So'nggi o'rta asrlarda Angliya - England in the Late Middle Ages

Entoni Vudvill, Earl Rivers & Uilyam Kakton ga ingliz tilida birinchi bosilgan kitobni taqdim etish Edvard IV

So'nggi o'rta asrlarda Angliya bilan bog'liq Angliya tarixi davomida kech o'rta asr davri, XIII asrdan, oxirigacha Anjevinlar va qo'shilish Genri III - ko'pchilik tomonidan boshlanishini belgilash uchun ko'rib chiqilgan Plantagenet sulola - taxtga o'tirguniga qadar Tudorlar sulolasi 1485 yilda, bu ko'pincha oxirigacha eng qulay marker sifatida qabul qilinadi O'rta yosh va boshlanishi Ingliz Uyg'onish davri va erta zamonaviy Britaniya.

Qo'shilish paytida Genri III faqat ingliz xoldingi qoldig'i qoldi Gascony, buning uchun ingliz shohlari to'lashi kerak edi hurmat frantsuzlarga va baronlar qo'zg'olonda edilar. 1272 yilda taxtni meros qilib olgan o'g'li tomonidan qirol hokimiyati tiklandi Edvard I. U o'z mulkini qayta tashkil etdi va Uels va Shotlandiyaning aksariyat qismida nazoratni qo'lga kiritdi. Uning o'g'li Edvard II da mag'lub bo'ldi Bannokbern jangi 1314 yilda Shotlandiya ustidan nazoratni yo'qotdi. Oxir-oqibat u to'ntarish natijasida qulatilgan va 1330 yildan boshlab uning o'g'li Eduard III qirollikni boshqarishni o'z qo'liga oldi. Gascony holati bo'yicha tortishuvlar Edvard III ga da'vo qilishga sabab bo'ldi Frantsiya taxti, natijada Yuz yillik urush, unda inglizlar Eduard III ning nabirasi davrida frantsuzlar qayta tiklanishidan oldin muvaffaqiyat qozonishdi Richard II.

XIV asrda Katta ochlik va Qora o'lim, Angliya aholisining yarmiga yaqini o'ldirgan, iqtisodiyotni xaosga tashlagan va eski siyosiy tuzumga putur etkazgan halokatli hodisalar. Fermer xo'jaligida ishchi kuchi etishmasligi sababli, Angliyaning ekin maydonlarining katta qismi yaylovga, asosan qo'ylarga aylantirildi. Ijtimoiy notinchlik Dehqonlar qo'zg'oloni 1381 dan.

Richard tomonidan lavozimidan ozod etildi Bolingbrokning Genri 1399 yilda Genri IV asos solgan Lankaster uyi va Frantsiya bilan urushni qayta boshladi. Uning o'g'li Genri V da hal qiluvchi g'alabaga erishdi Agincourt 1415 yilda Normandiyani qayta zabt etdi va go'dak o'g'li bo'lishini ta'minladi Genri VI 1421 yilda kutilmagan vafotidan keyin ham ingliz, ham frantsuz tojlarini meros qilib oladi. Ammo frantsuzlar yana jonlanishni boshladilar va 1453 yilga kelib inglizlar deyarli barcha frantsuz mulklarini yo'qotdilar. Genri VI zaif shohni isbotladi va oxir-oqibat hokimiyatdan ag'darildi Atirgullar urushi, bilan Edvard IV ning birinchi hukmron a'zosi sifatida taxtni egallash York uyi. O'limidan keyin va ukasi taxtni egallaganidan keyin Richard III boshchiligidagi bosqinchilik Genri Tudor va uning g'alabasi 1485 yilda Bosvort maydonidagi jang Plantagenet sulolasining oxiri tugadi.

Angliya hukumati islohot va tanazzul davrlarini boshidan kechirdi, parlament ma'muriyatning muhim qismi sifatida paydo bo'ldi. Ayollar muhim iqtisodiy rolga ega edilar va zodagon ayollar erlarining yo'qligida o'z mulklarida kuch ishlatar edilar. Inglizlar o'zlarini Britaniya orollaridagi qo'shnilaridan ustun deb bilishni boshladilar va mintaqaviy o'ziga xoslik muhim bo'lib qoldi. XII asrdan boshlab yangi isloh qilingan monastir buyruqlari va voizlik buyruqlari Angliyaga etib bordi, haj juda mashhur bo'ldi va Lollardi keyingi XIV asrdan boshlab katta bid'at sifatida paydo bo'ldi. The Kichik muzlik davri qishloq xo'jaligi va yashash sharoitlariga sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Aholining haddan tashqari ko'payishi, erlarning etishmasligi va tuproqlarning yo'q bo'lib ketishi natijasida iqtisodiy o'sish XIII asrning oxirida pasayishni boshladi. Texnologiya va fanni qisman XII asrdan Angliyaga etib kelgan yunon va islom tafakkuri boshqargan. Urushda yollanma askarlar tobora ko'proq ish bilan ta'minlandi va etarli miqdordagi tayyor pul mablag'lari kampaniyalarni muvaffaqiyatli o'tkazish uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'ldi. Eduard III davriga kelib, qo'shinlar kichikroq edi, ammo qo'shinlar yaxshi jihozlangan va forma bilan ta'minlangan edi. O'rta asr Angliya rasmlar, o'ymakorliklar, kitoblar, matolar va ko'plab funktsional, ammo chiroyli buyumlar ko'rinishidagi san'atni yaratdi. Lotin va frantsuz tillarida adabiyotlar ishlab chiqarilgan va Richard II davridan boshlab ulardan foydalanish kuchaygan O'rta ingliz she'riyatda. Musiqa va qo'shiq muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lib, diniy marosimlarda, sud ishlarida va teatr asarlariga hamroh bo'lishda ishlatilgan. XII asr davomida Angliya-Norman me'morchiligi uslubi yanada bezakli bo'lib, Frantsiyadan olingan uchli kamarlar deb nomlangan. Dastlabki ingliz gotikasi.

Siyosiy tarix

XII asrda tasvirlangan Genri II va Akvitaniya Eleanorasi sud o'tkazish

Plantagenet uyi

Fon

Geoffrey Plantagenet, Anjou grafigi bilan nikoh Empress Matilda u 1154 yilgacha Angliya va Normandiya ustidan nazoratni qo'lga kiritganligini va Geoffrining o'g'lining uylanishini anglatadi Genri Kurtmantl, ga Akvitaniya Eleanorasi oilaviy mulkni keyinchalik "deb nomlangan narsaga aylantirdi Angevin imperiyasi. Genri II sifatida u o'z mulkini birlashtirdi va Uels va Irlandiyani nominal boshqaruviga ega bo'ldi. Uning o'g'li Richard I Frantsiyadagi salib yurishlari va uning egaliklari bilan ko'proq shug'ullanadigan ingliz qiroli edi. Uning akasi Jon Frantsiyadagi mag'lubiyatlar uning Angliyadagi mavqeini zaiflashtirdi. Uning ingliz vassallarining isyoni natijasida shartnoma chaqirildi Magna Carta qirol hokimiyatini cheklagan va o'rnatgan umumiy Qonun. Bu XIII-XIV asrlarda o'tkazilgan har bir konstitutsiyaviy kurashning asosini tashkil etadi.^[1] Biroq baronlar ham, toj ham Magna Karta shartlariga rioya qilolmaydilar Birinchi baronlar urushi unda qo'zg'olon baronlari bosqinchilikni taklif qilishdi Shahzoda Lui. Jonning o'limi va Uilyam Marshal to'qqiz yoshli himoyachisi sifatida tayinlash Genri III ba'zi tarixchilar tomonidan Angevin davrining oxiri va Plantagenet sulolasining boshlanishini belgilash uchun ko'rib chiqilgan.^[2]

Genri III (1216-72)

The effigy of aktyorlari Genri III Westminster Abbeyda, v. 1272

1216 yilda Genri III taxtga kelganida, uning qit'adagi aksariyat mulklari frantsuzlar tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan va baronlarning ko'p qismi isyonda bo'lgan Birinchi baronlar urushi. Marshal urushdagi g'alabalari bilan urushni yutdi Linkoln va Dover ga olib keladigan 1217 yilda Lambet shartnomasi bu orqali Lui o'z da'volaridan voz kechdi.^[3] G'alabada Marshal Protektorati qayta rasmiylashtirdi Magna Carta kelajakdagi hukumat uchun asos sifatida kelishuv.^[4] Shartnomaga qaramay, jangovar harakatlar davom etmoqda va Genri yangi toj kiygan fransiyalik Lyudovik VIII va Genrining o'gay otasiga nisbatan konstitutsiyaviy imtiyozlar berishga majbur bo'ldi. Lyusignanlik Xyu X. Ular orasida ular Genrining kontinental xoldingi qoldiqlarining ko'p qismini bosib olib, qit'adagi Plantagenet tutqichini yanada yo'q qilishdi. Genri o'zi bilan Angliyaning o'sha paytdagi homiysi avliyosi o'rtasida bunday o'xshashliklarni ko'rgan Edward Confessor zodagonlari bilan kurashda^[5] u o'zining birinchi o'g'liga Angliya-Sakson ismini Edvard deb bergan va avliyoda ulug'vor, hanuzgacha saqlanib kelingan ma'badni qurdirgan. Vestminster.^[6]

Baronlar qit'adagi Plantagenet xoldingi qayta tiklanishi uchun urushni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun zarur bo'lgan odamlarning xarajatlari va pullariga chidamli edilar. Genri III o'z baronlarini rag'batlantirish uchun Magna Carta va O'rmon xartiyasi 45 ming funt sterlingni tashkil etgan soliq evaziga. Bu baron, yepiskop va magnatlarning yig'ilishida qabul qilingan bo'lib, unda podshohning feodal imtiyozlari siyosiy jamoatchilikda muhokama qilingan va muhokama qilingan.^[7] Genri majburan rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'ldi Oksford qoidalari qaynonasi boshchiligidagi baronlar tomonidan, Simon de Montfort, uning qarzlari sezilarli islohotlar evaziga to'langan. Shuningdek, u bunga rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'ldi Parij shartnomasi bilan Frantsiya Louis IX yo'qolganligini tan olib Normandiya gersogligi, Men, Anju va Poitou, lekin saqlab qolish Kanal orollari. Shartnoma bo'yicha "Angliya qiroli egallashi kerak bo'lgan orollar (agar mavjud bo'lsa)", u "Frantsiyaning tengdoshi va Akvitaniya gersogi" sifatida saqlanib qoladi.^[8] Buning evaziga Lui ingliz isyonchilarini qo'llab-quvvatlashni to'xtatdi, uchta episkopiya va shaharlarni topshirdi va egalik qilish uchun yillik ijara haqini to'lashi kerak edi. Agenais.^[9] Shartnoma mazmuni bo'yicha kelishmovchiliklar imzolanishi bilanoq boshlandi.^[10] Shartnoma natijasida ingliz qirollari frantsuz monarxiga hurmat bajo keltirishi va shu tariqa frantsuz vassallari bo'lib qolishi kerak edi, lekin faqat frantsuzlar zaminida. Bu bilvosita sabablaridan biri edi Yuz yillik urush.^[11]

