Birmingem tarixi - History of Birmingham
Birmingem 1400 yillik o'sishni ko'rdi, shu vaqt ichida u kichik 7-asrdan rivojlandi Anglo Sakson chetidagi hamlet Arden o'rmoni erta chekkasida Mercia katta shaharga aylanish. Immigratsiya, innovatsiya va fuqarolik g'ururining uyg'unligi katta ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy islohotlarni amalga oshirishga va ularni yaratishga yordam berdi Sanoat inqilobi, dunyo bo'ylab o'xshash shaharlarning o'sishiga ilhom beradi.
So'nggi 200 yil ko'rdi Birmingem Fuqarolik sarmoyasi, ilmiy yutuqlar, tijorat yangiliklari va shahar atrofiga doimiy ravishda mehnat muhojirlarining kirib kelishi bilan ta'minlangan bozor shaharchasidan 19-asrning eng tez rivojlanayotgan shahriga ko'tarilish. 20-asrga kelib Birmingem Birlashgan Qirollikning ishlab chiqarish va avtomobilsozlik sanoatining metropoliten markaziga aylandi va avvaliga kanallar shahri, so'ngra mashinalar sha'niga va yaqinda Evropaning yirik anjumani va xarid qilish markazi sifatida obro'-e'tibor qozondi.
21-asrning boshlarida Birmingem muhim o'quv, ishlab chiqarish, xarid qilish, sport va konferentsiya inshootlari bilan o'ralgan yirik postindustrial metropolning markazida yotar edi.
Tarix
Tosh asri
Birmingemda topilgan eng qadimgi odam artefakt bu Saltli Xandaks: 500000 yillik jigarrang kvartsit qo'l bolta ning shag'allarida topilgan 100 millimetr (3,9 dyuym) uzunlikda Rea daryosi da Saltli 1892 yilda. Boshqa qismlar yoki Birmingem shu tarzda bir-biriga juda o'xshashdir, chunki odamlar u erda ming yillar davomida yashagan ko'rinadi.[1] Bu birinchi dalillarni keltirdi pastki paleolit odamlarning yashash joylari Ingliz Midlands,[2] oxirigacha steril va yashash uchun yaroqsiz deb o'ylagan maydon oxirgi muzlik davri.[3] Xuddi shunday eski boltalar bundan buyon ham topilgan Erdington va Edgbaston va bioarxeologik quduqlardan olingan dalillar Kvinton, Nechells va Washwood Heath Bu davrda Birmingemning iqlimi va o'simliklari taklif qiladi muzlararo davr bugungi kunga juda o'xshash edi.[4]
Oldinga siljish bilan bu hudud yashashga yaroqsiz bo'lib qoldi muzlik Oxirgi muzlik davri va Birmingem ichida odamlar yashaganligi haqidagi keyingi dalillar mezolit davr. Shahar ichkarisidagi eng qadimgi 10,400 yillik aholi punkti qazilgan Digbeth dalil bilan 2009 yilda maydon ovchilarni yig'uvchilar asosiy bilan chaqmoq toshlari yonib, o'rmon maydonini tozalagan edi.[5] Keyingi mezolit davridagi (8000-6000 yillar oldin) toshbo'ron vositalar shaharning irmoqlari yonidan topilgan, ammo ular ovchilik ziyofatlari yoki tungi lagerlardan ko'proq narsani anglatadi.[6]
Shahardagi eng qadimgi sun'iy inshootlar Neolitik mumkin bo'lgan davrni o'z ichiga oladi qarg'ish yaqinidagi aerofotosuratlar yordamida aniqlangan Faqat yashil va omon qolganlar kurqa da Qirollik.[7] Neolitik o'qlar Birmingem bo'ylab topilgan toshlardan yasalgan misollarni o'z ichiga oladi Kumbriya, Lestershir, Shimoliy Uels va Kornuol, maydonning o'sha paytda keng savdo aloqalariga ega ekanligini ko'rsatmoqda.[6]
Bronza va temir asrlari
Tosh 5000 yil oldin ushbu hududning birinchi fermerlari foydalangan boltalar shahar ichkarisidan topilgan va birinchisi bronza boltalar taxminan 4000 yil oldin bo'lgan.[8] 2700BC ga oid sopol idishlar topilgan Bornvil.[9]
