, odatlari va tillarini unutishiga sabab bo'lishi" ga erishish eng yaxshi harakatdir.[21]:159 1883 yilda parlament uchta sanoat maktabiga 43000 AQSh dollari miqdorida mablag 'ajratishni ma'qulladi, Battleford sanoat maktabi, o'sha yilning 1 dekabrida ochilgan. 1900 yilga kelib 61 ta maktab faoliyat yuritgan.[21]:161

Hukumat 1920-yillarda cherkov tasarrufidagi maktab-internatlarni sotib olishni boshladi. Ushbu davrda maktablar bilan bog'liq kapital xarajatlarni hukumat o'z zimmasiga oldi va ma'muriy va ko'rsatma vazifalarini cherkov mansabdorlariga topshirdi. Umid qilamanki, bino xarajatlarini minimallashtirish cherkov ma'murlariga o'zlarining qaramog'idagi o'quvchilarga yuqori sifatli ko'rsatma va yordam berishga imkon beradi. Hukumat cherkovlardan maktablarni sotib olishga tayyor bo'lgan va sotib olgan bo'lsa-da, ko'pchilik binolarda mavjud bo'lgan avariya ularning iqtisodiy ahamiyatiga ega bo'lmaganligi sababli bepul sotib olindi. Hukumat kapital xarajatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashini tushunib, hukumat amaldorlari bilan kelisha olmagan hollarda maktablar cherkovlar tomonidan saqlanib turildi. Ushbu qo'llab-quvvatlash darajasi va mohiyati ko'rsatilgan yozma kelishuvlar yoki qimmatbaho ta'mirlash va ta'mirlashni amalga oshirish uchun zarur bo'lgan tasdiqlarning yo'qligi sababli tushunish oxir-oqibat murakkablashdi.[21]:240

1930-yillarga kelib, hukumat rasmiylari tomonidan turar joy maktablari tizimi moliyaviy jihatdan barqaror emasligi va mahalliy bolalarni o'qitish va ularni Evropa-Kanada jamiyatiga singdirish maqsadiga muvofiq emasligi tan olindi. Robert Xoy, Federal Mines va Resurslar Departamentining Hindiston ishlari bo'limidagi farovonlik va o'qitish boshlig'i yangi maktablarning kengayishiga qarshi bo'lib, 1936 yilda "Ta'lim muassasalarini, xususan turar-joy maktablarini qurish uchun, bizning ixtiyorimizdagi pul etarli emas barpo etilgan maktablarni ta'mirdan chiqarish holatida saqlang, men uchun bu juda asossiz va amaliyotni oqlash qiyin ».[30]:3 U kunduzgi maktablarni kengaytirishni taklif qildi, 1945 yilda ijtimoiy ta'minot va o'qitish filiali direktori lavozimiga ko'tarilgandan keyin ham davom etadigan mahalliy bolalarni tarbiyalashga yondashish. Birlashgan cherkov, anglikan cherkovi va Maryamning pokiza missionerlik oblatlari, tizimning ishdan chiqishining echimi - bu qayta qurish emas, balki intensivlashtirish.[30]:3–5

1945-1955 yillarda Hindiston ishlari boshqaradigan kunduzgi maktablarda Birinchi millat talabalari soni 9532 dan 17.947 gacha kengaytirildi. Talabalar sonining bu o'sishi, ularga o'zgartirishlar kiritildi Hindiston akti 1951 yilda federal mansabdor shaxslarga viloyat maktablari tizimida mahalliy o'quvchilarni o'qitish bo'yicha viloyat va hududiy hukumatlar va maktab kengashlari bilan bitimlar tuzishga imkon berdi. Ushbu o'zgarishlar hukumatning turar-joy maktablarida assimilyatsiya asosida ta'lim berishdan tub o'quvchilarni davlat maktablariga qo'shilish siyosatiga o'tishidan dalolat berdi.[4]:71 Mahalliy bolalar davlat maktab tizimiga o'tish natijasida yanada yaxshi ma'lumotga ega bo'lishiga ishonishgan.[31]

Siyosat ta'limni assimilyatsiya qilishdan integratsiyaga o'tganiga qaramay, mahalliy amaldorlar tomonidan mahalliy bolalarni o'z oilalaridan olib tashlash 1960-70 yillarning aksariyat qismida davom etdi.[30]:147 Olib tashlash 1951 yildagi qo'shilish natijasi edi 88-bo'lim uchun Hindiston aktifederal qonunlar mavjud bo'lmagan hollarda, qo'riqxonalarda yashovchi tub aholiga viloyat qonunlarini qo'llashga imkon berdi. O'zgarishlar monitoringni o'z ichiga olgan bolalar farovonligi.[32][33] Ular kirib kelgan jamoalarning urf-odatlari yoki turmush tarzi bo'yicha ixtisoslashtirilgan o'qitish talablari bo'lmagan holda, viloyat mutasaddilari mahalliy bolalarning farovonligini evro-kanadalik qadriyatlarga qarab baholashdi, masalan, an'anaviy ov ovi, baliq va rezavorlar parhezi etarli emasligi va ularni olish uchun asoslar. qamoqqa olingan bolalar.[31] Ushbu davr mahalliy bolalarni an'anaviy jamoalaridan keng olib tashlashga olib keldi, birinchi navbatda Sixties Scoop 1983 yilgi hisobot muallifi Patrik Jonston tomonidan Mahalliy bolalar va bolalarni himoya qilish tizimi. Ko'pincha ularning ota-onalari yoki jamoat oqsoqollarining roziligisiz olinadigan ba'zi bolalar sobiq turar-joy maktablarida tobora ko'payib boradigan davlat bolalar muassasalariga joylashtirildi, boshqalari esa asosan Kanadada va asosan mahalliy bo'lmagan oilalar tomonidan asrab olindi yoki asrab olindi. Qo'shma Shtatlar. Hindiston va Shimoliy ishlar 1960-1990 yillarda 11132 bola asrab olingan deb hisoblagan bo'lsa-da, ularning haqiqiy soni 20000 ga etishi mumkin.[32][34]:182

1969 yilda, cherkovlar bilan ko'p yillik hokimiyatni baham ko'rgandan so'ng, IIB turar-joy maktablari tizimini yagona nazoratga oldi.[15][30]:79–84 Kanada hukumati tomonidan boshqariladigan so'nggi turar-joy maktabi, Gordon hind maktablari yilda Saskaçevan, 1996 yilda yopilgan.[35] Turarjoy maktablari Kanadaning har bir viloyatida va hududida bundan mustasno Nyu-Brunsvik va Shahzoda Eduard oroli.[7] Hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, 1930-yillarning boshlarida 80 ta maktab va 17000 dan ortiq o'quvchilar ro'yxatdan o'tgan turar-joy maktablari soni eng yuqori darajaga etgan. Tizim davomida 150 mingga yaqin bola turar-joy maktabida tahsil olgan deb hisoblashadi.[4]:2–3[36]