Ikkinchi Barons urushi va parlamentning tashkil etilishi

O'lim va buzilish Simon de Montfort da Evesham jangi

Baronlar bilan qirol o'rtasida ishqalanish kuchaygan. Genri Oksford qoidalarini rad etdi va a papa buqasi 1261 yilda uni qasamyodidan ozod qildi. Ikkala tomon ham qo'shinlarni ko'tarishni boshladi. Shahzoda Edvard, Genrining to'ng'ich o'g'li, xudojo'y otasi Simon de Montfort bilan yonma-yon turishga moyil bo'lib, otasini qo'llab-quvvatlashga qaror qilishidan oldin, otasi yo'qligida parlamentni o'tkazishni qo'llab-quvvatladi. Montont ostida baronlar Angliyaning janubi-sharqiy qismlarini egallab olishdi. Urush, uning boshlanishi va oqibati, Baronning qarzdorligi to'g'risidagi dalillarni, isyonchilarning alohida shikoyatlarini yo'q qilish uchun yahudiy jamoalariga qarshi zo'ravonlik to'lqinini o'z ichiga olgan. Londonda 500 yahudiylar vafot etdi va jamoalar yo'q qilindi Vester, Canterbury va boshqa joylarda.^[12] Da Lyus jangi 1264 yilda Genri va Edvard mag'lubiyatga uchradi va asirga olindi. Montfort chaqirdi Buyuk parlament, bu nomga loyiq bo'lgan birinchi ingliz parlamenti deb hisoblangan, chunki bu birinchi marta shaharlar va burglar o'z vakillarini yuborgan.^[13] Edvard qochib, qo'shin yig'di. U Montfortni mag'lubiyatga uchratdi va o'ldirdi Evesham jangi 1265 yilda.^[14] Qo'zg'olonchilarga vahshiy jazo tayinlandi va Genri hokimiyati tiklandi. Edvard shohlikni tinchlantirgandan so'ng, Angliyani tark etib, Louis IX safiga qo'shildi To'qqizinchi salib yurishi, har bir fuqaroning ko'char mollari va mol-mulkining yigirmanchi qismi misli ko'rilmagan yig'im bilan moliyalashtiriladi. U Muqaddas erlarni tiklashni maqsad qilgan an'analardagi so'nggi salibchilardan biri edi. Lui Edvard kelishidan oldin vafot etdi va natija antiklimaktik edi; Edvardning ozgina kuchi uni yengillik bilan chekladi Akr va bir nechta reydlar. Tomonidan o'ldirishga urinishdan omon qolish qotil, Edvard yil oxirida Sitsiliyaga jo'nab ketdi va hech qachon salib yurishiga qaytmas edi. Angliya siyosiy tuzilmasining barqarorligi Genri III vafot etganida va uning o'g'li Edvard I o'rnini egallaganida namoyon bo'ldi; baronlar Edvardga ikki yil davomida qaytib kelmaganiga qaramay, unga sodiqlikka qasamyod qildilar.^[15]

Edvard I (1272-1307)

Uelsni zabt etish

Istilo qilinganidan keyin ikki asr davomida Shimoliy Uelsda inglizlarning "poytaxti" bo'lgan Caernarfon qal'asi.^[16]

Uning hukmronligining boshidanoq Edvard I merosxo'r hududlarini tartibga solishga intildi. Diniga sig'inuvchi sifatida Qirol Artur u shuningdek, Britaniya orollari ichida ustunlikka da'volarni kuchaytirishga urindi. Uels bir qator tarkib topgan knyazliklar, ko'pincha bir-biriga zid keladi. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd Vudstok shartnomasiga binoan ingliz qiroliga haq evaziga shimoliy Uelsni ushlab turdi, ammo Uels shahzodasi sifatida o'z mavqeini mustahkamlash uchun ingliz fuqarolik urushlaridan foydalangan va uning knyazligi Angliya "huquqlaridan mutlaqo alohida" bo'lgan. Edvard Llivelinni "isyonchi va tinchlikni buzuvchi" deb hisoblagan. Edvardning qat'iyatliligi, harbiy tajribasi va kemalardan mohirona foydalanishi Llyvlinni tog'larga haydash bilan Uels mustaqilligini tugatdi. Keyinchalik Llivelin jangda vafot etdi. The Ruddlan to'g'risidagi nizom shire tizimini kengaytirib, Uelsni ingliz qonunchilik bazasiga kiritdi. Edvardning o'g'li tug'ilganda, u birinchi ingliz deb e'lon qilingan Uels shahzodasi. Edvardning Uels kampaniyasi Angliya qiroli tomonidan og'ir Anglo-Norman otliqlar va Uels kamonchilarining dahshatli kombinatsiyasida to'plangan eng yirik qo'shinlardan birini yaratdi, bu Frantsiyada keyingi harbiy g'alabalarning poydevorini yaratdi. Edvard o'zining Uelsdagi ikkita kampaniyasiga, asosan, o'z nazoratini ta'minlash uchun qal'alar tarmog'iga taxminan 173 ming funt sarfladi.^[17]

Ichki siyosat

Edvard cherkov va feodal jamiyat ustidan hokimiyatini o'rnatdi, Uelsni qo'shib oldi va Shotlandiyani bosib oldi

Uning huquqiy islohotlari tufayli ba'zan Edvardni chaqirishadi Inglizlar Yustinian,^[18] garchi u islohotchi yoki voqealarga javob beradigan avtokratmi, munozara qilinmoqda. Uning kampaniyalari uni qarzga botirdi. Bu uning tez-tez chaqirilgan parlamentlar orqali soliqlarni ko'paytirishi uchun kam er egalari, savdogarlar va savdogarlar o'rtasida o'z siyosati uchun kengroq milliy qo'llab-quvvatlashni talab qildi. Qachon Fransiyalik Filipp IV musodara qilingan Gascony knyazligi 1294 yilda Frantsiyada urush olib borish uchun ko'proq pul kerak edi. Urush harakatlari uchun moliyaviy yordam olish uchun Edvard baronlar, ruhoniylar, ritsarlar va shahar aholisini o'z ichiga olgan "Namunaviy parlament" deb nomlanuvchi pretsedentlar yig'ilishini chaqirdi.^[18]

Edvard o'z vakolatini cherkovga yukladi Mortmain to'g'risidagi nizom cherkovga er berishni taqiqlagan, an'anaviy feodal imtiyozlari hisobiga toj huquqlarini himoya qilgan, odil sudlovni bir xilda amalga oshirgan, daromadlarni oshirgan va huquqiy tizimni kodifikatsiya qilgan. Shuningdek, u muhim qonunlar orqali parlament va oddiy qonunlarning rolini ta'kidladi, a mahalliy hukumatning so'rovi Magna Carta-dan kelib chiqqan qonunlarni kodifikatsiyasi Vestminster to'g'risidagi nizom 1275 yil. Shuningdek, Eduard jun eksportida bojxona to'lovlarini olib borish bo'yicha iqtisodiy islohotlarni amalga oshirdi, bu yiliga qariyb 10 ming funt sterlingni tashkil etdi va cherkovga er sovg'alari uchun litsenziya to'lovlarini kiritdi. Feodal yurisdiksiyasi tomonidan tartibga solingan Gloucester to'g'risidagi nizom va Quo Warranto. The Vinchester to'g'risidagi nizom majburiy Plantagenet politsiya vakolati. The Vestminster to'g'risidagi nizom 1285 yil oilalar tarkibidagi mulklarni: ijarachilar faqat mulkni umrbod ushlab turishgan va mulkni sotish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lmaganlar. Quia Emptores ijarachilar o'z mulklari va tegishli feodal xizmatlari bilan subpudrat shartnomasi tuzgan sub-infeudatsiyani to'xtatdilar.^[19]

Yahudiylarni haydab chiqarish

Magna Karta kafolatlaridan mahrum bo'lgan yahudiylarning zulmi, Edvard ularni Angliyadan chiqarib yuborish bilan avjiga chiqdi.^[20] Masihiylar tomonidan taqiqlangan kanon qonuni ta'minlashdan foizli kreditlar, shuning uchun yahudiylar ushbu xizmatni taqdim etish orqali mamlakatda asosiy iqtisodiy rol o'ynashgan. O'z navbatida, Plantagenets yahudiylarning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri sub'ekt maqomidan foydalanib, ularga parlamentni chaqirishga hojat qoldirmasdan o'z xohishiga ko'ra katta soliq solgan.^[21] Yahudiylarni quvib chiqarishga qaratilgan Edvardning birinchi muhim qadami bu edi Yahudiylik to'g'risidagi nizom,^[20] bu barchani noqonuniy deb e'lon qildi sudxo'rlik va yahudiylarga qishloq xo'jaligi erlarini sotib olish uchun o'n besh yil muhlat berdilar. Biroq, mashhur xurofot yahudiylarning harakatini merkantil yoki qishloq xo'jaligi ishlariga aylantirdi.^[22] Edvard yahudiylarni Gasconidan chiqarib yuborish bilan o'z qarzlarini to'lashga harakat qildi, ularning mol-mulkini tortib oldi va barcha qarzlarni o'ziga topshirdi.^[23][24][25] U doimiy ravishda soliq talablarini bo'ysunuvchilariga yoqimli qilib, evaziga barcha yahudiylarni chiqarib yuborishni taklif qildi.^[26] Og'ir soliq qabul qilindi va chiqarib yuborish to'g'risidagi farmon chiqarildi. Bu keng ommalashdi va tezda amalga oshirildi.^[27]

Angliya-Shotlandiya urushlari

Xolxem Injilidagi sahna, Bannokbern davridagi ritsarlar va piyoda askarlarni namoyish etadi