Birmingemdagi eng keng tarqalgan tarixiy saytlar kuygan tepaliklar - tog'li hududlarga xos bo'lgan va, ehtimol, pishirish yoki bug 'bilan yuvish uchun toshlarni isitish natijasida hosil bo'lgan shakl. Birmingem hududida qirqdan elliktagacha topilgan, ularning barchasi miloddan avvalgi 1700-1000 yillarga tegishli. Kabi topilgan kuydirilgan tepalik joylari Bornvil shuningdek, o'rmonzor va boqishdagi hayvonlardagi bo'shliqlar bilan kengroq aholi punktlari mavjudligini ko'rsatmoqda.[10] Mumkin Bronza davri keyinchalik hisob-kitoblar Temir asri fermer xo'jaliklari Langley Mill Farm-da topilgan Satton Koldfild.[10] Qo'shimcha dalillar Temir asri manzil topildi Berri Mound, a tepalik qal'asi joylashgan Bromsgrove tumani Vorsestershire, yaqin Sherli.[11]
Romano-ingliz davri, v. 47-v. 600
Yilda Rim marta katta harbiy qal'a va yurish lageri, Metchley Fort, hozirgi kunda mavjud bo'lgan Qirolicha Yelizaveta kasalxonasi hozir bo'lgan joy yaqinida Edgbaston janubiy Birmingemda. Qal'a ko'p o'tmay qurilgan Rimlarning Britaniyaga bosqini Milodiy 43 yilda. Milodning 70 yilida qal'a faqat bir necha yil o'tgach qayta ishg'ol qilinishi uchun tashlab qo'yilgan, keyin milodiy 120 yilda yana tark etilishi kerak edi. Shuningdek, fuqarolar yashash joyining qoldiqlari topilgan yoki vicus, Rim qal'asi bilan bir qatorda.[12] Kings Norton shahridagi Parson tepaligida va Mere Greenda olib borilgan qazishmalar natijasida Rim fuqarosi aniqlandi o'choq sayt.[13]
Arxeologik dalillar topilmagan bo'lsa-da, mavjudligi Qadimgi ingliz prefiks wīc- yilda Vitton (wīc-tūn) bu muhim roman-inglizlarning sayti bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda vicus yoki o'tish joyiga qo'shni bo'lgan aholi punkti Tame daryosi Icknield ko'chasi tomonidan Perri Barr.[14]
Rim harbiy yo'llari dan Birmingem hududiga yaqinlashayotgani aniqlandi Letotsetum (Devor, yaqin Lichfild ) shimolda; dan Salinae (Droitvich ) janubiy sharqda; dan Alauna (Alcester ) janubda,[15] va dan Pennokrucium (Penkrij ) shimoliy g'arbda.[16] Ko'p joylarda ushbu yo'llarning yo'nalishlari, shu jumladan ular uchrashgan joylar shahar hududidan o'tayotganda yo'qolgan, garchi devor orqali o'tadigan yo'lning bir qismi yaxshi saqlanib qolgan bo'lsa ham. Satton Park.[17] Shuningdek, yo'llar ma'lum bo'lgan Rim turar joylari orqali o'tishi mumkin Bromvich qal'asi va Grimstok tepaligi yaqin Coleshill ga Manduessedum (Manketter ) va qal'aga Greensforge yaqin Kinver.[15] Dastlabki cherkovlar chegaralariga to'g'ri keladigan tekis yo'llarning borligi shuni ko'rsatadiki, boshqa Rim yo'li sharqdan g'arbga Birmingem orqali o'tgan bo'lishi mumkin Ladywood, Highgate va Sparkbruk, Ladywood Road, Belgrave Road va Warwick Road qismlarining bo'ylab.[18] Wall va Alcesterdan Rim yo'llari birgalikda nomlandi Iknield ko'chasi keyingi O'rta asrlar davrida, rimliklar ularni bitta marshrut deb hisoblashgan degan xulosani chalg'itishi mumkin edi va Droitvichdan olib boriladigan yo'l dastlab ikki janubiy marshrutning eng muhimi edi.[15]
Anglo-Sakson va Norman Birmingem, v. 600–1166
Jamg'arma
Arxeologik dalillar Anglo Saksonlar davri Birmingemda engil[19] va davrning hujjatli yozuvlari etti bilan cheklangan Angliya-sakson nizomlari ning chekka hududlarini batafsil bayon qilish King's Norton, Yardli, Duddeston va Rednal.[20] Joy nomi isboti ammo, aynan shu davrda shaharni tashkil etadigan ko'plab turar-joylar, shu jumladan Birmingemning o'zi tashkil etilganligini taxmin qilmoqda.[21]
"Birmingem" nomi Qadimgi ingliz Beormingaham,[22] ning uyi yoki yashash joyini anglatadi Bormingalar - ismi so'zma-so'z "Beorma xalqi" degan ma'noni anglatadigan va Angliya-Saksoniya ma'muriyatining dastlabki bo'linmasini tuzgan qabilalar yoki qabilalar.[23] Beorma qabilasi nomi bilan atalgan, Angliya-Saksonlar turar joyi paytida uning rahbari, umumiy ajdodi yoki afsonaviy qabila arbobi bo'lishi mumkin edi. Tugagan joy nomlari -ingaham Angliya-Saksoniya hududini mustamlakalashining dastlabki bosqichlarida tashkil etilgan birlamchi aholi punktlariga xos bo'lib, Birmingem, ehtimol, eng kech VII asr boshlarida mavjud bo'lgan degan fikrni bildiradi.[24] Tugaydigan nomlar bilan aholi punktlarini o'rab olish -tūn (ferma), -lax (o'rmonlarni tozalash), -worð (ilova) va - maydon (ochiq maydon) Angliya-Saksoniya aholisining keyinchalik kengayishi natijasida hosil bo'lgan ikkinchi darajali aholi punktlari bo'lishi mumkin,[25] ba'zi hollarda, ehtimol undan oldinroq Inglizlar saytlar.[26]