Ota-onalarning qarshiligi va majburiy qatnashish

Mahalliy bolalarning ota-onalari va oilalari turar joy maktablari tizimiga butun hayoti davomida qarshilik ko'rsatdilar. Bolalar maktablardan saqlanar va ba'zi hollarda bolalarni qo'riqxonaga yig'ish vazifasi yuklatilgan hukumat amaldorlaridan yashiringan.[37] Ota-onalar maktablarni moliyalashtirishni ko'paytirishni, shu jumladan o'z farzandlariga kirish imkoniyatini yaxshilash uchun markazda joylashgan kunduzgi maktablarni ko'paytirishni doimiy ravishda qo'llab-quvvatladilar va maktablarda ta'lim, oziq-ovqat va kiyim-kechak sifatini yaxshilash to'g'risida bir necha bor murojaat qildilar. Huquqbuzarlik to'g'risidagi da'volar bo'yicha javoblarni talab qilish, ko'pincha bolalarini uyda saqlashga intilayotgan ota-onalar tomonidan qilingan hiyla-nayrang sifatida rad etilib, hukumat va maktab rasmiylari eng yaxshi biladiganlar sifatida joylashtirilgan.[21]:669–674

1894 yilda Hindiston to'g'risidagi qonunga kiritilgan o'zgartishlar 7 yoshdan 16 yoshgacha bo'lgan mahalliy bolalar uchun maktabga borishni majburiy qildi. O'zgarishlar maktab joylashgan joy, bolalarning sog'lig'i va ularning maktab imtihonlarini oldindan bajarishi bilan bog'liq qator imtiyozlarni o'z ichiga olgan.[21]:254–255 1908 yilda 6 yoshdan 15 yoshgacha bo'lgan bolalarga o'zgartirildi.[21]:261[38] Majburiy qatnashishni joriy etish missionerlik vakillarining tazyiqi natijasida sodir bo'ldi. Moliyalashtirishni ta'minlash uchun talabalarni ro'yxatdan o'tkazish kvotalariga tayanib, maktab sharoitlari tobora yomonlashib borayotganligi sababli ular yangi talabalarni jalb qilishda qiynalishdi.[13]:128

Maxsus qo'shma qo'mitaning 1947 yilgi hisoboti va keyinchalik tuzatishlar kiritilgandan so'ng, majburiy qatnashish 1948 yilda tugadi Hindiston akti.[39] Hukumat rasmiylari hali ham talabalarning davomatiga ta'sir o'tkaza olishdi. Ning kiritilishi Oilaviy nafaqa to'g'risidagi qonun 1945 yilda maktab yoshidagi bolalarni oilalarga o'qishga kirishi uchun oilalarga yozilishi shart edi.bolalar uchun bonus ", bundan keyin mahalliy ota-onalarni farzandlarini turar-joy maktablarida o'qitishga majburlash.[13]:170[40]

Shartlar

Posed, group photo of students and teachers, dressed in black and white, outside Middlechurch, Manitoba's St. Paul's Indian Industrial School
Sent-Pol hind sanoat maktabi, Midlechurch, Manitoba, 1901

Uy-joy maktablari o'quvchilari o'qituvchilar va ma'murlarning ko'plab suiiste'molliklari, shu jumladan jinsiy va jismoniy tajovuzlarga duch kelishdi. Ular to'yib ovqatlanmaslikdan va boshqa intizomiy maktab tizimlarida toqat qilinmaydigan qattiq intizomdan aziyat chekishgan.[13][15] Jismoniy jazo ko'pincha bu jonlarni qutqarish, yovvoyi odamni madaniyatlashtirish yoki qochib ketganlarni jazolash va oldini olishning yagona usuli ekanligiga ishonish bilan oqlandi - ularning uylariga qaytish harakatlari natijasida olingan jarohatlar yoki o'lim maktabning qonuniy javobgarligiga aylanadi.[13] Odamlarning haddan tashqari ko'pligi, sanitariya sharoitlarining yomonligi, isitishning etarli emasligi va tibbiy yordamning etishmasligi grippning yuqori darajalariga olib keldi sil kasalligi; bitta maktabda o'lim darajasi 69 foizga yetdi.[20] Moliyalashtirishni ro'yxatga olish raqamlari bilan bog'laydigan federal siyosat kasal bolalarni sonini ko'paytirishga, shu bilan kasallikni keltirib chiqarishga va tarqalishiga olib keldi. Nosog'lom bolalar muammosini maktablarning o'zlari yaratgan sharoitlar - o'quvchilar sonining ko'payishi va shamollatishning yomonligi, suv sifati va kanalizatsiya tizimlari yanada kuchaytirdi.[15]:83–89

50-yillarning oxiriga qadar, federal hukumat kunduzgi maktabga integratsiyalashish modeliga o'tganida, turar joy maktablari juda kam mablag 'bilan ta'minlangan va ko'pincha majburiy mehnat ularning o'quvchilarini o'z binolarini saqlab qolish uchun, garchi bu hunarmandlar mahoratiga o'qitish sifatida taqdim etilgan bo'lsa. Bu ish og'ir edi va talabalarning ilmiy va ijtimoiy rivojlanishiga jiddiy zarar etkazdi. Maktab kitoblari va darsliklari asosan mahalliy bo'lmagan o'quvchilar uchun viloyat tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan davlat maktablarining o'quv dasturlaridan olingan va turar-joy maktablari o'qituvchilari ko'pincha yomon o'qitilgan yoki tayyor bo'lmaganlar.[13] Xuddi shu davrda Kanada hukumati olimlari talabalarga ozuqaviy testlarni o'tkazdilar va bila turib ba'zi talabalarni nazorat namunasi sifatida etishmaydilar.[41]

O'quvchilarga nisbatan qo'pol muomalalar tafsilotlari 20-asr davomida har ikkala hukumat amaldorlari tomonidan ham ko'p marta nashr etilgan bo'lib, ular maktablarning ahvoli to'g'risida va tirik qolganlar o'zlarining jabr-zulmlari uchun tovon puli talab qilgan fuqarolik ishlarini ko'rib chiqdilar.[3][7] Turar joy maktablarining sharoitlari va ta'siriga e'tibor 1967 yilidayoq ommaviy madaniyatda "Yolg'iz o'lim Chanie Wenjack "tomonidan Yan Adams yilda Maklinning va Kanada pavilyonidagi hindular da Expo 67. 1990-yillarda, sobiq talabalar tomonidan o'tkazilgan tekshiruvlar va xotiralar shuni ko'rsatdiki, turar-joy maktablarining ko'plab o'quvchilari jismoniy jismoniy holatga duchor bo'lgan psixologik va jinsiy zo'ravonlik maktab xodimlari va kattaroq o'quvchilar tomonidan. Oldingi talabalar orasida oldinga chiqish kerak edi Fil Fonteyn, keyin Buyuk boshliq Manitoba boshliqlarining yig'ilishi, 1990 yil oktyabr oyida Fort Aleksandr hind maktabida o'qiyotgan paytida u va boshqalar ko'rgan haqoratni ommaviy ravishda muhokama qilgan.[4]:129–130