Edvardning ta'kidlashicha, Shotlandiya qiroli unga feodal sadoqati bilan qarzdor bo'lib, bu uning butun hukmronligi davrida Angliya-Shotlandiya munosabatlarini yomonlashtirgan. Edvard a yaratmoqchi edi ikkilangan monarxiya o'g'lini uylantirish orqali Edvard ga Margaret, Norvegiya xizmatkori, kimning yagona merosxo'ri bo'lgan Shotlandiyalik Aleksandr III.^[28] Margaret vafot etganida Shotlandiya taxtining aniq merosxo'ri bo'lmagan. Edvard Shotlandiya magnatlari tomonidan nizoni hal qilish uchun taklif qilingan. Edvard tan olingan Shotlandiya taxti uchun raqobatchilar u "Shotlandiyaning suveren lordligi va bizning bir necha taxminlarimizni aniqlash huquqiga ega". U ishni foydasiga hal qildi Jon Balliol unga munosib qasamyod qildi va shoh bo'ldi.^[29] Edvard Shotlandiya mustaqil emasligini va suveren lord sifatida u Angliyada Balliolning hukmiga qarshi Balliolning hukmlariga qarshi apellyatsiya shikoyatlarini tinglash huquqiga ega ekanligini ta'kidladi. Jon o'zining bosh maslahatchilarining da'vati bilan 1295 yilda Frantsiya bilan ittifoq tuzdi.^[30] 1296 yilda Edvard Shotlandiyani bosib oldi va Balliolni surgun qildi va surgun qildi.^[31]

Frantsuzlar bosib olgan Gasconiyada Edvard unchalik muvaffaqiyatli bo'lmagan. Uning majburiyatlari uning resurslaridan ustun kela boshladi. Surunkali qarzlar Frantsiyadagi Flandriya va Gasconiyaga, Britaniyadagi Uels va Shotlandiyaga qarshi urushlar tufayli yuzaga kelgan. Ruhoniylar xarajatlardan o'zlarining ulushini to'lashdan bosh tortdilar, chunki Kenterbury arxiyepiskopi chetlatilishga tahdid qildi; Parlament Eduardning qimmat va muvaffaqiyatsiz harbiy siyosatiga hissa qo'shishni istamadi. Xemfri de Bohun, Xerford shahrining 3-grafligi va Rojer Bigod, Norfolkning 5-grafligi, Gasconiyada xizmat qilishdan bosh tortdi va baronlar o'zlarining shikoyatlari to'g'risida rasmiy bayonot berishdi. Edvard talab qilingan pulni olish uchun ustavlarni (Magna Kartani ham o'z ichiga olgan holda) qayta tasdiqlashga majbur bo'ldi. Frantsiya qiroli bilan sulh va tinchlik shartnomasi Edvardga Gascony knyazligini tikladi. Ayni paytda, Uilyam Uolles Balliol nomidan ko'tarilgan va Shotlandiyaning katta qismini tiklagan, oldin mag'lubiyatga uchragan Falkirk jangi.^[32] Eduard Shotlandiyani hal qilish uchun saylangan Shotlandiya vakillarini o'z ichiga olgan to'liq parlamentni chaqirdi. Shotlandiyada yangi hukumat namoyish etildi Robert Bryus, lekin u isyon ko'tarib, Shotlandiya qiroli sifatida toj kiygan. Sog'lig'i yomon bo'lganiga qaramay, Edvard yana bir kampaniyani davom ettirish uchun shimolga olib borildi, ammo u yo'lda vafot etdi Burgs by Sands.^[32] Garchi Edvard uning suyaklarini Shotlandiya yurishlarida olib borishni va yuragini Muqaddas erga olib borishni iltimos qilgan bo'lsa ham, u Vestminster Abbeyda oddiy marmar qabrda dafn etilgan, keyinchalik keyingi yillarda Scottorum malleus (Hammer) so'zlari bilan bo'yalgan. Shotlandiyaliklar) va Pactum serva (Qasamni hurmat qiling). Uning o'rniga o'g'li Edvard II o'rnini egalladi.^[33]

Eduard II (1307-27)

Edvard II zamonaviy illyustrada ingliz tojini olganligini namoyish etdi

1307 yilda Edvard II o'zining vorisligiga bag'ishlangan tantanali qasamyodi birinchi bo'lib qirolning jamiyat "tanlagan" ("tanlagan") qonunlarni saqlash bo'yicha javobgarligini aks ettirgan.aura eslu").^[34] Qirol dastlab mashhur bo'lgan, ammo uchta muammoga duch kelgan: urushlarni moliyalashtirish bo'yicha norozilik; uning uy xarajatlari va uning roli sevimli Pirs Gaveston.^[35] Parlament Gavestonni surgun qilish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilganida, qirol unga bo'ysunishdan boshqa iloji yo'q edi.^[36] Qirol Gavestonning qaytishini ishlab chiqdi, ammo tayinlanishiga rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'ldi Ordainers, amakivachchasi boshchiligida Tomas, Lancasterning ikkinchi grafligi, Pirs Gaveston bilan yana surgun qilingan qirol xonadonini isloh qilish uchun.^[37][38]

Katta ochlik

1315 yil bahorida Evropaning katta qismida g'ayrioddiy kuchli yomg'ir yog'di. Bahor va yoz davomida yomg'ir yog'di va harorat salqin bo'lib qoldi. Ushbu sharoit ekinlarning keng nobud bo'lishiga olib keldi.^[39] Hayvonlar uchun somon va pichanni davolab bo'lmadi va chorva uchun yem yo'q edi. Oziq-ovqat narxi ko'tarila boshladi, Angliyada bahor va yoz o'rtasida yozda ikki baravar oshdi.^[40] Go'shtni davolash va saqlashning yagona usuli bo'lgan tuzni olish qiyin edi, chunki uni nam ob-havo sharoitida bug'lanish orqali olish mumkin emas edi; u 1310-20 yillarda eng yuqori darajaga ko'tarilib, oldingi o'n yilga nisbatan ikki baravarga oshdi.^[41] 1316 yil bahorida o'zini ta'minlash uchun energiya va zaxiradan mahrum bo'lgan Evropa aholisiga yomg'ir yog'di. Jamiyatning dvoryanlardan tortib to dehqonlarigacha bo'lgan barcha qatlamlari, ayniqsa, aholining katta qismi bo'lgan va zaxira oziq-ovqat ta'minoti bo'lmagan dehqonlar ta'sir ko'rsatdilar.^[42] Ochlik avjiga 1317 yilda nam ob-havo davom etar edi. Nihoyat, yozda ob-havo odatiy tartibiga qaytdi. Ammo hozirgi kunga kelib odamlar kabi kasalliklar tufayli shu qadar zaiflashdilar zotiljam, bronxit va sil kasalligi, va urug 'zahirasining shunchalik ko'p qismi yeyilgan ediki, 1325 yilga kelibgina oziq-ovqat zaxirasi nisbatan normal sharoitga qaytdi va aholi yana ko'payishni boshladi.^[43]

Kech hukmronlik va cho'ktirish

Qirolicha Izabella o'g'li bilan Angliyaga tushish, kelajak Eduard III 1326 yilda

Farmonlar keng ommalashtirilgan qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun keng nashr qilindi, ammo ularni bekor qilish yoki o'n yil davom ettirish uchun kurash bor edi.^[44] Gaveston yana Angliyaga qaytib kelgach, uni o'g'irlab ketishdi va soxta sud jarayonidan so'ng qatl etishdi.^[45] Ushbu shafqatsiz xatti-harakatlar avj oldi Tomas, Lancasterning ikkinchi grafligi va uning tarafdorlari hokimiyatdan. Edvardning sharmandali mag'lubiyati Bannokbern jangi 1314 yilda Bryusning Shotlandiyaning mustaqil qiroli sifatida mavqeini tasdiqladi. Angliyada u tashabbusni Lankasterga qaytardi va Gay de Bomamp, Uorvikning 10-grafligi kampaniyada ishtirok etmagan, bu Farmonlarga zid deb da'vo qilgan.^[46][47] Edvard nihoyat Lancasterni mag'lubiyatga uchratganidan keyin Ordinances-ni bekor qildi Boroughbridge jangi va keyin uni 1322 yilda qatl etgan.^[48]

The Sen-Sardos urushi, Edvard va o'rtasidagi qisqa mojaro Frantsiya qirolligi, bilvosita Edvardning ag'darilishiga olib keldi. Frantsiya monarxiyasi yurisdiktsiyasidan foydalangan Parij parlementi dvoryanlar sudlarining qarorlarini bekor qilish. Frantsuz vassali sifatida Edvard Gasconiyadagi ushbu tajovuzni frantsuz qirollari bilan u va uning fransuz fuqarolari o'rtasidagi nizolarni ko'rib chiqishda his qilgan. Qarama-qarshiliksiz u hech narsa qila olmadi, lekin knyazlikning qisqarishini kuzatdi. Vudstokning Edmund, Kentning 1-grafligi, bunday hukmlardan biriga qarshi turishga qaror qildi Sankt-Sardos natijada Karl IV knyazlikni musodara qildi. Charlzning singlisi, Qirolicha Izabella, muzokaralarga yuborilgan va Edvardning Frantsiyada Charlzga hurmat ko'rsatishini talab qiladigan shartnomaga rozi bo'lgan. Edvard Akvitaniya va Pontiyeni o'z o'g'lidan iste'foga chiqardi, Shahzoda Edvard, uning o'rniga hurmat qilish uchun Frantsiyaga sayohat qilgan. Ingliz merosxo'ri qo'lida bo'lganida, Izabella, agar Edvard II sevimlilarini ishdan bo'shatmasa va u bilan munosabatlarni o'rnatmasa, Angliyaga qaytishni rad etdi. Rojer Mortimer, 1 mart boshi.^[49] Juftlik Angliyani bosib oldi va unga qo'shildi Genri, Lancasterning 3-grafligi, shohni qo'lga oldi.^[50] Edvard II taxtni Mortimerdan ko'ra o'g'li egallashi sharti bilan taxtdan voz kechdi. Odatda u Berkli qasrida qizil pokerni ichagiga urib o'ldirilgan deb taxmin qilinadi.^[51] 1330 yilda Edvard III tomonidan qilingan to'ntarish Isabella va Mortimer tomonidan to'rt yillik nazoratni tugatdi. Mortimer qatl etildi, ammo hokimiyatdan chetlatilgan bo'lsa-da, Izabella yaxshi munosabatda bo'lib, keyingi 27 yil davomida hashamatli hayot kechirdi.^[52]