Angliya-sakson aholi punkti
Anglo-sakson va Domesday Birmingemning sayti ma'lum emas. An'anaviy qarash - bu qishloq o'tishi atrofida joylashgan qishloq edi Rea daryosi da Deritend, saytga aylangan qishloq yashil bilan Bull Ring - endi asosan obro'sizlantirildi,[27] va 2000 yilda Bull Ringni qayta ishlashdan oldin olib borilgan keng ko'lamli arxeologik qazishmalar paytida ingliz-sakson materiallaridan birortasi topilmadi.[28] Boshqa joylar, shu jumladan, taklif qilingan Broad Street maydon; Xokli ichida Zargarlik buyumlari kvartali;[29] yoki sayt Kenterberi shahridagi Sent-Tomas priori, endi egallab olgan Eski maydon.[30] Shu bilan bir qatorda erta Birmingem markaziy yadroli qishloqqa ega bo'lmagan tarqoq dehqonlarning hududi bo'lishi mumkin edi,[29] yoki bu ism dastlab Beormingasning qabilaviy vatanining kengroq hududini nazarda tutgan bo'lishi mumkin, bu keyinchalik manor va cherkovdan ancha kattaroq va atrofdagi ko'plab aholi punktlarini o'z ichiga oladi.[14] Parishanlar orasidagi Normandgacha bo'lgan aloqalarni tahlil qilish shuni ko'rsatadiki, bunday maydon kengayishi mumkin edi "Vest Bromvich" ga Bromvich qal'asi va janubiy chegaralaridan Shimoliy maydon va King's Norton ning shimoliy chegaralariga Satton Koldfild.[31]
Dastlabki Angliya-Saksoniya davrida zamonaviy shahar hududi ikki xalqni ajratib turuvchi chegara bo'ylab joylashgan.[32] Birmingemning o'zi va mintaqaning markazida va shimolida joylashgan cherkovlar, ehtimol, tomonidan mustamlaka qilingan Tomsaete yoki "uyg'unlar" kim edi Anglian vodiylari bo'ylab ko'chib kelgan qabilalar Trent va Tame dan Humber Estuary va keyinchalik qirolligini tashkil qildi Mercia.[33] Kabi hozirgi shaharning janubidagi Parijlar Shimoliy maydon va King's Norton tomonidan keyingi davrda mustamlaka qilingan Hvits, a Saksoniya vodiylari orqali shimolga ko'chib o'tadigan qabila Severn va Avon G'arbiy Sakslarning g'alaba qozonganidan keyin Britaniyaliklar da Dyrxem jangi 577 yilda.[34] Ikki guruh o'rtasidagi aniq chegara aniq belgilanmagan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo, ehtimol, keyingi eparxiyalar chegaralari bilan belgilanadi. Lichfild va Vester 7-asrda Mercia nasroniylikni qabul qilganidan keyin tashkil etilgan.[32]
7-asrning oxirida Meriya shohligi kengayib, 8-asr oxiriga kelib Xvitseni o'zlashtirdi va oxir-oqibat Angliyaning aksariyat qismida hukmronlik qildi, ammo o'sishi Viking 9-asrning oxirlarida hokimiyat sharqiy Merkiyaning qo'llariga tushdi Danelaw, g'arbiy qismida, shu jumladan Birmingem hududida, hukmronlik qilish uchun keldi Wessex. X asr davomida Katta Edvard Wessex kompaniyasi g'arbiy Merciyani mudofaa maqsadida qayta tashkil qildi shires istehkom atrofida joylashgan burhs singlisi tomonidan tashkil etilgan Thelflæd. Birmingem hududi yana chegara hududini topdi, Birmingem cherkovi uning qismini tashkil etdi Coleshill yuz yangi yaratilgan Warwickshire, ammo zamonaviy shaharning boshqa hududlari ichiga kiradi Staffordshire va Vorsestershire.[35]
Domesday manori
Birmingemda saqlanib qolgan birinchi hujjatli yozuvlar Domesday kitobi 1086 yilda, bu erda kichik manor sifatida qayd etilgan Bermingem, qiymati 20 shilling.