1960-yillarda hukumat maktablarning aksariyatini yopib qo'ygandan so'ng, mahalliy faollar va tarixchilarning ishi jamoatchilik tomonidan maktablarga etkazilgan zarar haqida ko'proq xabardor bo'lishiga, shuningdek rasmiy hukumat va cherkovlardan kechirim so'rashiga va qonuniy kelishuvga olib keldi. Ushbu yutuqlarga mahalliy aholi tomonidan doimiy ravishda maktab tizimining suiiste'mol qilish merosiga e'tiborni jalb qilish uchun doimiy ravishda tashkil etish va targ'ib qilish orqali erishildi, shu jumladan ularning tinglovlarida ishtirok etish Aborigen xalqlar bo'yicha qirollik komissiyasi.[30]:551–554

Oilaviy tashrif

Ota-onalar va oila a'zolari muntazam ravishda maktablarga sayohat qilishar, ko'pincha bolalariga yaqinroq bo'lish uchun tashqarida lager qilishardi. Safarga borgan ota-onalarning soni Hindiston komissari Xayter Ridni sanoat maktablari, turar joy maktablari singari, tashrifni qiyinlashtirishi uchun zaxiradan uzoqroq masofaga ko'chirilishini ta'kidladi.[21]:601–604 Shuningdek, u maktab ta'tillari va ta'til vaqtida bolalarning uylariga qaytishiga ruxsat berishga qarshi chiqdi, chunki u sayohatlar maktab o'quvchilarining madaniyatiga xalaqit beradi.[42] Rid 1894 yilda tushuntirganidek, kunduzgi maktablar bilan bog'liq muammo shundaki, o'quvchilar har kuni kechqurun zaxiradagi hayot ta'sirida bo'lgan uylariga qaytib kelishadi, "internat yoki sanoat maktablarida esa o'quvchilar ushbu madaniyatsizlar rahbarligidan uzoq muddat chetlashtiriladi. hayot va doimiy g'amxo'rlik va g'amxo'rlik ".[21]:199

Safarga borishga qodir bo'lganlar uchun tashrif, qamoqxona tizimidagi tartiblarga o'xshash tarzda, maktab ma'murlari tomonidan qat'iy nazorat qilingan. Ba'zi hollarda tashrif buyuruvchilarga farzandlari bilan uchrashish umuman taqiqlangan, boshqalarda oilalar maktab rasmiylari huzurida uchrashishlari va ingliz tilida muloqot qilishga majbur bo'lganlar. Tilda gapira olmaydigan ota-onalar uchun farzandlari bilan og'zaki muloqot qilish imkonsiz edi. Oilalar o'z farzandlarini ko'rish uchun duch keladigan to'siqlarni oilalar tomonidan yanada kuchaytirdi o'tish tizimi. Buning uchun qonunchilik vakolatisiz Rid tomonidan kiritilgan tizim, mahalliy aholining zaxiradan chiqib ketishini cheklab qo'ydi va diqqat bilan kuzatib bordi.[21]:601–604 Ga javob sifatida 1885 yilda boshlangan Shimoliy-G'arbiy isyon va keyinchalik ruxsatnomalar bilan almashtirilgan ushbu tizim mahalliy aholini mahalliy hind agenti tomonidan ruxsatnomasiz zahiralarni tark etishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun ishlab chiqilgan.[43]

O'qitish uslubi va natijalari

Posed, group photo of students and teachers, dressed in black and white, outside a brick building in Regina, Saskatchewan
Uy-joy maktabining fotosurati, Regina, Saskaçevan, 1908

Talabalarga berilgan ko'rsatma ta'limga nisbatan institutsional va Evropa yondashuvidan kelib chiqqan. Bu bola tarbiyasidan keskin farq qilar edi an'anaviy bilim odatda "qarash, tinglash va o'rganish" modellariga asoslangan tizimlar. Jismoniy jazo va imtiyozlarni yo'qotishdan farqli o'laroq, turar joy maktablari tizimi, ta'lim sohasidagi an'anaviy yondashuvlar o'yinlarga asoslangan o'yinlar, hikoyalar va rasmiy marosimlar yordamida istalgan xatti-harakatga ijobiy rahbarlikni afzal ko'radi.[13]:15–21[44] Maktabda o'qiyotgan paytida ko'plab bolalar o'z uylari va maktablari orasidagi masofa tufayli bir necha bor 10 oygacha oilalari bilan aloqada bo'lmaganlar va ba'zi hollarda yillar davomida hech qanday aloqada bo'lmaganlar. Talabalarning tushkunlikka tushishi yoki ularni so'zlash taqiqlanishi ularning oilalaridan uzilishlarining ta'sirini kuchaytirdi Mahalliy tillar, hatto o'zlari orasida va sinfdan tashqarida, ingliz yoki frantsuz tillarini o'rganish va o'z tillarini unutish uchun. Ba'zi maktablarda ular o'z tillarida so'zlashgani yoki nasroniy bo'lmagan dinlarga amal qilganliklari uchun jismoniy zo'ravonlikka duch kelishgan.[36][45]

Aksariyat maktablar o'quvchilarni o'quvchilar bilan ta'minlash maqsadida ishladilar kasb-hunar ta'limi va ijtimoiy ko'nikmalar ish bilan ta'minlash va bitirgandan keyin Kanada jamiyatiga qo'shilish uchun talab qilinadi. Amalda bu maqsadlar yomon va nomuvofiq ravishda amalga oshirildi. Ko'plab bitiruvchilar ta'lim darajasi sustligi sababli ishga joylasha olmadilar. Uyga qaytish ularning madaniyati bilan tanish bo'lmaganligi va ba'zi hollarda ularning oila a'zolari bilan o'zlarining an'anaviy tillaridan foydalana olmaganligi sababli bir xil darajada qiyin bo'lgan. Intellektual yutuqlar va yutuqlar o'rniga, bu ko'pincha tashqi ko'rinish va kiyinish kabi edi o'rta sinf, shaharlik o'spirinlar yoki nasroniy axloqni targ'ib qilish, bu muvaffaqiyatli assimilyatsiya belgisi sifatida ishlatilgan. Maktab qatnashchilari maktabga bormaganlarga qaraganda katta moliyaviy yutuqlarga erishganliklari haqida hech qanday ma'lumot yo'q edi. Saskaçevanda joylashgan Battleford sanoat maktabida o'qigan o'quvchining otasi aytganidek, besh yil davomida u: "u ingliz tilida o'qiy olmaydi, gapira olmaydi yoki yozolmaydi, deyarli hamma vaqt hunar yoki mavjudotni o'rganish o'rniga chorva boqish va boqish bilan shug'ullangan. aks holda o'qimishli. Bunday ish bilan u uyda ish topishi mumkin. "[13]:164–172, 194–199