Eduard III (1327-77)

Shotlandiya urushining yangilanishi

Shotlandiyaliklar tomonidan Mortimer tuzumi ostida inglizlar mag'lub bo'lgandan keyin Stanhope parkidagi jang, Edinburg-Northempton shartnomasi 1328 yilda Edvard III nomiga imzolangan edi. Eduard tinchlik kelishuvidan qoniqmadi, ammo Shotlandiya bilan urushni yangilash shoh tashabbusi bilan emas, balki xususiy ravishda boshlandi. Ingliz tili guruhi magnatlar Shotlandiyadagi tinchlik sulhi bilan eridan ayrilgan "Disinherited" nomi bilan tanilgan, Shotlandiyaga bostirib kirdi va g'alaba qozondi Dupplin Mur jangi 1332 yilda.^[53] Ular o'rnatishga urinishdi Edvard Balliol yilda Shotlandiya qiroli sifatida Devid II o'rniga, lekin Balliol tez orada haydab chiqarildi va Edvard III yordamiga murojaat qilishga majbur bo'ldi. Ingliz qiroli bunga javoban muhim chegara shaharchasini qamal qildi Bervik va engillashtiradigan katta qo'shinni mag'lub etdi Halidon tepaligidagi jang.^[54] Edvard Balliolni taxtga tikladi va janubiy Shotlandiyada katta miqdordagi erlarni oldi.^[55] Ushbu g'alabalarni saqlab qolish qiyin kechdi, ammo David IIga sodiq kuchlar asta-sekin mamlakat ustidan nazoratni qo'lga kiritdilar. 1338 yilda Eduard shotlandlar bilan sulhga rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'ldi.^[56]

Yuz yillik urush

G'alaba Kresi ingliz toji uchun muhim muvaffaqiyat edi Edvard urushi Fransiyada.

1328 yilda Frantsuz Karl IV erkak vorisisiz vafot etdi. Uning amakivachchasi Valua filipi va Qirolicha Izabella, o'g'li Edvard nomidan taxtga da'vogar bo'lganlar. Filipp katta nabirasi sifatida Fransiyalik Filipp III erkak qatorda, Edvardning da'vosi ustidan shoh bo'ldi matrilineal Frantsiya IV Filippning nabirasi, V Filippning jiyani ustidan merosxo'rlik pretsedentlariga rioya qilgan holda Joan II Navarre va Karl IV jiyanlari ustidan merosxo'rlik. Hali ham hokimiyatda emas, Edvard III Filippga akvitaniya gersogi va frantsuz qiroli sifatida Gasconyga feodal bosim o'tkazishda davom etdi.^[57] Filipp Edvarddan surgun qilingan frantsuz maslahatchisini ekstraditsiya qilishni talab qildi, Artoisdan Robert III, va u rad etgach, Edvardning Gasconiyadagi erlarini e'lon qildi va Pontie jarima.^[58] Bunga javoban Edvard kontinental tarafdorlari koalitsiyasini tuzdi va 200 000 funt sterlingdan ko'proq pul to'lashni va'da qildi.^[59] Edvard banklarning banklaridan katta miqdorda qarz oldi Bardi va Peruzzi, past mamlakatlardagi savdogarlar va Uilyam de la Pole, shohni qutqarish uchun unga 110 ming funt sterling yordam berib kelgan boy savdogar.^[60] Shuningdek, Edvard parlamentdan qo'shimcha imtiyozlar evaziga 300 ming funt sterling miqdorida grant so'radi.^[61]

Mablag 'yig'ish natijasida yuzaga kelgan kechikish frantsuzlarga Gasconiyani bosib olishga va ingliz portlariga tahdid solishga imkon berdi^[62] inglizlar esa keng tarqalgan Kanalda qaroqchilik.^[63] Flandiyaliklarni frantsuz qiroliga qarshi ochiq isyon ko'tarishga undash uchun Edvard o'zini Frantsiya qiroli deb e'lon qildi va dengiz flotida muhim g'alabani qo'lga kiritdi. Sluys jangi, bu erda frantsuz floti deyarli butunlay vayron qilingan. Davom etmaydigan janglar davom etdi Sankt-Omer jangi va Tournai qamali (1340), ammo ikkala tomonning pullari tugashi bilan, jang bilan yakunlandi Espléchin sulh. Edvard III hech qanday harbiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan va ingliz siyosiy fikri unga qarshi bo'lgan. Bankrot bo'lib, u zararlarini qisqartirdi, chunki u to'lashga qodir bo'lmagan yoki tanlamagan ko'pchilikni vayron qildi.^[64]

Ikkala mamlakat ham urushdan charchagan. Soliq yuki og'ir va jun savdosi buzilgan edi. Keyingi yillarni Edvard o'zining ulkan qarzini to'lashga sarfladi, Gasconlar urushni banditizm bilan birlashtirdilar. 1346 yilda Edvard strategiyasini qo'llagan holda past mamlakatlardan bostirib kirdi chevauchée, talon-taroj qilish va yo'q qilish uchun katta kengaytirilgan reyd, bu urush davomida inglizlar tomonidan joylashtirilishi kerak edi. Chevauchée Frantsiya hukumati Filipp VI ni obro'sizlantirdi va uning vassallarini sodiqlikdan mahrum qilish bilan tahdid qildi. Edvard ikkita muvaffaqiyatli harakatni amalga oshirdi Caen bo'roni va Blanchetaque jangi. Keyin u o'zini Filippdan ustunroq va ustunroq deb topdi va jang qilishga majbur bo'ldi Kresi. Jang frantsuzlar uchun dahshatli mag'lubiyat bo'lib, muhim portni egallash uchun Edvardni bo'sh qoldirdi Calais. Shotlandiyaga qarshi keyingi g'alaba Nevil xochidagi jang qo'lga olinishiga olib keldi Devid II va Shotlandiyadan xavfni kamaytirdi.^[65]

Qora o'lim

Veymutdagi plakat, o'latning mamlakatga kirib kelishini qayd etdi

Xronikasiga ko'ra kulrang friars da Qirol Lin, vabo kemadan kelgan Gascony ga Melkom Dorsetda - bugungi kunda odatda shunday ataladi Veymut - "dan biroz oldin Suvga cho'mdiruvchi Yuhanno bayrami "1348 yil 24-iyunda.^[66] Veymutdan kasallik janubi-g'arbiy qismida tez tarqaldi. Birinchi yirik shahar urilgan Bristol.^[67] Londonga 1348 yilning kuzida, atrofdagi qishloqlarning ko'pchiligidan oldin etib borgan. Bu, albatta, noyabrga to'g'ri keldi, biroq ba'zi ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, 29 sentyabrda.^[68] Vaboning to'liq ta'siri keyingi yil boshida poytaxtda sezildi.^[69] Londondagi sharoit vabo uchun juda mos edi: ko'chalar tor va oqova suv bilan oqar edi, uylar haddan tashqari ko'p va shamollatish darajasi yomon edi.^[70] 1349 yil martga kelib kasallik butun janubiy Angliya bo'ylab tasodifiy tarzda tarqaldi.^[71] 1349 yilning birinchi yarmida Qora o'lim shimolga tarqaldi. Vabo kemada kelganida, ikkinchi jabha ochildi Humber, u erdan janubga ham, shimolga ham tarqaldi.^[72] May oyida u yetdi York, va iyun, iyul va avgust oylarining yoz oylarida u shimolni vayron qildi.^[73] Shunga o'xshash ba'zi shimoliy okruglar Durham va Cumberland, Shotlandiyaliklarning zo'ravonlik hujumlari qurboniga aylangan va shu sababli vabo vayronalari ta'sirida juda zaif bo'lgan.^[74] Qish oylarida yuqumli kasallik kamroq yuqadi va kamroq tez tarqaladi.^[75] Angliyadagi Qora o'lim 1348-49 yillardagi qishdan omon qolgan edi, ammo keyingi qish paytida u tugadi va 1349 yil dekabrga kelib sharoitlar normal normal holatga qaytdi.^[76] Kasallik butun mamlakat bo'ylab yurish uchun taxminan 500 kun davom etgan.^[77] Qora o'lim, Edvardning yurishlarini to'xtatib qo'ydi, uning bo'ysunuvchilarining uchdan biridan yarmigacha qismini o'ldirdi.^[78][79] Podshoh o'tdi Mehnatkashlarning farmoyishi va Mehnatkashlar to'g'risidagi nizom vabodan keyin yuzaga kelgan ishchi kuchi va ijtimoiy notinchlikka javoban.^[80] Mehnat to'g'risidagi qonunlar samarasiz amalga oshirildi va repressiya choralari norozilikni keltirib chiqardi.^[81]

Poitiers kampaniyasi va mojaroning kengayishi (1356-68)

Qora shahzoda Edvard unga otasi qirol Edvard III tomonidan Akvitaniya beriladi. Miniatyuraning dastlabki "E" harfi, 1390; Britaniya kutubxonasi, raf: Paxta MS Nero D VI, f.31

1356 yilda Uels shahzodasi Edvard, mojaroni eng vayron qiluvchi chevauchées biri bilan urushni qayta boshladi. Bordodan boshlanib, u Armagnak erlarini sharqqa Languedocga aylantirishdan oldin axlat tashladi. Tuluza qamalga tayyorgarlik ko'rdi, ammo shahzodaning armiyasi birinchisiga yaroqsiz edi, shuning uchun u shaharni chetlab o'tib janubda davom etdi, talon-taroj va yoqib yubordi. Tuluza singari yirik shaharlardan farqli o'laroq, qishloq frantsuz qishloqlari mudofaani ta'minlash uchun uyushtirilmagan, bu ularni yanada jozibali maqsadlarga aylantirgan. Ikkinchi buyuk chevauchéda shahzoda Burge atrofini shaharni qo'lga kiritmasdan yoqib yubordi, oldin Loire daryosi bo'ylab g'arbiy Poitiersga boradigan joygacha Poitiers jangi inglizlarning hal qiluvchi g'alabasi va qo'lga kiritilishiga olib keldi Frantsuz Ioann II. The Londonning ikkinchi shartnomasi to'rt million ekus to'lovni va'da qilgan imzolandi. Londonda ushlab turilgan Valois oilasi tomonidan garovga olingan shaxslar tomonidan kafolatlangan, Jon esa to'lovni ko'tarish uchun Frantsiyaga qaytib kelgan. Edvard Normandiya, Bretan, Anju, Meyn va Flandriyadan Ispaniyaga qadar bo'lgan sohilga egalik qilib, sobiq Angevin imperiyasining erlarini tikladi. Garovga olinganlar tezda Frantsiyaga qaytib qochib ketishdi. Uning so'zi buzilganidan dahshatga tushgan Jon Angliyaga qaytib, o'sha erda vafot etdi. Edvard Frantsiyani bosib olib, xalqning isyonidan foydalanishga harakat qildi Jakeri, taxtni egallab olish umidida. Garchi biron bir frantsuz armiyasi unga qarshi turmagan bo'lsa-da, u Parijni ololmadi yoki Rhems. Keyinchalik Bretiny shartnomasi u frantsuz tojiga bo'lgan da'vosidan voz kechdi, ammo Akvitayendagi hududini ancha kengaytirdi va Kaleni bosib olganligini tasdiqladi.^[82]