Uilyamdan Richard Birmingemda to'rt marta yashiringan. Oltita shudgor uchun yer bor, demesnada bittasi. Beshta qishloq aholisi va ikkita pullukli to'rtta uy egasi bor. O'rmonzor yarim ligaga, kengligi esa ikki metrga teng. Qiymat yigirma shilling edi va. Vulfin buni shoh Edvard davrida erkin tutgan.[36]
"Domesday" so'rovi o'tkazilayotganda, Birmingem ushbu hududdagi boshqa qishloqlarga qaraganda ancha kichik edi, eng muhimi Aston. Domesday so'rovida qayd etilgan boshqa mahalliy manorlar Satton, Erdington, Edgbaston, Selli, Nortfild, Tessal va Rednal edi. So'rovnomada "Machitone" deb nomlangan aholi punkti ham qayd etilgan: bu keyinchalik bo'lishi kerak edi Sheldon.[37]
Birmingemdagi manor-uy Keuper Qumtosh tizmasining sharqiy tomonida joylashgan edi. Dastlab kichik uy bo'lib, keyinchalik u Rea daryosi tomonidan oziqlanadigan xandaq bilan o'ralgan holda yog'ochdan yasalgan uyga aylantirildi.[37]
O'rta asrlar shaharchasi, 1166–1485
Tashkil etish va kengaytirish
Birmingemni "Domesday Book" da qayd etilgan sof qishloq manoridan o'zgartirish 1166 yilda qat'iy ravishda boshlanib, uni sotib oldi. manor xo'jayini, Piter de Birmingem, a qirol nizomi dan Genri II unga "Birmingemdagi qasrida" har hafta bozor o'tkazishga va pul undirishga ruxsat berish pullik bozor trafikida. Bu Angliyada ikki asrda 1350 yilgacha berilishi mumkin bo'lgan ikki mingta shunday nizomlarning eng qadimiylaridan biri edi,[38] va allaqachon sodir bo'lgan bozorni tan olgan bo'lishi mumkin, chunki 1285 va 1308 yillardagi sud jarayonlari Birmingem bozori avvalgi paytdan beri to'xtovsiz ushlab turilgan degan da'voni qondirdi. Norman fathi.[39] Uning ahamiyati, ammo Butrus investitsiyalarni rejalashtirilgan ravishda tuzish bilan ta'qib qilgani uchun qoladi bozor shaharchasi[40] uning ichida demesne yoki yodgorlik mulki.[41]
Ushbu davr uchburchak shaklini ko'rdi bozor bu bo'ldi Bull Ring;[42] sotish garov uchastkalari bozorda imtiyozlar va yo'l haqidan ozod bo'lish huquqini beradigan atrofdagi chekkalarda;[43] mahalliy savdo yo'llarining yangi uchastka tomon burilishi va shu bilan kesishishi Rea daryosi da Deritend;[44] ning qayta tiklanishi Birmingem Manor uyi toshda[45] va, ehtimol, birinchi tashkiloti cherkov cherkovi ning Bull Ringdagi Sent-Martin.[46] O'sha paytda Piterning o'g'li Uilyam de Birmingem bozorning holatini tasdiqlashni so'ragan Richard I yigirma uch yil o'tib, uning joylashuvi endi "uning Birmingemdagi qal'asi" emas, balki "Birmingem shahri" edi.[47]
Keyingi davrda yangi shahar juda qulay iqtisodiy sharoitlarda tez kengayib bordi.[48] Birmingem bozori birinchi tashkil etilgan edi Birmingem platosi - aholining ikki yoki uch baravar ko'p qismini tashkil etgan maydon Warwickshire 1086-1348 yillarda aholining o'sishi milliy darajada ilgari chekka erlarni joylashtirish va etishtirishni rag'batlantirdi.[49] Omon qolgan hujjatlar cho'llarning keng tarqalishini va o'rmonzorlarni tozalashni qayd etadi King's Norton, Yardli, Perri Barr va Erdington XIII asr davomida manorning madaniy maydoni o'tgan davr Bordesli shuningdek, ikki baravar ko'paygan.[50] Qishloq xo'jaligi savdosiga talab ijaraga beriladigan ish haqini emas, balki naqd pul bilan to'lash talabining ortishi bilan yanada kuchayib bordi, bu esa ijarachi fermerlarning mahsulotlarini ko'proq sotishiga olib keldi.