O'lim darajasi

Portrait of Peter Bryce. Wearing a jacket and tie, he is looking off-camera with an expressionless face
Bosh tibbiyot xodimi Piter Brays (1890)

Maktabda yashovchilarning o'limi odatiy hol edi va bu sifatsiz qurilgan va saqlanib qolgan binolarning saqlanib qolishi bilan bog'liq.[4]:92–101 Maktab ma'murlari tomonidan noto'g'ri hisobot berilganligi va tibbiy va ma'muriy yozuvlarning buzilganligi sababli o'limlarning haqiqiy soni noma'lum bo'lib qolmoqda. saqlash va joylashtirish siyosati davlat yozuvlari uchun.[4]:92–93 TRC tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, kamida 3201 o'quvchi asosan kasallikdan vafot etgan.[6][4]:92 TRC raisi Adliya Murray Sinclair o'limlar soni 6000 dan oshiqroq bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qildi.[5][46][47]

Hindiston ishlari vazirligining 1906 yillik hisoboti, bosh tibbiyot xodimi tomonidan taqdim etilgan Piter Brays, "Kanadadagi hindularning o'limi butun aholining o'lim ko'rsatkichidan ikki baravarga, ba'zi viloyatlarda esa uch martadan ko'proq" ekanligini ta'kidladi.[4]:97–98[48]:275 Uning sabablari qatorida u sil kasalligi va kasallikni yomon shamollatish va tibbiy tekshiruv orqali yuqtirishda turar joy maktablarining rolini ta'kidladi.[4]:97–98[48]:275–276

1909 yilda Brays 1894-1908 yillarda Kanadaning g'arbiy qismidagi ayrim turar-joy maktablarida o'lim ko'rsatkichlari besh yil davomida 30-60 foizni tashkil etganligini aytdi (ya'ni kirgandan besh yil o'tgach, o'quvchilarning 30-60 foizi vafot etdi, yoki yiliga 6 dan 12 foizgacha).[49] Ushbu statistika 1922 yilgacha, hukumatda ishlamaydigan Bris nashr etilgunga qadar oshkor bo'lmadi Milliy jinoyatchilik haqida hikoya: 1904 yildan 1921 yilgacha bo'lgan Kanadalik hindularning sog'lig'i haqida ma'lumot. Xususan, uning ta'kidlashicha, agar sog'lom bolalar sil kasalligiga chalingan bolalarga ta'sir qilmasa, o'limning yuqori ko'rsatkichlaridan saqlanish mumkin edi.[4][50][51] O'sha paytda kasallikni davolash uchun antibiotik aniqlanmagan va bu kasallik ta'sirini yanada kuchaytirgan. Streptomitsin, birinchi samarali davolash 1943 yilga qadar kiritilmagan.[21]:381

1920 va 1922 yillarda, Regina shifokor F. A. Korbettga mamlakatning g'arbiy qismidagi maktablarni ziyorat qilish topshirig'i berildi va Brayz xabar bergan natijalarga o'xshash natijalarni topdi. Ermineskin nomidagi maktabda Xobbema, Alberta, u bolalarning 50 foizida sil kasalligini aniqladi.[15]:98 Sarcee internat maktabida Kalgari Uning ta'kidlashicha, barcha 33 talabalar "sog'liqni saqlashning standart darajasidan ancha past" va "[a] ll ammo to'rttasi sil kasalligini yuqtirgan ".[15]:99 Bir sinfda u 16 kasal bolani topdi, ularning aksariyati o'lim yaqinida, ularni darslarga o'tirishga majbur qilishdi.[15]:99

Stone cairn erected in 1975 marking the Battleford Industrial School Cemetery. A plaque at the top of the cairn reads: RESTORATION THROUGH OPPORTUNITIES FOR YOUTH, 4S1179-1974. PLAQUE PROVIDED BY DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM AND RENEWABLE RESOURCES.
Keyn 1975 yilda Battleford sanoat maktabi qabristoniga bag'ishlangan

2011 yilda TRCning "Adolat" tadqiqotini aks ettirgan holda Myurrey Sinkler aytdi Toronto Star: "Yo'qotilgan bolalar - bu men uchun katta syurpriz ... Maktablarda shuncha bolalar o'lgani. Ularning o'limi haqidagi ma'lumotlar oilalariga etkazilmaganligi."[52]

Yo'qolgan bolalar va belgilanmagan qabrlar

TRC, o'lim yoki bedarak yo'qolgan bolalar sonini hech qachon aniqlash imkonsiz bo'lishi mumkin degan xulosaga keldi, chunki qisman talabalarni belgilanmagan qabrlarga ko'mish odati bor.[53][54][55] Maktab va hukumat mulozimlari tomonidan ish yuritishning sustligi, ular vafot etgan bolalar soni yoki ular dafn etilgan bolalar to'g'risida ishonchli raqamlarni saqlashni e'tiborsiz qoldirganligi sababli ish yanada murakkablashmoqda.[6] Aksariyat maktablarda qabristonlar bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, ularning joylashuvi va hajmini aniqlash qiyin bo'lib qolmoqda, chunki dastlab belgilangan qabristonlar keyinchalik yo'q qilingan, qasddan yashirilgan yoki qurib bitkazilgan.[55][56]

TRC yakuniy hisobotining to'rtinchi jildi, bedarak yo'qolgan bolalar va dafn marosimlariga bag'ishlangan bo'lib, TRC ning dastlabki a'zolari 2007 yilda ushbu masala uchun o'z ishchi guruhi zarurligini tushunib etgandan keyin ishlab chiqilgan. 2009 yilda TRC 1,5 dollar talab qildi Bu ishni yakunlash uchun federal hukumat tomonidan millionlab qo'shimcha mablag 'ajratilgan, ammo rad etilgan.[6] Tadqiqotchilar, sun'iy yo'ldosh tasvirlari va xaritalari yordamida maktablar yaqinidagi erlarni qidirib topgach, "aksariyat hollarda Komissiya hujjatlashtirgan qabristonlar tashlandiq, ishdan bo'shatilgan va tasodifiy bezovtalikka moyil" degan xulosaga kelishdi.[57]:1

O'z-o'zini boshqarish va maktabni yopish

Shuningdek qarang: Kanadadagi hind maktablari ro'yxati

Hukumat qayta ko'rib chiqilganda Hindiston akti 1940-1950 yillarda ba'zi guruhlar mahalliy va mahalliy mahalliy tashkilotlar bilan birgalikda o'z jamoalarida maktablarni saqlashni xohlashdi.[58] Maktablarni qo'llab-quvvatlash motivlari ularning oilalarning keng buzilishidan aziyat chekkan jamoalarda ijtimoiy xizmat rolini o'z ichiga olgan; maktablarning ish beruvchi sifatida ahamiyati; bolalarning ta'lim olishlari uchun boshqa imkoniyatlarning etishmasligi.