Yuz yillik urushdagi urushlar ko'pincha Frantsiya va Plantagenet erlaridan atrofdagi sohalarga tarqaldi. Bunga Kastiliyadagi sulolalar mojarosi kiradi Kastiliyalik Butrus va Kastiliyadan Genri II. Uels shahzodasi Edvard Butrus bilan ittifoqdosh bo'lib, Genrini mag'lubiyatga uchratdi Najera jangi uni qaytarib berishga imkoni bo'lmagan Piter bilan janjallashishdan oldin, Edvardni bankrot qilib qo'ydi. Plantagenets aralashishda davom etdi va Gauntdan Jon, Lankasterning 1 gersogi, shahzodaning ukasi, Butrusning qiziga uylandi Konstans, Kastiliya tojini xotinining nomiga da'vo qilmoqda. U qo'shin bilan kelib so'radi Jon I Konstans foydasiga taxtdan voz kechish. Jon rad etdi; o'rniga uning o'g'li Gauntning qizi Jonga uylandi, Lankasterlik Ketrin, sarlavha yaratish Asturiya shahzodasi er-xotin uchun.^[83]

Frantsiyaning qayta tiklanishi (1369-77)

Fransiyalik Karl V shahzoda Eduard chaqiruvdan bosh tortganida, jangovar harakatlarni qayta boshlagan Akvitaniya gersogi va uning hukmronligi davrida Plantagenets doimiy ravishda Frantsiyaga qaytarilgan edi.^[84] Shahzoda Eduard, ba'zilar uning "Qora shahzoda" deb nomlanishiga sabab bo'lgan deb o'ylaydigan shafqatsiz xarakterni namoyish etdi. Limoglarni qamal qilish. Shahar o'z eshiklarini ochgandan keyin Jon, Berri gersogi, u 3000 nafar aholini, erkaklar, ayollar va bolalarni qirg'in qilishni boshqargan.^[85] Shundan so'ng, shahzoda urushga yoki hukumatga hissa qo'shish uchun juda kasal bo'lib, Angliyaga qaytib keldi va u erda tez orada vafot etdi: shohning o'g'li va shohning otasi, lekin hech qachon shohning o'zi emas.^[86]

Shahzoda Eduardning ukasi Gauntdan Jon, Lankasterning 1 gersogi Frantsiyada inglizlarning etakchiligini o'z zimmasiga oldi. Qishloqlarni va erning hosildorligini vayron qilgan boshqa chevauchelarga qaramay, uning harakatlari strategik jihatdan samarasiz edi.^[87][88] Frantsuz qo'mondoni, Bertran Du Guesklin qabul qilingan Fabian taktikasi shaharlarni, shu jumladan, qo'lga kiritishda asosiy ingliz dala kuchlaridan qochishda Poitiers va Bergerak. Keyingi strategik zarbada, dengizdagi ingliz hukmronligi halokatli mag'lubiyat bilan bekor qilindi La Rochelle jangi, ingliz dengizidagi savdo savdosiga putur etkazish va Gasconyga tahdid solishga imkon berish.^[89]

Richard II (1377–99)

Dehqonlar qo'zg'oloni

Richard II ning isyonchilari bilan uchrashadi Dehqonlar qo'zg'oloni Froissartning rasmida Solnomalar.

10 yoshli Richard II otasi va bobosining o'limida muvaffaqiyatga erishdi, hukumat balog'at yoshiga yetguncha regensiya kengashi qo'lida edi.^[90] Iqtisodiyotning qashshoq ahvoli jiddiy fuqarolar tartibsizligini keltirib chiqardi, chunki uning hukumati bir qator soliqlarni undirdi so'rovnoma soliqlari harbiy kampaniyalarni moliyalashtirish uchun.^[91] 15 yoshdan oshgan har bir kishi uchun bitta shilling solig'i ayniqsa yoqimsiz edi. Bu, ijro etilishi bilan birlashtirilgan Mehnatkashlar to'g'risidagi nizom bandlik standartlari va ish haqini kamaytiradigan,^[92] 1381 yilda soliq to'lashni rad etish bilan qo'zg'olon qo'zg'atdi. Kent boshchiligidagi isyonchilar Uot Tayler, Londonga yurish qildi. Dastlab, faqat ba'zi mulklarga hujumlar bo'lgan, ularning aksariyati Jon Gaunt bilan bog'liq. Isyonchilarni yosh podshohning o'zi kutib olgani va unga bir qator talablar, jumladan ba'zi vazirlarini ishdan bo'shatish va krepostnoylik. Isyonchilar bostirib kirishdi London minorasi va u erda yashiringanlarni qatl qildi.^[93] Da Smitfild keyingi muzokaralar olib borildi, ammo Tayler o'zini janjal bilan va keyingi bahsda tutdi Uilyam Uolvort, Londonning lord meri Taylerga hujum qilib, uni o'ldirdi. Richard bu tashabbusni qo'lga oldi: "Sizda mendan boshqa sardor bo'lmaydi",^[94] vaziyatni pasaytirish uchun ataylab noaniq qoldirilgan bayonot.^[95][96] U afv etishni va'da qilgan, ammo nazoratni qayta tiklash bilan u qo'zg'olonning boshqa rahbarlarini ta'qib qildi, qo'lga oldi va qatl qildi va barcha imtiyozlar bekor qilindi.^[97]

Cho'kma

Bir guruh magnatlar podshohning amakisidan iborat Tomas Vudstok, Glouzesterning 1 gersogi, Richard FitzAlan, Arundelning 11-grafligi va Tomas de Bomamp, Uorvikning 12-grafligi, nomi bilan tanilgan Lordlar apellyatsiyasi ular qirolning beshta sevimlisiga impichment berishga va tobora zolim va injiq hukmronlik deb qaralayotgan narsalarga chek qo'yishga intilishganida.^[98] Keyinchalik ularga qo'shilishdi Genri Bolingbrok, Gaunt Jonning o'g'li va merosxo'ri va Tomas de Movbray, Norfolkning 1-gersogi. Dastlab, ular Angliyani bir yil davomida boshqarish uchun komissiya tuzishda muvaffaqiyat qozonishdi, ammo ular armiyani mag'lub etib, Richardga qarshi isyon ko'tarishga majbur bo'ldilar. Robert de Vere, Oksford grafligi, ning to'qnashuvida Radcot ko'prigi. Richard ozgina kuchga ega bo'lgan figuraga aylandi. Natijada Shafqatsiz parlament, de Vere va Maykl de la Pole, Suffolkning birinchi grafligi chet elga qochib ketgan, yo'qligida o'limga mahkum etilgan. Aleksandr Nevill, York arxiyepiskopi, uning dunyodagi barcha mollari musodara qilingan. Richardning bir qator kengashi qatl etildi. Jon Gaunt Ispaniyadan qaytib kelganidan so'ng, Gloucester Kale shahrida asirlikda o'ldirilgan holda, o'z kuchini tiklay oldi. Uorvik unvonidan mahrum qilindi. Bolingbrok va Mobbray surgun qilindi.^[98] Jon Gaunt 1399 yilda vafot etganida, Richard tezda son jihatdan ko'payib boradigan ozgina kuch bilan Angliyaga bostirib kirgan Bolingbrok Genrini meros qilib oldi. Meeting little resistance, Henry deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England. Richard died in captivity early the next year, probably murdered, bringing an end to the main Plantagenet line.^[99]

Lankaster uyi

Henry IV (1399–1413)

The Agincourt jangi fought on Avliyo Krispin kuni 1415

Henry's claim to the throne was that his mother had legitimate rights through descent from Edmund Crouchback, whom he claimed was the elder son of Henry III of England, set aside due to deformity, but these claims were not widely believed.^[100] Edmund Mortimer, mart oyi boshi, was the heir presumptive to Richard II by being the grandson of Antverpen Lionel, Klarensning 1 gersogi. As a child he was not considered a serious contender. He never showed interest in the throne as an adult, instead serving the House of Lancaster loyally. Qachon Konisburglik Richard, Kembrijning 3-grafligi, keyinroq qurilgan to use him to displace Henry's newly crowned son, and their mutual cousin, Edmund informed the new king and the plotters were executed. However, the later marriage of his nabirasi to Richard's o'g'il consolidated his descendants' claim to the throne with that of the more junior York uyi.^[100]

Henry resumed war with France, but was plagued with financial problems, declining health and frequent rebellions.^[101] A Scottish invasion was defeated at the Gomildon tepaligidagi jang, but it resulted in a long war with Genri Persi, Northumberlandning 1-grafligi, for northern England, which was resolved only with the near complete destruction of the Persi oilasi da Bramxem Mur jangi.^[102] Uelsda Owain Glyndŵr 's widespread rebellion was only put down in 1408.^[103] Many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with moxov va epilepsiya.^[104]

Henry V (1413–21)

Hundred Years' War evolution. French territory: yellow; English: grey; Burgundian: dark grey.