[51] Bozorlar paydo bo'lishidan deyarli bir asr oldin bo'ladi Solihull, Halesowen va Satton Koldfild Birmingem bozorini har qanday mahalliy raqobat bilan ta'minladi,[52] va o'sha vaqtga kelib Birmingemning muvaffaqiyati Solihullda ishlash muddati "Birmingem bozorining erkinliklari va bojxona savdogariga ko'ra" aniq berilishini ta'minladi.[43]1166 yilgi nizomdan bir asr ichida Birmingem hunarmandlar va savdogarlarning obod shaharchasiga aylandi.[53] Imzosi Patent xatlari 1189, 1235 va 1237 yillarda qirolning Birmingemga tashriflarini ko'rsatmoqda,[49] va ikkitasi burgesslar 1275 yilda shaharni parlamentda namoyish etish uchun chaqirilgan. Ushbu voqea 19-asrga qadar takrorlanmagan, ammo Birmingemni eski Warwickshire kabi shaharlari bilan taqqoslanadigan ahamiyatga ega shahar sifatida tashkil etgan. Alcester, Coleshill, Stratford-on-Evon va Tamvort.[54] Ellik yildan so'ng subsidiya rulonlarini yotqizish 1327 va 1332 yillarda Birmingem ushbu shaharlarning barchasini ortda qoldirib, okrugda uchinchi o'rinni egallaganini ko'rsatdi. Uorvik o'zi va Koventri - o'sha paytda Angliyadagi to'rtinchi yirik shahar markazi.[55]
Bozorlar va savdogarlar
O'rta asrlar davomida Birmingem bozori asosan qishloq xo'jaligi mahsulotlarining bozori bo'lib qolgandir.[56] Erlari Birmingem platosi, ayniqsa shaharning g'arbiy qismida joylashgan Birmingem manorasining yopiq joyi ko'proq mos edi pastoral keyin haydaladigan qishloq xo'jaligi[57] va qazilgan hayvon suyaklari qoramollarning ustun chorva mollari bo'lganligini, ba'zi qo'ylari bo'lgan, ammo cho'chqalari juda kamligini ko'rsatadi.[58] Shaharda sotilayotgan 1285 va 1306 yillarda o'g'irlangan mollarga oid ma'lumotnomalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, bu vaqtda savdo hajmi e'tiborga olinmasligi uchun etarli bo'lgan.[57] Birmingem orqali savdo savdogarlar sinfi sifatida diversifikatsiya qilindi, ammo: merserlar va purveyors XIII asr boshlarida qayd etilgan,[56] va savdogarlar ishtirokidagi huquqiy nizo Chorshanba 1403 yilda ular temir bilan shug'ullanganliklarini aniqlaydilar, zig'ir, jun, guruch va po'lat shuningdek, shahardagi mollar.[56][59]
XIV asrga kelib Birmingem ma'lum bir markaz sifatida tashkil topganga o'xshaydi jun savdo. Ikki Birmingem savdogari vakili bo'lgan Warwickshire yilda bo'lib o'tgan kengashda York standartlashtirishni muhokama qilish uchun 1322 yilda jun shtapellari va boshqalar qatnashdilar Vestminster 1340, 1342 va 1343 yillardagi jun savdogarlar assambleyasi, bu davrda kamida bitta Birmingem savdogari katta miqdordagi jun bilan savdo qilar edi. Evropa qit'asi.[56] Aulnage 1397 yildagi yozuvlar, Birmingemning o'sha paytdagi to'qimachilik savdosi hajmiga oid ba'zi bir ma'lumotlarga ega, 44 mato yirik to'qimachilik markazida sotilgan 3000ning kichik bir qismi bo'lib sotildi Koventri, ammo Warwickshire-ning qolgan qismi savdosining deyarli uchdan bir qismini tashkil qiladi.[60]
Birmingem, shuningdek, bir necha muhim quruqlik savdo yo'llarida joylashgan. XIII asrning oxiriga kelib shahar mollar savdosi uchun muhim tranzit nuqtasi bo'ldi haydovchilar yo'llari dan Uels ga Koventri va Angliyaning janubi-sharqida.[61] Qazib olish orqali import qilingan 1340 ta rekordli sharobni tashkil etadi Bristol tushirilmoqda Vester va aravada Birmingem va Lichfildga etkazilgan.[62] Ushbu yo'nalish Droitvich ko'rsatilgan Gough xaritasi 14-asr o'rtalarida va zamonaviy tomonidan tasvirlangan Ranulf Xigdon Angliya "to'rtta Buyuk Qirollik yo'li" ning bir qismini tashkil etgan bo'lib, Vorestrdan to boshqacha Tayn daryosi.[63]