Group photo of Indigenous students in front of a brick building. A nun is visible in the back row.
Alberta shahridagi Blue Quills turar-joy maktabi o'quvchilari

1960-yillarda katta to'qnashuv sodir bo'ldi Egar ko'lining qo'riqxonasi Alberta shahrida. Bir necha yil yomonlashgan sharoitlar va ma'muriy o'zgarishlardan so'ng, ota-onalar oshkoralikning yo'qligiga qarshi norozilik bildirishdi Blue Quills hind maktabi 1969 yilda. Bunga javoban hukumat maktabni yopish, binoni turar joyga aylantirish va 5 kilometr (3 mil) uzoqlikdagi davlat maktabiga o'quvchilarni qabul qilish to'g'risida qaror qabul qildi. Aziz Pol, Alberta.[30]:84 The TRC report pertaining to this period states:

Fearing their children would face racial discrimination in St. Paul, parents wished to see the school transferred to a private society that would operate it both as a school and a residence. The federal government had been open to such a transfer if the First Nations organization was structured as a provincial school division. The First Nations rejected this, saying that a transfer of First Nations education to the provincial authority was a violation of Treaty rights.[30]:84

In the summer of 1970, members of the Saddle Lake community occupied the building and demanded the right to run it themselves. More than 1,000 people are believed to have participated over the course of the 17-day sit-in, which lasted from July 14 to 31.[30]:89–90 Their efforts resulted in Blue Quills becoming the first Indigenous-administered school in the country.[59] It continues to operate today as University nuhelotʼįne thaiyotsʼį nistameyimâkanak Blue Quills, birinchi Indigenous-governed university Kanadada.[60][61] Following the success of the Blue Quills effort the Milliy hind birodarligi (NIB) released the 1972 paper Indian Control of Indian Education that responded, in part, to the Canadian Government's 1969 yil Oq qog'oz calling for the abolishment of the land treaties va Hindiston akti. The NIB paper underscored the right of Indigenous communities to locally direct how their children are educated and served as the integral reference for education policy moving forward.

Few other former residential schools have transitioned into independently operated community schools for Indigenous children. White Calf Collegiate in Lebret, Saskatchewan, was run by the Star Blanket Cree Nation from 1973 until its closure in 1998, after being run by the Oblates from 1884 to 1969.[62] Old Sun Community kolleji tomonidan boshqariladi Siksika millati in Alberta in a building designed by architect Roland Guerney Orr.[63][64] From 1929 to 1971 the building housed Old Sun residential school, first run by the Anglicans and taken over by the federal government in 1969.[65] It was converted to adult learning and stood as a campus of Mount Royal kolleji from 1971 to 1978, at which point the Siksika Nation took over operations. 1988 yilda Old Sun College Act was passed in the Alberta Legislature recognizing Old Sun Community College as a First Nations College.[66]

Doimiy effektlar

Survivors of residential schools and their families have been found to suffer from historic trauma that has had a lasting and adverse effect on the transmission of Indigenous culture between generations. Passed on intergenerationally, a 2010 study led by Gwen Reimer explains historic trauma as the process through which "cumulative stress and grief experienced by Aboriginal communities is translated into a collective experience of cultural disruption and a collective memory of powerlessness and loss".[67]:x It has been used to explain the persistent negative social and cultural impacts of colonial rule and residential schools, including the prevalence of sexual abuse, alcoholism, drug addiction, lateral violence, mental illness and suicide among Indigenous peoples.[68]:10–11[69]

The 2012 national report of the First Nations Regional Health Study found that of respondents who attended residential schools were more likely than those who did not to have been diagnosed with at least one chronic medical condition.[70] A sample of 127 survivors revealed that half have criminal records; 65 per cent have been diagnosed with travmadan keyingi stress buzilishi; 21 per cent have been diagnosed with major depression; 7 per cent have been diagnosed with tashvish buzilishi; and 7 per cent have been diagnosed with chegara kishilik buzilishi.[68]

Loss of language and culture

Although encouragement to keep Indigenous languages alive was present in some schools, a key tactic used to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian society was to suppress Mahalliy tillar va madaniyat. Many students spoke the language of their families fluently when they first entered residential schools. Teachers responded by strictly prohibiting the use of these languages despite many students having little or no understanding of English or French.[18][71] The practice of traditional and spiritual activities including the Potlatch va Quyosh raqsi were also banned.[72] Some survivors reported being bog'langan or forced to eat soap when they were caught speaking their own language. The inability to communicate was further affected by their families' inabilities to speak English or French. Upon leaving residential school some survivors felt ashamed for being Indigenous as they were made to view their traditional identities as ugly and dirty.[4]:4, 83–87[73]

The stigma created by the residential school system regarding transmission of Indigenous culture by elders to younger generations has been linked to the over-representation of Indigenous languages on the list of endangered languages in Canada. The TRC noted that the majority of 90 Indigenous languages still in existence are "under serious threat of extinction".[4]:202 With great-grandparents representing the only speakers of many Indigenous languages, it was concluded that a failure of governments and Indigenous communities to prioritize the teaching and preservation of traditional languages would ensure that, despite the closure of resident schools, the eradication of Indigenous culture desired by government officials and administrators would inevitably be fulfilled "through a process systemic neglect".[4]:202 In addition to the forceful eradication of elements of Indigenous culture, the schools trained students in patriarchal dichotomies useful to state institutions, such as the domesticization of female students through imbuing 'stay-at-home' values and the militarization of male students through soldierlike regimentation.[74]  

Kechirasiz

I accept and I confess before God and you, our failures in the residential schools. We failed you. We failed ourselves. We failed God.

I am sorry, more than I can say, that we were part of a system which took you and your children from home and family.

I am sorry, more than I can say, that we tried to remake you in our image, taking from you your language and the signs of your identity.

I am sorry, more than I can say, that in our schools so many were abused physically, sexually, culturally and emotionally.

On behalf of the Anglican Church of Canada, I present our apology.