Henry IV died in 1413. His son and successor, Genri V was a successful and ruthless martial leader. Shuni bilaman Fransiyalik Karl VI 's mental illness had caused instability in France, he invaded to assert the Plantagenet claims, captured Harfler, made a chevauchée to Calais and won a near total victory over the French at the Agincourt jangi on 25 October 1415, despite being outnumbered, outmanoeuvred and low on supplies.^[105] In subsequent years Henry recaptured much of Normandy and successfully secured marriage to Katolik Valuis. Natijada Troya shartnomasi stated that Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. However, conflict continued with the Dofin, and Henry's brother Klarens gersogi Tomas, was killed in the defeat at the Bauge jangi in 1421. When Henry died in 1422, possibly with dysentery, he was succeeded by his nine-month-old son as Angliyalik Genrix VI. The elderly Charles VI of France died two months later.^[106]

Henry VI (1421–71)

Led by Henry's brother Lancaster Jon, Bedfordning 1-gersogi, there were several more English victories, such as the Vernuil jangi, in 1424, but it was impossible to maintain campaigning at this level. Joan of Arc 's involvement helped force the lifting of the siege of Orleans.^[106] French victory at the Patay jangi enabled the Dauphin to be crowned at Reyms and continue the successful Fabian taktikasi, avoiding full frontal assaults and exploiting logistical advantage. Joan was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, tried as a witch and burned at the stake.^[107]

Davomida minority of Henry VI the war caused political division amongst the legitimate and illegitimate Plantagenets. Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, Lankasterning Xemfri, Glousesterning 1-gersogi, just Calais, but Kardinal Bofort wanted peace.^[108] This division led to Humphrey's wife being accused of using witchcraft with the aim of putting him on the throne. Humphrey was later arrested and died in prison.^[109] The refusal to renounce the Plantagenet claim to the French crown at the Arras kongressi enabled the former Plantagenet ally Filipp III, Burgundiya gersogi, to reconcile with Charles, while giving Charles time to reorganise his feudal levies into a modern professional army that would put its superior numbers to good use.^[110] The French retook Rouen and Bordeaux, regained Normandy, won the Forminiy jangi 1450 yilda^[111] and, with victory at the Kastilon jangi in 1453, brought an end to the war, leaving the English with only Calais and its surrounding Pale in continental France.^[112]

Henry VI was a weak king, and has been seen vulnerable to the over-mighty subjects created by the decline into harom feodalizm, who took advantage of the feodal yig'imi being replaced by taxation to develop private armies of liveried retainers. The result was rivalries that often spilled over from the courtroom into armed confrontations such as Persi-Nevill janjallari.^[113] The common interest given by the war in France had ended, so Richard, Duke of York, and Richard Nevill, 16-Uorvik grafligi, used their networks to defy the crown while the gentry attached themselves to different factions depending on their private feuds. Henry became the focus of discontent, as population, agricultural production, prices, wool trade and credit declined in the Ajoyib yiqilish.^[114] Most seriously, in 1450 Jek Keyd raised a rebellion in an attempt to force the king to address economic problems or abdicate his throne.^[115] The uprising was suppressed, but the situation remained unsettled, with more radical demands coming from Jon va Uilyam Merfold.^[116]

Atirgullar urushi

Zamonaviy Flamancha rasm Barnet jangi 1471 yilda

Richard Plantagenet, York gersogi 's attitude to the marriage contract of Henry and Anjoulik Margaret, which included the surrender of Maine and extended the truce with France, contributed to his appointment as Irlandiya lord-leytenanti. This conveniently removed him from English and French politics on which he had influence as a descendant of both Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and York gersogi Edmund.^[117] Conscious of the fate of Duke Humphrey at the hands of the Beauforts, and suspicious that Henry intended to nominate Somersetning 2-gersogi Edmund Bofort, as heir presumptive in his stead, he recruited militarily on his return to England. Richard claimed to be a reformer but was possibly plotting against his enemy Somerset. Armed conflict was avoided, because Richard lacked aristocratic support and was forced to swear allegiance to Henry. However, when Henry had a mental breakdown, Richard was named regent. Henry himself was trusting and not a man of war, but Margaret was more assertive, showing open enmity toward Richard, particularly after the birth of a male heir that resolved the succession question.^[118]

When Henry's sanity returned, the court party reasserted its authority. Richard of York and the Nevilles, who were related by marriage and had been alienated by Henry's support of the Percys, defeated them at a skirmish called the Birinchi Albans jangi. Possibly as few as 50 men were killed, but among them were Somerset and the two Percy lords, Genri Persi, Northumberlandning 2-grafligi va Tomas Klifford, 8-baron de Klifford, creating feuds that would prove impossible to reconcile; reputedly Clifford's son would later murder Richard's son Edmund. The ruling class was deeply shocked and reconciliation was attempted.^[119][120]

Threatened with treason charges and lacking support, York, Richard Nevill, Solsberining 5-grafligi, and Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, fled abroad. The Nevilles returned to win the Northempton jangi, where they captured Henry.^[121] When Richard joined them, he surprised Parliament by claiming the throne, then forcing through the Kelishuv akti, which stated that Henry would remain as monarch for his lifetime, but would be succeeded by York. Margaret found this disregarding of her son's claims unacceptable and so the conflict continued. York was killed at the Ueykfild jangi and his head set on display at Micklegate Bar, along with those of his son Edmund, Rutland grafligi, and Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, who had both been captured and beheaded.^[122]

York uyi

Edward IV (1461–83)

Bronza to'ng'iz livery badge thought to have been worn by a supporter of Richard III, often described as the last Plantagenet king

The Scottish queen Guelderlik Maryam provided Margaret with support and a Scottish army pillaged into southern England.^[123] London resisted in the fear of being plundered, then enthusiastically welcomed York's son Edvard, mart oyi boshi, with Parliament confirming that Edward should be made king.^[124] Edward was crowned as Edward IV after consolidating his position with victory at the Tovton jangi.^[125]

Edward's preferment of the former Lancastrian-supporting Woodville family, following his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, led to Warwick and Edward's brother Jorj Dyuk Klarens helping Margaret depose Edward and return Henry to the throne in 1470.^[126] Edvard va uning ukasi Gloucester gersogi Richard, fled, but on their return the next year Clarence switched sides at the Barnet jangi, leading to the death of the Neville brothers.^[127] Keyingi Tewkesbury jangi brought the demise of the last of the male line of the Beauforts. The battlefield execution of Vestminster Eduard, Uels shahzodasi, and later murder of Henry VI extinguished the House of Lancaster.^[128]

Edward V and Richard III (1483–85)

By the mid-1470s, the victorious House of York looked safely established, with seven living male princes, but it quickly brought about its own demise. Clarence plotted against his brother and was executed. Following Edward's premature death in 1483, his son Edward Prince of Wales was declared king, but his uncle Richard had Parliament declare him and his brother Richard, York gersogi illegitimate on the pretext of an alleged prior pre-contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot, leaving Edward's marriage invalid.^[129] Richard seized the throne and Edward's sons, the Minoradagi shahzodalar, were never seen again. Richard's son predeceased him. In 1485 there was an invasion of foreign mercenaries led by Genri Tudor, who claimed the throne through his mother Margaret Bofort. After Richard was killed at the Bosvort maydonidagi jang, Tudor assumed the throne as Henry VII, founding the Tudor dynasty and bringing the Plantagenet line of kings to an end.^[130]

Hukumat va jamiyat

Governance and social structures

Early fifteenth-century depiction of Eduard III, shown wearing the ritsarlik symbols of the Garter buyrug'i

On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance.^[131] This political balance collapsed under Edward II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s.^[132] Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the xazina, common bench va qirol oilasi.^[133] This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the fourteenth century the king's formerly peripatetic idishlar had to take up permanent residence in Vestminster.^[134] Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France.^[135] The royal lands—and incomes from them—had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives.^[136] Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood.^[137] The ideal of ritsarlik continued to develop throughout the fourteenth century, reflected in the growth of knightly orders (shu jumladan Garter buyrug'i ), grand turnirlar va davra suhbati voqealar.^[138]

By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country.^[139] The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial liveries, and to buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed harom feodalizm.^{[140][nb 1]} Their influence was exerted both through the Lordlar palatasi at Parliament and through the king's council.^[142] The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the Jamiyat palatasi, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars.^[143] In the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade.^[144] Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers.^[145] The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands ifloslangan. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished.^[146]

Ayollar

Qabr Yorklik Yelizaveta, Suffolk Düşesi da Uingfild, Suffolk (built 1503)

Medieval England was a patriarxal jamiyat and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority.^[147] However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their ijtimoiy sinf; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived.^[148] Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men.^[149]

The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour.^[150] As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with shudgorlash and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, and sut mahsulotlari ishlab chiqarish becoming dominated by women.^[151]

The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available.^[152] In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased.^[153] Many other women travelled to the towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements.^[154] There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including yigirish, making clothes, ziyon etkazish and as servants.^[155] Some women became full-time ale brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male-dominated pivo industry in the fifteenth century.^[156] Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women.^[157] As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes.^[158] Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right.^[159]

Shaxsiyat

The Ingliz gotikasi tonozli shift ning Sent-Jorj cherkovi, Vindzor qasri

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and Bretonlar. They perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward.^[160] Keyingi invasion of Ireland in the late twelfth century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in fourteenth-century English legislation.^[161] The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; there was considerable hostility to Jews, resulting in their expulsion, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns.^[162] Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be significant – men and women from Yorkshir, for example, had a clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London.^[163]

English began to be used as a second language of the court during the reign of Edward I.^[164] Edward III encouraged the re-adoption of English as the official language of courts and parliament, with the Statute of Pleading establishing English as the language of royal and seignorial courts and it was officially adopted for diplomatic language in place of French in the reign of Henry IV.^[164] The Hundred Years War has been seen by a number of scholars as important in creating an English national identity, evidenced in its use of propaganda, the growth of cultural slurs and national stereotypes, intense intellectual debate between scholars of different kingdoms, cartographic evidence that indicated national boundaries, the role of the patron Avliyo Jorj and of the Church in delivering a central message. It saw a change in the composition of armies, with the lower ranks identifying with a national cause and responding to a call to arms and the development of near permanent taxation that made the general population investors in a national enterprise. There was also the growth of chivalric orders like that of the Garter and the increasing central role of the monarchy and parliament in English life.^[165]

Jews and the expulsion

Din

Diniy muassasalar

A ziyoratchi 's flask, carried as a protective talisman, containing muqaddas suv from the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury sobori

New religious orders began to be introduced into England in this period. Frantsuzlar Cluniac tartibi became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England from the late eleventh century.^[166] The Avgustinliklar spread quickly from the beginning of the twelfth century, while later in the century the Tsisterlar reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx va Favvoralar.^[167] By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the thirteenth century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions.^[168] Dominikan va Frantsiskan qurbongohlar arrived in England during the 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the thirteenth century; bular mendikant orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching.^[169] Diniy harbiy buyurtmalar that became popular across Europe from the twelfth century acquired possessions in England, including the Templar, Tevton ordeni va Kasalxonalar.^[170]