The de Birmingem oilasi Bozorni ilgari surishda faol edilar, ularning yo'l haqlari Birmingem manoridan olinadigan daromadning muhim qismini shu paytgacha o'zlarining mulklari ichida eng qimmatiga aylantirgan bo'lar edi.[64] At raqib bozorni tashkil etish Deritend qo'shni cherkovda Aston ularni 1270 yilgacha qishloqni egallashga undagan,[65] va oila treyderlar tomonidan yo'l haqini to'lashni ta'minlaydigan ro'yxatga olinadi King's Norton, Bromsgrove, Chorshanba va Tipton 1263, 1308 va 1403 yillarda.[66] 1250 yilda Uilyam de Birmingem o'tkazishga ruxsat oldi adolatli taxminan uch kun Ascensiontide. 1400 yilga kelib ikkinchi yarmarka bo'lib o'tdi Mayklmas[67] va 1439 yilda o'sha lord shaharni qirol purveyorlari huzuridan ozod qilish uchun muzokara o'tkazdi.[68]
Dastlabki sanoat
Birmingemdagi kichik sanoat korxonalarining arxeologik dalillari XII asrdayoq paydo bo'lgan,[69] va shahardagi hunarmandlarning dastlabki hujjatli dalillari 1232 yilda paydo bo'lgan burgesslar Rabbiyning pichan yig'im-terimiga yordam berish majburiyatidan ozod bo'lish to'g'risida muzokaralar, shu jumladan a temirchi, tikuvchi va to'rt kishi to'quvchilar.[70] Bu kabi xomashyo manbai bo'lgan bozorning mavjudligi ishlab chiqarishni rag'batlantirgan bo'lishi mumkin yashiradi va jun, shuningdek, shaharchadagi obod savdogarlar va qishloq joylaridan mahsulot sotadigan mehmonlarning tovarlarga bo'lgan talabi.[70] 1332 yilga kelib Birmingemdagi hunarmandlar soni boshqalarga o'xshash edi Warwickshire kabi sanoat bilan bog'liq shaharchalar Tamvort, Xenli-in-Arden, Stratford-on-Evon va Alcester.[71]
O'rta asr yozuvlaridagi hunarmandlarning nomlarini tahlil qilish shuni ko'rsatadiki, O'rta asr Birmingemining yirik sanoat tarmoqlari bo'lgan to'qimachilik, charm bilan ishlash va temir bilan ishlash,[71] mavjudligini taxmin qiluvchi arxeologik dalillar bilan sopol idishlar, kafel ishlab chiqarish va ehtimol ishlash suyak va shox.[72] XIII asrga kelib ular mavjud edi sarg'ish Edgbaston ko'chasida foydalaniladigan chuqurliklar;[73] va kenevir va zig'ir tayyorlash uchun ishlatilgan arqon, kanvas va zig'ir.[74] O'ziga xos mahalliy ishlab chiqaradigan pechlar Deritend buyumlari misollarini ko'rish mumkin bo'lgan sopol idishlar Birmingem tarix galereyalari, 12 va 13 asrlarda mavjud bo'lgan,[75] va terilar, terichilar va egarchilar XIV asrda qayd etilgan.[71] Mavjudligi cüruf va o'choq gullaydi Park ko'chasining orqasida qazilgan chuqurlarda ham temirda ishlashning erta borligi taxmin qilinadi.[76] 1296-sonli tuman ijarasi kamida to'rttasini tasdiqlaydi temirchilik shaharchada,[77] to'rt temirchilar a-da aytib o'tilgan ovoz berish solig'i 1379 va yana etti kishining qaytib kelishi keyingi asrda hujjatlashtirilgan.[71] O'n besh-yigirma to'quvchi bo'lsa ham, bo'yoqchilar va to'ldiruvchilar 1347 yilgacha Birmingemda aniqlangan, bu atrofdagi qishloqlarda topilgan matolardan sezilarli darajada ko'p emas.[71] va hech bo'lmaganda Birmingem bozorida sotilgan matolarning bir qismi qishloq kelib chiqishiga ega edi.[78] Bu mexanizatsiyadan foyda ko'rgan birinchi mahalliy sanoat edi, ammo o'nga yaqin to'lg'azish 14-asrning oxiriga kelib Birmingem hududida tegirmonlar mavjud bo'lib, ularning ko'plari konvertatsiya qilingan makkajo'xori tegirmonlari, lekin Xolford yaqinidagi bittasini o'z ichiga oladi Perri Barr bu 1358 yilda qurilgan.[60]