Archbishop Michael Peers, "A Step Along the Path"[75]

Acknowledgment of the wrongs done by the residential school system began in the 1980s.[4][3] In 1986, at its 31st General Council, the Kanadaning birlashgan cherkovi responded to the request of Indigenous peoples that it apologize to them for its part in colonization and in 1998 apologized expressly for the role it played in the residential school system.[76][72][77]

Arxiepiskop Maykl Peers apologized to residential school survivors, on behalf of the Anglican Church of Canada, on August 6, 1993, at the National Native Convocation in Minaki, Ontario.[75] Keyingi yil Kanadadagi Presviterian cherkovi adopted a confession at its 120th General Assembly in Toronto on June 5, recognizing its role in residential schools and seeking forgiveness. The confession was presented on October 8 during a ceremony in Winnipeg.[78]

In 2004, immediately before signing the first Public Safety Protocol with the Assembly of First Nations, Kanada qirollik politsiyasi (RCMP) Commissioner Giuliano Zaccardelli issued an apology on behalf of the RCMP for its role in the Indian residential school system: "We, I, as Commissioner of the RCMP, am truly sorry for what role we played in the residential school system and the abuse that took place in the residential system."[79][80]

Federal hukumat

2008 yil 11 iyunda, Bosh Vazir Stiven Xarper issued a formal apology, on behalf of the sitting Kabinet, in front of an audience of Indigenous delegates, and in an address that was broadcast nationally on the CBC, o'tgan hukumatlarning assimilyatsiya siyosati uchun.[81][82] The Prime Minister apologized not only for the known excesses of the residential school system, but for the creation of the system itself. Harper delivered the speech in the House of Commons; the procedural device of a Butun qo'mita was used, so that Indigenous leaders, who were not Members of Parliament, could be allowed to respond to the apology on the floor of the House.[83]

Harper's apology excluded Nyufaundlend va Labrador as it was argued that the government should not be held accountable for pre-Confederation actions. Residential schools in Newfoundland and Labrador were located in Sent-Entoni, Kartriyat, Shimoliy G'arbiy daryo, Yo'q va Makkovik. These schools were run by the Xalqaro Grenfell assotsiatsiyasi and the German Moravian Missionaries.[84] The government argued that because these schools were not created under the auspices of the Hindiston akti, they were not true residential schools. More than 1,000 survivors disagreed and filed a class action lawsuit against the government for compensation in 2007. By the time the suit was settled in 2016, almost a decade later, dozens of plaintiffs had died. It was expected that up to 900 former students would be compensated.[85]

On November 24, 2017, Prime Minister Jastin Tryudo issued a formal apology to former Innu, Inuit va NunatuKavut school survivors and their families during a ceremony in Baxtli vodiy-g'ozlar ko'rfazi, Labrador.[86][87] He acknowledged that students experienced multiple forms of abuse linking their treatment to the colonial thinking that shaped the school system.[88] Trudeau's apology was received on behalf of residential school survivors by Toby Obed who framed the apology as a key part of the healing process that connected survivors from Newfoundland and Labrador with school attendees from across the country.[86] Members of the Innu Nation were less receptive, rejecting the apology ahead of the ceremony.[89] Grand Chief Gregory Rich noted in a released statement that he was "not satisfied that Canada understands yet what it has done to Innu and what it is still doing", indicating that members felt they deserved an apology for more than their experiences at residential schools.[86][89]

Viloyat

2015 yil 22 iyunda, Reychel Notli, Alberta Premer-ligasi, issued a formal apology as a ministerial statement in a bid to begin to address the wrongs done by the government to the Indigenous peoples of Alberta and the rest of Canada.[90] Notley's provincial government called on the federal government to hold an inquiry on the yo'qolgan va o'ldirilgan mahalliy ayollar in Canada at the same time. They also stated their intent to build relationships with provincial leaders of Indigenous communities, and sought to amend the provincial curriculum to include the history of Indigenous culture.[91]

On June 18, 2015, Manitoba Premer Greg Selinger became the first politician to issue a formal apology for the government's role in the Sixties Scoop.[92] Class action lawsuits have been brought against the Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario governments for the harm caused to victims of the large-scale adoption scheme that saw thousands of Indigenous children forcibly removed from their parents in the 1960s.[93] Indigenous leaders responded by insisting that while apologies were welcomed, action – including a federal apology, reunification of families, compensation and counselling for victims – must accompany words for them to have real meaning.[94]

Ontario Premer Ketlin Vayn apologized on behalf of the provincial government for the harm done at residential schools at Ontario Qonunchilik Assambleyasi 2016 yil 30 mayda.[95] Affirming Ontario's commitment to reconciliation with Indigenous peoples she acknowledged the school system as "one of the most shameful chapters in Canadian history".[96] In a 105-minute ceremony, Wynne announced that the Ontario government would spend $250 million on education initiatives and renamed the Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs the Ministry of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation. It was further announced that the first week of November would be known as Treaties Recognition Week.[97][98]

Universitet

2011 yil 27 oktyabrda, Manitoba universiteti president David Barnard apologized to the TRC for the institution's role in educating people who operated the residential school system. This is believed to be the first time a Canadian university has apologized for playing a role in residential schools.[99]

Vatican's expression of sorrow

Students in the classroom, with a teacher in nun's garb at the back of the room.
Students of St. Anne's Indian Residential School in Albani Fort, Ontario, v. 1945

In 2009, Chief Fontaine had a private meeting with Papa Benedikt XVI to obtain an apology for abuses that occurred in the residential school system. Fontaine was accompanied at the meeting by a delegation of Indigenous peoples from Canada funded by Hindiston va Shimoliy ishlar Kanada. Following the meeting, the Vatican released an official expression of sorrow on the church's role in residential schools:

His Holiness [i.e. the Pope] recalled that since the earliest days of her presence in Canada, the Church, particularly through her missionary personnel, has closely accompanied the Indigenous peoples.

Given the sufferings that some Indigenous children experienced in the Canadian Residential School system, the Holy Father expressed his sorrow at the anguish caused by the deplorable conduct of some members of the Church and he offered his sympathy and prayerful solidarity. His Holiness emphasized that acts of abuse cannot be tolerated in society. He prayed that all those affected would experience healing, and he encouraged First Nations Peoples to continue to move forward with renewed hope.[100]

Fontaine later stated at a news conference that, at the meeting, he sensed the Pope's "pain and anguish" and that the acknowledgement was "important to [him] and that was what [he] was looking for".[101]

On May 29, 2017, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau asked the current Papa Frensis for a public apology to all survivors of the residential school system, rather than the expression of sorrow issued in 2009.[102][103][104] The request aligned with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's call for "a formal apology issued by the Pope to the survivors of the residential school system for the spiritual, cultural, emotional, physical and sexual abuse of Canada's First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples".[105] Trudeau invited the Pope to issue the apology in Canada. Although no commitment for such an apology followed the meeting, he noted that the Pope pointed to a lifelong commitment of supporting marginalized people and an interest in working collaboratively with Trudeau and Canadian bishops to establish a way forward.[102]