Ziyorat

Haj ziyoratlari were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England.^[171] Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do tavba for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition.^[172] Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent.^[173] Major shrines in the late Middle Ages included those of Tomas Beket da Canterbury, Edward Confessor, da Vestminster abbatligi, Linkolnning Xusi, Yorklik Uilyam, Edmund Boy, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was buried at Pontiny Abbey Fransiyada, Richard of Chichester, Tomas Cantilupe ning Hereford, St Osmund of Salisbury va Bridlingtonlik Jon.^[174]

Bid'at

In the 1380s several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of Jon Uiklif, a'zosi Oksford universiteti.^[175] Wycliffe argued that oyat was the best guide to understanding God's intentions, and that the superficial nature of the liturgiya, combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study.^[176] A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed "Lollardi ".^[177] The English bishops were charged with controlling and countering this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches.^[178] By the early fifteenth century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both church and state to combat the bid'at.^[179]

Economy and technology

Geografiya

Fifteenth-century depiction of an English hunting park

England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the Fenlandiya ning Sharqiy Angliya and the heavily wooded Weald, through to the upland murlar ning Yorkshir.^[180] Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers Exe va Tes: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both haydaladigan va pastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy.^[181] Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the twentieth century, and ayiqlar, qunduzlar va bo'rilar lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the eleventh century and beavers by the twelfth.^[182] Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the Icknield Way, Fosse Way, Ermine ko'chasi va Watling ko'chasi —which criss-crossed the entire country.^[183] The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water.^[184] The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable ichki portlar.^[185]

For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the twenty-first century. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries England went through the O'rta asrlarning iliq davri, a prolonged ear of milder temperatures; in the early thirteenth century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier.^[186] These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for uzumzorlar to be cultivated relatively far north.^[186] The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed the Kichik muzlik davri; by the fourteenth century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s.^[187] This cold end to the Middle Ages impacted significantly on English agriculture and living conditions.^[188] England's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period, through the building of dayklar to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large scale extraction of torf.^[189] Boshqariladi bog'lar for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the twelfth century.^[190]

Iqtisodiyot

The central hall of a restored thirteenth-century house, originally built with the profits from European trade

The English economy was fundamentally qishloq xo'jaligi, depending on growing crops such as bug'doy, arpa va jo'xori bo'yicha ochiq maydon tizimi, and husbanding qo'ylar, qoramol va cho'chqalar.^[191] Agricultural land was typically organised around manorlar, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called demesne land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants.^[192] These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce.^[192] By the eleventh century a bozor iqtisodiyoti was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade.^[193] Around 6,000 suv tegirmonlari were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks.^[194]

Economic growth began to falter at the end of the thirteenth century, owing to a combination of aholi sonining ko'payishi, land shortages and depleted soils.^[195] The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population.^[195]

Rodni Xilton and other scholars have argued that those peasants who survived famine, plague and disease, found their situation to be much improved. The period 1350-1450 was for them a golden age of prosperity and new opportunities. Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and women especially benefited.^[196] As population growth resumed, however, the peasants again faced deprivation and famine.^[197][198]

Conditions were less favourable for the great landowners. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands.^[199] As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 villages were deserted ushbu davrda.^[200] A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility.^[201] Attempts were made by the government to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.^[202]

Inglizlar mato industry grew at the start of the fifteenth century, and a new class of international English merchants emerged, typically based in London or the South-West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economies of the eastern towns.^[201] These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the charterli kompaniya.^[203] Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters, backed by commercial investment from major merchants.^[204] Between 1440 and 1480, however, Europe entered a recession and England suffered the Ajoyib yiqilish: trade collapsed, driving down agricultural prices, rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation.^[205] The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses.^[162] By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in metallga ishlov berish va kemasozlik that would shape the early modern economy.^[206]

Texnologiya va fan

O'rta asrlarning o'ymakorligi Rievaulx Abbey showing one of the many new shamol tegirmonlari established during the thirteenth century

Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the Yunoncha va Islomiy thinking that reached England from the twelfth century.^[207] Many advances were made in scientific ideas, including the introduction of Arab raqamlari and a sequence of improvements in the units used for measuring time.^[208] Clocks were first built in England in the late thirteenth century, and the first mexanik soatlar were being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s.^[209] Astrologiya, sehr va palma o'qish were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England, although some doubted their reliability.^[210]

The period produced some influential English scholars. Rojer Bekon (c. 1214–94), a philosopher and Franciscan friar, produced works on tabiiy falsafa, astronomiya va alkimyo; his work set out the theoretical basis for future tajriba in the natural sciences.^[211] Okhamli Uilyam (c. 1287–1347) helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; "Okhamning ustara " was one of his oft-cited conclusions.^[212] Despite the limitations of medieval medicine, Gilbertus Anglikus nashr etdi Compendium Medicinae, one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin.^[213] Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the fourteenth century, including the Polikronikon va Ser Jon Mandevilning sayohatlari.^[214] The universities of Oxford and Kembrij were established during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, drawing on the model of the Parij universiteti.^[215]

Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, using horizontal mill dizaynlar; from the twelfth century on many more were built, eliminating the use of hand mills, with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new vertical mill dizayn.^[216] Shamol tegirmonlari began to be built in the late twelfth century and slowly became more common.^[217] Water-powered to'lg'azish tegirmonlari va powered hammers first appeared in the twelfth century; water power was harnessed to assist in eritish by the fourteenth century, with the first yuqori o'choq opening in 1496.^[218] New mining methods were developed and horse-powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages.^[219] Kirish sakrab tushdi pivo transformed the brewing industry in the fourteenth century, and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish.^[220] Glazed pottery became widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with tosh buyumlar pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the fifteenth century.^[221] Uilyam Kakton va Wynkyn de Worde dan foydalanishni boshladi bosmaxona during the late fifteenth century.^[222] Transport links were also improved; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. England's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of cog ships, and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time.^[223]

Urush

Qo'shinlar

XV asr Koventri Sallet

In the late thirteenth century Edward I expanded the familia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feodal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign.^[224] to become a small standing army. It formed the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France.^[225] By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers carried the kamon, a potentially devastating weapon.^[226] To'p were first used by English forces at battles such as Kresi 1346 yilda.^[227] Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism.^[228] By the late fifteenth century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.^[229]

Dengiz kuchlari

English fleets in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as oshxonalar and large transport ships, and bosilgan merchant vessels conscripted into action; the latter increasingly included tishlar, a new form of sailing ship.^[230] Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor, such as the English victory at Sluys in 1340, or in more open waters, as off the coast of Winchelsea in 1350; raiding campaigns, such as the Frantsiya hujumlari on the south of England between 1338–39, could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered.^[231]

Qo'rg'onlar

A reconstruction of the city of York in the fifteenth century, showing the shahar devorlari, Old Baile (chapda) va York qal'asi (o'ngda)

During the twelfth century the Normans had begun to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square saqlaydi that supported both military and political functions.^[232] Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons.^[233] Castles and qamallar continued to grow in military sophistication during the twelfth century, and in the thirteenth century new defensive town walls were constructed across England.^[234]

By the fourteenth century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks.^[235] Dastlabki porox qurollari XIV asrning oxiriga kelib qasrlarni himoya qilish uchun ishlatilgan qurol qurollari zamonaviy qal'a uchun muhim xususiyatga aylandi.^[236] Qal'alarni saqlashning iqtisodiy jihati shuni anglatadiki, ko'pchilik tanazzulga uchragan yoki tark qilingan; Aksincha, juda kam miqdordagi qasrlar juda boy odamlar tomonidan hashamatli me'morchilik sharoitida dabdabali ziyofatlar va bayramlar o'tkaziladigan saroylarga aylantirildi.^[237] Shotlandiya tahdididan himoya qilish uchun Angliyaning shimolida minoralar uylari deb nomlangan kichik himoyalanadigan inshootlar paydo bo'ldi.^[238] O'rta asrlarning oxiriga kelib, shahar devorlari tobora kamroq harbiy xususiyatga ega bo'lib, ko'pincha fuqarolik g'ururini yoki shahar boshqaruvining bir qismini ifodalaydi: XIV va XV asrlarda ushbu maqsadlar uchun ko'plab buyuk eshiklar qurilgan.^[239]

San'at

San'at

The Ellesmere yoritilgan qo'lyozma ning Canterbury ertaklari tomonidan Jefri Chauser, o'n beshinchi asrning boshlarida ritsar (o'ngda)

O'rta asr Angliya rasmlar, o'ymakorliklar, kitoblar, matolar va ko'plab funktsional, ammo chiroyli buyumlar ko'rinishidagi san'atni yaratdi. Oltin, shisha va fil suyagini o'z ichiga olgan turli xil materiallar ishlatilgan, bu san'at odatda dizaynlarda ishlatiladigan materiallarga katta e'tibor qaratadi.^[240] Vitraylar bu davrda ingliz san'atining keng tarqalgan shakliga aylandi, garchi ushbu asarlar uchun rangli stakan deyarli butunlay Evropadan olib kelingan bo'lsa.^[241] Angliyadagi kichik vitraylar saqlanib qoldi, ammo u odatda bezak va tarbiyaviy funktsiyaga ega edi, keyinchalik ishlarda derazalarning homiylarini ham dizaynlarga eslab qolishdi.^[242] XIV asr boshlarida ingliz kashtachiligi ayniqsa yuqori sifatga ega bo'lib, o'zining xalqaro obro'sini tikladi Angliya-sakson vaqtlari; rohibalar va London mutaxassislari tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan asarlar Evropa bo'ylab eksport qilindi opus anglicanum.^[243]

Bu davrda Angliyada qo'lyozma rasmlari yana Evropadagi har qanday tengdoshga aylandi Romanesk kabi ishlaydi Vinchester Injili va Sent-Albans Psalter va keyin shunga o'xshash erta gotikalar Qirolicha Meri Psalter va Tickhill Psalter.^[244] Gothic davrining so'nggi bosqichida ingliz yoritilishi tushib ketdi, chunki elita homiylari Parijdan, keyin esa Flandriyadan ishlarni topshirishni boshladilar. Kuchli frantsuz sanoatining raqobati ham ingliz fil suyagi o'ymakorligini qamrab oldi.^[245] O'rta asrlarda inglizlarning juda noyob tirik qolganlari panel rasmlari, kabi Westminster Retable va Uilton Diptix (bu erda rassomning millati noaniq), eng sifatli.^[246] Devorga chizilgan rasmlar cherkovlarda ham, saroylarda ham juda keng tarqalgan edi, ammo hozir juda oz qismi omon qoldi.^[247] Sanoat ishlab chiqaradigan sanoat mavjud edi Nottingem alebastri Nottingemda qilingan relyeflar, shuningdek Berton-on-Trent, Koventri va ehtimol Linkoln va London, foydalanishga topshirilgandan tortib qurbongoh buyumlari Evropa bo'ylab eksport qilingan yagona raqamlar va bayon panellariga.^[248] Tosh va yog'ochdan yasalgan ingliz yodgorlik o'ymakorligi ko'pincha juda sifatli bo'lib, ularning aksariyati saqlanib qolgan Islohot.^[249]