Ko'pgina ishlab chiqarilgan mahsulotlar mahalliy bozor uchun ishlab chiqarilgan bo'lar edi, ammo Birmingem o'rta asrlarda zargarlik buyumlari savdosining ixtisoslashgan va keng tan olingan markazi bo'lganligi haqida ba'zi dalillar mavjud. Ustozning shaxsiy mol-mulki ro'yxati Angliyadagi Templar ritsarlari ularni bostirish paytida 1308 yilda yigirma ikkitani o'z ichiga oladi Birmingem qismlari: Londonga qadar tushuntirishsiz murojaat qilish uchun etarlicha ma'lum bo'lgan kichik, qimmatbaho buyumlar, ehtimol zargarlik buyumlari yoki metalldan yasalgan buyumlar.[79] 1343 yilda birmingemlik uch kishi sotgani uchun jazolangan asosiy metall buyumlar kumush ekanligini ta'kidlab,[80] va hujjatli dalillar mavjud zargarlar shaharda 1384 va 1460 yillarda[81] - Birmingem kattaligidagi shaharda faqat mahalliy talab tufayli qo'llab-quvvatlanishi mumkin bo'lmagan savdo.[82]
O'rta asr muassasalari va jamiyat
13-asr va 14-asr boshlarida Birmingem shahar iqtisodiyotining o'sishi uning institutlari rivojlanishida aks etdi. Bull Ringdagi Sent-Martin 1250 yil atrofida dabdabali miqyosda qayta qurilgan[53] ikkitasi bilan yo'laklar, a ruhoniy va balandligi 61 fut shpil,[83] va ikkitasi qo'shiqlar cherkovga 1330 va 1347 yillarda boy mahalliy savdogarlar tomonidan berilgan.[84] The Kenterberi shahridagi Sent-Tomas priori birinchi bo'lib 1286 yilda qayd etilgan va 1310 yilga kelib oltita asosiy ehsonlarni jami 60 akr (240,000 m) egallagan.2) va 27 ta kichik vaqf.[83] Priory 1344 yilda Lichfild yepiskopi tomonidan tanqid qilinganidan keyin isloh qilindi va uning cherkovida chantry tashkil etildi.[85] Sent-Jon cherkovi, Deritend sifatida 1380 yilda tashkil etilgan qulaylik cherkovi cherkov cherkovining Aston bilan bog'liq bo'lgan ruhoniy bilan qo'llab-quvvatlanadi Sent-Jon gildiyasi, Deritend, shuningdek, maktabni saqlab qoldi.[86] Birmingem cherkovi 1392 yilda asos solingan holda o'zining diniy gildiyasiga ega bo'ldi Muqaddas Xoch gildiyasi, bu shahar elitasi uchun ijtimoiy va siyosiy e'tiborni ta'minladi[87] shuningdek, ruhoniylarni qo'llab-quvvatlash, almshouslar, a doya, a soat, ustiga ko'prik Rea daryosi va "sho'ng'in yo'llari".[88]
Iqtisodiy yutuq ham shaharning kengayishini ko'rdi. Yangi ko'cha birinchi bo'lib 1296 yilda qayd etilgan,[89] Mur ko'chasi XIII asr oxirida, Park Street esa XIV asrning boshlarida yaratilgan.[90] Aholining o'sishiga qishloq xo'jalik mehnatidan ozod bo'lgan, o'zlarini savdogar sifatida ko'rsatish imkoniyati jalb qilingan qishloq migrantlari turtki berishdi.[91] Ijaralarni tahlil qilish shuni ko'rsatadiki, uchdan ikki qismi shaharchadan 16 km uzoqlikda joylashgan,[92] ammo boshqalar uzoqroqdan kelgan, shu jumladan Uels, Oksfordshir, Linkolnshir, Xempshir va hatto Parij.[93] Bundan tashqari, shaharda yahudiy aholisi bo'lganligi haqida ba'zi dalillar mavjud Chetlatish to'g'risidagi farmon 1290 yil[94]O'rta asrlarda Birmingem hech qachon bo'lmagan kiritilgan manoridan mustaqil ravishda o'zini o'zi boshqarish sub'ekti sifatida,[53] The Borough - qurilgan maydon - dan alohida boshqarilgan Chet el - g'arbda ochiq qishloq xo'jaligi zonasi - kamida 1250 yildan.