Yarashish

Exterior view of dilapitated St. Michael's Residential School in Alert Bay, British Columbia.
Former St. Michael's Residential School in Alert ko'rfazi, Britaniya Kolumbiyasi. Formerly standing on the traditional territory of the ‘Namgis birinchi millat, it was demolished in February 2015.[106]

In the summer of 1990, the Kanesatakening mohawksi confronted the government about its failure to honour Indigenous land claims and recognize traditional Mohawk territory in Oka, Kvebek. Referred to by media outlets as the Oka inqirozi, the land dispute sparked a critical discussion about the Canadian government's complacency regarding relations with Indigenous communities and responses to their concerns. The action prompted then Prime Minister Brayan Myulroni to underscore four government responsibilities: "resolving land claims; improving the economic and social conditions on reserves; defining a new relationship between aboriginal peoples and governments; and addressing the concerns of Canada's aboriginal peoples in contemporary Canadian life."[4]:240 The actions of the Mohawk community members led to, in part, along with objections from Indigenous leaders regarding the Meech Leyk kelishuvi, ning yaratilishi Aborigen xalqlar bo'yicha qirollik komissiyasi to examine the status of Indigenous peoples in Canada. In 1996, the Royal Commission presented a final report which first included a vision for meaningful and action-based reconciliation.[4]:239–240[107]

Moliyaviy tovon

In January 1998, the government made a "statement of reconciliation" – including an apology to those people who were sexually or physically abused while attending residential schools – and established the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (AHF). The foundation was provided with $350 million to fund community-based healing projects addressing the legacy of physical and sexual abuse.[108] Yilda its 2005 budget, the Canadian government committed an additional $40 million to support the work of the AHF.[109] Federal funding for the foundation was cut in 2010 by the Stephen Harper government, leaving 134 national healing-related initiatives without an operating budget.[110] The AHF closed in 2014. Former AHF executive director Mike DeGagne has said that the loss of AHF support has created a gap in dealing with mental health crises such as suicides in the Attawapiskat First Nation.[111]

In June 2001, the government established Indian Residential Schools Resolution Canada as an independent government department to manage the residential school file. In 2003, the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) process was launched as part of a larger National Resolution Framework which included health supports, a commemoration component and a strategy for litigation.[112] As explained by the TRC, the ADR was designed as a "voluntary process for resolution of certain claims of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and forcible confinement, without having to go through the civil litigation process".[30]:564 It was created by the Canadian government without consultation with Indigenous communities or former residential school students. The ADR system also made it the responsibility of the former students to prove that the abuse occurred and was intentional, resulting in former students finding the system difficult to navigate, re-traumatizing, and discriminatory. Many survivor advocacy groups and Indigenous political organizations such as the Birinchi millatlar assambleyasi (AFN) worked to have the ADR system dissolved.[113] In 2004 the Assembly of First Nations released a report critical of the ADR underscoring, among other issues, the failure of survivors to automatically receive the full amount of compensation without subsequent ligation against the church and failure to compensate for lost family, language and culture.[30]:565 The Kanadaliklar jamoalari palatasi Aborigenlar va shimoliy taraqqiyot bo'yicha doimiy komissiyasi released its own report in April 2005 finding the ADR to be "an excessively costly and inappropriately applied failure, for which the Minister and her officials are unable to raise a convincing defence".[30]:566 Within a month of the report's release a Kanada Oliy sudi decision granted school attendees the right to pursue class-action suits, which ultimately led to a government review of the compensation process.[30]:566

On November 23, 2005, the Canadian government announced a $1.9-billion compensation package to benefit tens of thousands of former students. National Chief of the AFN, Fil Fonteyn, said the package was meant to cover "decades in time, innumerable events and countless injuries to First Nations individuals and communities".[114] Adliya vaziri Irvin Kotler applauded the compensation decision noting that the placement of children in the residential school system was "the single most harmful, disgraceful and racist act in our history".[114] At an Ottawa news conference, Bosh vazir o'rinbosari Anne McLellan said: "We have made good on our shared resolve to deliver what I firmly believe will be a fair and lasting resolution of the Indian school legacy."[114]

The compensation package led to the Hindistonda yashovchi maktablarni joylashtirish to'g'risidagi bitim (IRSSA), announced on May 8, 2006, and implemented in September 2007.[115] At the time, there were about 86,000 living victims. The IRSSA included funding for the AHF, for commemoration, for health support, and for a Truth and Reconciliation program, as well as an individual Common Experience Payment (CEP).[73] Any person who could be verified as having resided at a federally run Indian residential school in Canada was entitled to a CEP.[116] The amount of compensation was based on the number of years a particular former student resided at the residential schools: $10,000 for the first year attended (from one night residing there to a full school year) plus $3,000 for every year thereafter.[117][118]:44

The IRSSA also included the Independent Assessment Process (IAP), a case-by-case, out-of-court resolution process designed to provide compensation for sexual, physical and emotional abuse. The IAP process was built on the ADR program and all IAP claims from former students are examined by an adjudicator. The IAP became available to all former students of residential schools on September 19, 2007. Former students who experienced abuse and wished to pursue compensation had to apply by themselves or through a lawyer of their choice to receive consideration.[119] The deadline to apply for the IAP was September 19, 2012. This gave former students of residential schools four years from the implementation date of the IRSSA to apply for the IAP. Claims involving physical and sexual abuse were compensated up to $275,000.[120] By the end of January 2017, the IAP had resolved 36,538 claims and paid $3.1 billion in compensation.[121]

The IRSSA also proposed an advance payment for former students alive and who were 65 years old and over as of May 30, 2005. The deadline for reception of the advance payment form by IRSRC was December 31, 2006. Following a legal process, including an examination of the IRSSA by the courts of the provinces and territories of Canada, an "opt-out" period occurred. During this time, the former students of residential schools could reject the agreement if they did not agree with its dispositions. This opt-out period ended on August 20, 2007, with about 350 former students opting out. The IRSSA was the largest sinf harakati settlement in Canadian history. By December 2012, a total of $1.62 billion was paid to 78,750 former students, 98 per cent of the 80,000 who were eligible.[122] In 2014, the IRSSA funds left over from CEPs were offered for educational credits for survivors and their families.[123]

Haqiqat va yarashtirish komissiyasi

Photo of Justice Murray Sinclair during opening keynote. He is seen, while looking down and smiling, wearing a black top with multi-coloured accents.
Justice Murray Sinclair at the 2015 Shingwauk Gathering and Conference at Algoma universiteti
Asosiy maqola: Haqiqat va yarashtirish komissiyasi (Kanada)

In 2008, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established to travel across Canada collecting the testimonies of people affected by the residential school system. About 7,000 Indigenous people told their stories.[124] The TRC concluded in 2015 with the publication of a six volume, 4,000-plus-page report detailing the testimonies of survivors and historical documents from the time. It focused on the importance of moving "from apology to action"[4]:262 to achieve true reconciliation and resulted in the establishment of the Haqiqat va yarashish milliy markazi.[125][126]