Adabiyot, drama va musiqa

Frantsuz tilida yozilgan she'rlar va hikoyalar Norman istilosidan keyin mashhur bo'lib, XII asrga kelib ingliz tarixiga oid ba'zi asarlar frantsuzcha she'rda nashr etila boshlandi.^[250] Turnirlar va odobli muhabbat haqidagi romantik she'rlar Parijda ommalashib ketdi va bu moda Angliyaga shaklda tarqaldi yotadi; sudi haqidagi hikoyalar Qirol Artur qisman Genri II qiziqishi tufayli ham moda bo'lgan.^[251] Ingliz tilidan Angliyaning shimolida mahalliy diniy asarlar va ba'zi she'rlar yozish uchun mo''tadil miqyosda foydalanishni davom ettirdilar, ammo aksariyat yirik asarlar lotin yoki frantsuz tillarida ishlab chiqarilgan.^[252] Boshqalar orasida Marvarid shoir, Jon Gower va Uilyam Langland o'ziga xos xususiyat yaratdi Ingliz madaniyati va san'at.^[81] Richard II davrida foydalanishning ko'tarilishi kuzatildi O'rta ingliz she'riyatda ba'zan "Rikardian she'riyat" deb nomlangan, garchi asarlarda hanuzgacha frantsuz modalari taqlid qilingan bo'lsa ham.^[253] Ishi Jefri Chauser 1370-yillardan boshlab, nufuzli bilan yakunlandi Canterbury ertaklari, uslubi bo'yicha noyob inglizcha edi.^[254] Saroy she'riyatining asosiy asarlari XV asrda Chausherning shogirdlari tomonidan ishlab chiqarila boshlandi va Tomas Malori ishlab chiqarish uchun eski Arturiya ertaklarini tuzdi Le Morte d'Arthur.^[255]

O'rta asrlar davrida Angliyada musiqa va qo'shiq diniy marosimlarda, sud marosimlarida va teatr asarlariga hamrohlik qilishda muhim bo'lgan.^[256] Qo'shiq aytish texnikasi gimel kabi asboblar bilan birga XIII asrda Angliyada joriy qilingan gitara, arfa, quvurlar va organ.^[257] Genri IV Angliyada keng ko'lamli musiqalarga homiylik qilgan, uning o'g'li Genri V esa bosib olingan Frantsiyadan ko'plab ta'sirlarni olib kelgan.^[258] Karollar XV asrda musiqaning muhim turiga aylandi; dastlab bular taniqli raqs bilan raqs paytida aytilgan qo'shiq edi - XV asr shakli raqsni yo'qotib, kuchli diniy ohanglarni keltirib chiqardi.^[259] Baladalar XIV asrning oxiridan boshlab, shu jumladan mashhur bo'lgan Chevy Chase balladasi va boshqalarning faoliyatini tavsiflovchi boshqalar Robin Gud.^[260] Mo''jiza o'ynaydi turli joylarda Muqaddas Kitobni etkazish uchun amalga oshirildi. XIV asrning oxiriga kelib, ular har yili bir necha kun davomida namoyish etiladigan, turli xil o'yinlar tsikllariga bo'lingan holda, xalq sirli spektakllariga aylantirildi; yigirma birinchi asrga qadar bir nechtasi omon qoldi.^[261] Gildiyalar har bir shaharda eng yaxshi spektakllarni tayyorlash uchun raqobatlashdilar va spektakllar ko'pincha fuqarolik identifikatsiyasining ifodasi edi.^[262]

Arxitektura

G'arbiy old tomoni York Minster "Gotika bilan bezatilgan" ning yaxshi namunasidir

XII asr davomida Angliya-Norman uslubi yanada boyib bordi va yanada bezakli bo'lib, frantsuz me'morchiligidan olingan uchli kamarlar egri Romanesk naqshlarining o'rnini egalladi; ushbu uslubga atama berilgan Dastlabki ingliz gotikasi va butun O'rta asrlarda o'zgaruvchanlik bilan davom etdi.^[263] XIV asrning boshlarida Perpendikulyar gotika vertikallikka, ulkan derazalarga va baland osmono'par maydonlarga urg'u berib, uslub Angliyada yaratilgan.^[264] Turli xil uslubdagi nozik yog'och tomlar, lekin ayniqsa bolg'a, ko'plab ingliz binolarida qurilgan.^[265] O'n beshinchi asrda me'moriy e'tibor soborlar va monastirlardan voz kechib, cherkov cherkovlari foydasiga, tez-tez boyib ishlangan yog'och buyumlar bilan bezatilgan; o'z navbatida, ushbu cherkovlar yangi dizaynga ta'sir ko'rsatdi xitob mavjud soborlar uchun cherkovlar.^[266]

XIV asrga kelib, buyuk uylar va qal'alar murakkab ishlarga aylandi: qimmatbaho plitkalar bilan bezatilgan, ko'pincha devor rasmlari va shisha derazalardan iborat bo'lib, bu binolar ko'pincha shaxsiy hayotni ta'minlash uchun kvartiralar to'plami sifatida ishlab chiqilgan.^[267] Muvaffaqiyatli g'isht mamlakatning ayrim hududlarida frantsuz didini nusxalashda ishlatila boshlandi.^[265] Eski mudofaa dizaynlarini taqlid qilgan me'morchilik mashhur bo'lib qoldi.^[268] Bu davrda dehqonlar uylari haqida kamroq narsa ma'lum, garchi ko'plab dehqonlar nisbatan sezilarli darajada yog'ochdan yasalgan uzoq uylarda yashagan ko'rinadi; bu uylarning sifati Qora o'limdan keyingi gullab-yashnagan yillarda yaxshilandi va ko'pincha professional hunarmandlar tomonidan qurildi.^[269]

Meros

1493 yildan Angliya tasviri Nürnberg xronikasi.

Tarixnoma

XVI asrda birinchi akademik tarixlar yozila boshlandi, odatda, asosan xronikachilarga asoslanib, ularni hozirgi siyosiy muammolar nuqtai nazaridan izohlashdi.^[270] Edvard Gibbon XVIII asr yozuvlari ta'sirli bo'lib, o'rta asrlarni Rim ulug'vorligi va erta zamonaviy davrda tsivilizatsiyaning qayta tug'ilishi o'rtasidagi qorong'u davr sifatida taqdim etdi.^[271] Kechki Viktoriya tarixchilari xronikatorlardan manba sifatida foydalanishda davom etishdi, ammo shu kabi hujjatlarni tarqatishdi Domesday kitobi va Magna Carta, yangi kashf etilgan moliyaviy, yuridik va tijorat yozuvlari bilan bir qatorda. Ular ishlab chiqargan progressiv Angliyadagi siyosiy va iqtisodiy rivojlanish qaydlari.^[272] Ning o'sishi Britaniya imperiyasi O'rta asrlarda ingliz gegemonligining turli davrlariga, shu jumladan Angevin imperiyasi va yuz yillik urushga qiziqish uyg'otdi.^[273]

Qayta namoyish qilish kabi ingliz o'rta asr voqealari Tewkesbury jangi bu erda ko'rsatilgan, zamonaviy qismidir meros sanoati

1930-yillarga kelib, eski tarixiy tahlillar bir qator tomonidan e'tirozga uchradi neo-pozitivist, Marksistik va ekonometrik hujjatli, arxeologik va ilmiy dalillarning keng doirasi tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan yondashuvlar.^[274] Marksistik va Neo-marksist Urushdan keyingi yillarda tahlillar ommalashishda davom etdi, iqtisodiy masalalar va ijtimoiy noroziliklarga bag'ishlangan seminal asarlar yaratildi.^[275] Post-zamonaviy tahlil 1970-80 yillarda ta'sirchan bo'lib, shaxsiyat, jins, talqin va madaniyatga e'tibor qaratdi. Ko'pgina tadqiqotlar ma'lum mintaqalar yoki guruhlarga bag'ishlangan bo'lib, yangi yozuvlar va yangi ilmiy yondashuvlarga asoslanib, shu jumladan manzara va atrof-muhit arxeologiyasi.^[276]

Ommabop vakolatxonalar

Bu davr, shuningdek, keng tarqalgan ommaviy madaniyatda ishlatilgan. Uilyam Shekspir O'rta asr shohlari hayotiga bag'ishlangan spektakllar uzoq davom etgan jozibadorligini isbotladi, bu shoh Jon va Genri V singari mashhur talqinlarga ham, tarixlarga ham katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi.^[277] Shundan keyin boshqa dramaturglar O'rta asrlarning asosiy voqealarini, masalan Tomas Beketning vafotini olib, zamonaviy mavzu va masalalarni chizishda foydalanganlar.^[278] O'rta asrlarning sirli asarlari Angliyaning muhim shahar va shaharlarida namoyish etilmoqda. Kinorejissyorlar O'rta asrlarda juda ko'p rasm chizishgan, ko'pincha ilhom olish uchun Shekspir yoki Robin Hood baladlaridan mavzu olishgan.^[279] Tarixiy fantastika O'rta asrlarda Angliyada o'rnatilgan doimiy ravishda mashhur bo'lib qolmoqda, 1980 va 1990 yillarda tarixiy o'sish kuzatilgan detektiv fantastika.^[280] Bu davr fantaziya mualliflarini, shu jumladan, ilhomlantirdi J. R. R. Tolkien ning hikoyalari O'rta yer.^[281] O'rta asr ingliz musiqasi 1950-yillardan boshlab qayta tiklandi, xor va musiqiy guruhlar asl tovushlarni chinakamiga takrorlashga harakat qildilar.^[282] O'rta asrlar tirik tarix tadbirlar birinchi bo'lib o'n to'qqizinchi va yigirmanchi asrlarning boshlarida o'tkazilgan va bu davr ko'plab jamoalarni ilhomlantirgan tarixiy reaktorchilar, Angliyaning o'sib borayotgan meros sanoatining bir qismi.^[283]

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Tashqi havolalar