The executive summary of the TRC concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide.[4]:1 The ambiguity of the phrasing allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The TRC was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a legal responsibility of the Canadian government that would be difficult to prove. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.[127][128]

Among the 94 Amalga chaqiriqlar that accompanied the conclusion of the TRC were recommendations to ensure that all Canadians are educated and made aware of the residential school system.[34]:175–176 adolat Myurrey Sinkler explained that the recommendations were not aimed solely at prompting government action, but instead a collective move toward reconciliation in which all Canadians have a role to play: "Many of our elements, many of our recommendations and many of the Calls to Action are actually aimed at Canadian society."[129]

Preservation of documentation of the legacy of residential schools was also highlighted as part of the TRC's Calls to Action. Community groups and other stakeholders have variously argued for documenting or destroying evidence and testimony of residential school abuses.[130][131][132] 2016 yil 4 aprel kuni Ontario Apellyatsiya sudi ruled that documents pertaining to IAP settlements will be destroyed in 15 years if individual claimants do not request to have their documents archived. This decision was fought by the TRC as well as the federal government, but argued for by religious representatives.[133]

2017 yil mart oyida, Lin Beyak, a Konservativ a'zosi Senat Doimiy komissiya of Aboriginal Peoples, voiced disapproval of the final TRC report, saying that it had omitted an "abundance of good" that was present in the schools.[134][135] Although Beyak's right to free speech was defended by some Conservative senators, her comments were widely criticized by members of the opposition, among them Mahalliy va shimoliy ishlar vaziri, Kerolin Bennet, va rahbari Yangi Demokratik partiya, Tom Mulkair.[136] The Anglican Church also raised concerns stating in a release co-signed by bishops Fred Xiltz va Mark MacDonald: "There was nothing good about children going missing and no report being filed. There was nothing good about burying children in unmarked graves far from their ancestral homes."[137][138] In response, the Conservative Party leadership removed Beyak from the Senate committee underscoring that her comments did not align with the views of the party.[136]

Ecclesiastical projects

The four churches of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement – the United, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Presbyterian churches[73] – agreed to participate in the reconciliation process between Indigenous and settler Canadians. They have been involved in funding various projects and services that assist former residential school students and their families in healing from the trauma caused by the schools. The Anglican Church of Canada set up the Anglican Healing Fund in the 1990s to respond to the ongoing need for healing related to residential schools.[139] In the 2000s the United Church established the Justice and Reconciliation Fund to support healing initiatives and the Presbyterian Church has established a Healing & Reconciliation Program.[140][141]

The churches have also engaged in reconciliation initiatives such as the Returning to Spirit: Residential School Healing and Reconciliation Program, a workshop that aims to unite Indigenous and non-Indigenous people through discussing the legacy of residential schools and fostering an environment for them to communicate and develop mutual understanding.[4] In 2014, the federal government ceased to contribute funds to Indigenous health organizations such as the AHF and the National Aboriginal Health Organization. Since then, more pressure has been placed on churches to sustain their active participation in these healing efforts.[4]

Ta'lim tashabbuslari

For many communities the existence of buildings that formerly housed residential schools is a traumatic reminder of the system's legacy, and there has been much discussion about demolition, heritage status and how the possibility of incorporating sites into the healing process.[130][131][132]In July 2016, it was announced that the building of the former Mohawk instituti turar-joy maktabi would be converted into an educational centre with exhibits on the legacy of residential schools. Ontario's Minister of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation, Devid Zimmer, noted: "Its presence will always be a reminder of colonization and the racism of the residential school system; one of the darkest chapters of Canadian history."[142]

Reconciliation efforts have also been undertaken by several Canadian universities. 2015 yilda Leykxed universiteti va Vinnipeg universiteti introduced a mandatory course requirement for all undergraduate students focused on Indigenous culture and history.[143] Xuddi shu yili Saskaçevan universiteti hosted a two-day national forum at which Canadian university administrators, scholars and members of Indigenous communities discussed how Canadian universities can and should respond to the TRC's Calls to Action.[144][145]

Action shot of people, wearing orange and yellow construction clothing, working to raise the Reconciliation Pole at UBC
Ning ko'tarilishi Reconciliation Pole on UBC Vancouver campus

On April 1, 2017, a 17-metre (56 ft) pole, titled Reconciliation Pole, was raised on the grounds of the Britaniya Kolumbiyasi universiteti (UBC) Vancouver campus, which sits on the unceded territory of the Musquam odamlar. Tomonidan o'yilgan Xayda master carver and hereditary chief, 7idansuu (/ʔiː.dæn.suː/[146]) (Edenshaw), Jeyms Xart, the pole tells the story of the residential school system prior to, during and after its operation. It features thousands of copper nails, used to represent the children who died in Canadian residential schools, and depictions of residential school survivors carved by artists from multiple Indigenous communities. Included among them are Canadian Inuk direktor Zacharias Kunuk, Maliset artist Shane Perley-Dutcher, and Muqueam Sohil salisi rassom Susan Point.[147][148]

In October 2016, Canadian singer-songwriter Gord Dovni ozod qilindi Yashirin yo'l haqida kontseptsiya albomi Chanie Wenjack 's escape and death. It was accompanied by a graphic novel and animated film, aired on CBC Television. Barcha daromadlar Manitoba universiteti 's Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Following his death in October 2017, Downie's brother Mike said he was aware of 40,000 teachers who had used the material in their classrooms, and hoped to continue this.[149] In December 2017, Downie was posthumously named Yilning Kanadadagi yangiliklari tomonidan Kanada matbuoti, in part because of his work with reconciliation efforts for survivors of residential schools.[150]

Shuningdek qarang

Notes on terminology

  1. ^ Hind has been used because of the historical nature of the article and the precision of the name. It was, and continues to be, used by government officials, Indigenous peoples and historians while referencing the school system. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Kanadadagi mahalliy aholi were homogeneously referred to as Hindular rather than by language that distinguishes Birinchi millatlar, Inuit va Metis xalqlar. Dan foydalanish Hind is limited throughout the article to proper nouns and references to government legislation.
  2. ^ Mahalliy has been capitalized in keeping with the style guide of the Government of Canada.[1] The capitalization also aligns with the style used within the final report of the Kanada haqiqati va yarashtirish komissiyasi va Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining tub aholi huquqlari to'g'risidagi deklaratsiyasi. In the Canadian context, Mahalliy is capitalized when discussing peoples, beliefs or communities in the same way Evropa yoki Kanadalik is used to refer to non-Indigenous topics or people.[2]
  3. ^ Omon qolgan is the term used in the final report of the TRC and the Statement of apology to former students of Indian Residential Schools issued by Stephen Harper on behalf of the Government of Canada in 2008.[8]

Adabiyotlar

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