[95] The burgesslar shaharchadan ikkitasini sayladi sud ijrochilari; "shaharning umumiyligi" birinchi marta 1296 yilda qayd etilgan[89] va a pavage 1318 yildagi mablag 'emas, balki amalga oshirildi Manor egasi ammo "sud ijrochilari va Berminxem shahrining yaxshi odamlariga".[96] Shahar shu tariqa cheklovlardan xoli bo'lgan savdo gildiyalari to'liq charterli tumanlar, ammo qat'iy manorial rejim cheklovlaridan ham ozod bo'lgan.[97]
Agar XII va XIII asrlar shahar uchun o'sish davri bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, bu XIV asr davomida bir qator falokatlar oldida to'xtadi. Yaqin atrofdagi sud majlislari yozuvlari Halesowen 1281-11313 yillarda "Birmingemdagi buyuk olov" ni yozib oling,[98] Moor ko'chasi ostida topilgan katta miqdordagi ko'mir va yoqilgan va yoqib yuborilgan sopol idishlarni o'z ichiga olgan 13-asrning oxirlarida sodir bo'lgan voqea.[99] 1315 yildan 1322 yilgacha bo'lgan ochlik va Qora o'lim 1348–50 yillar aholining o'sishini to'xtatdi[100] 14-15 asrlardan boshlab kulolchilikning arxeologik dalillarining pasayishi uzoq vaqt iqtisodiy qiyinchiliklarni ko'rsatishi mumkin.[101]
Tudor va Styuart Birmingem, 1485–1680
Dastlabki zamonaviy shaharcha
The Tudor va Styuart davrlar Birmingem uchun o'tish davri bo'lgan.[102] 1520-yillarda shahar uchinchi yirik shahar edi Warwickshire aholisi taxminan 1000 kishini tashkil etadi - bu vaziyat ikki asr avvalgidan ozgina o'zgargan.[103] XVII asr davomida bir qator vabolarga qaramay,[104] 1700 yilga kelib Birmingem aholisi o'n besh baravar ko'paygan va shahar Angliya va Uelsda beshinchi o'rinda bo'lgan,[105] metall savdosini kengaytirish va diversifikatsiya qilishga asoslangan milliy ahamiyatga ega iqtisodiyotga ega,[106] rolida qat'iy belgilangan siyosiy va diniy radikalizm uchun obro ' Ingliz fuqarolar urushi.[107]
O'rta asr Birmingemning asosiy institutlari 1536 yildan 1547 yilgacha o'n bir yil ichida qulab tushdi.[102] The St Tomasning prioriteti bostirilgan va uning mol-mulki sotilgan Monastirlarning tugatilishi 1536 yilda,[108] bilan Muqaddas Xoch gildiyasi, Sent-Jon gildiyasi va ular bilan bog'liq qo'shiqlar shuningdek, 1547 yilda tarqatib yuborilgan.[109] Eng muhimi, de Birmingem oilasi 1536 yilda Birmingem manoriga egalik huquqini yo'qotgan, ehtimol bu o'rtasidagi mojaro natijasida Edvard de Birmingem va Jon Satton, 3-baron Dadli.[110] Qisqa davrlardan so'ng Toj va Northumberland gersogi, manor 1555 yilda Tomas Marrowga sotilgan Berksvell.[111] Birmingemda hech qachon rezident bo'lmaydi Manor egasi,[112] butun tuman keyingi asrlar davomida kuchsiz xo'jayinlar hududi bo'lib qolishi kerak edi.[113] Mahalliy hokimiyat asosan qolishi bilan yodgorlik, shahar aholisining yuqori iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy erkinligi natijasida Birmingem keyingi rivojlanishida juda muhim omil bo'lishi kerak edi.[114]
Bu davr ham muhim madaniy rivojlanish davrlaridan biri edi. Ning eriganligiga qaramay Sent-Jon gildiyasi Deritendda unga tegishli maktab, sobiq zal yopilganini ko'rdi Muqaddas Xoch gildiyasi Nyu-ko'chada, yiliga 21 funt sterlingga teng bo'lgan mol-mulk bilan birga, o'z mulkidan tashkil topganligi uchun saqlanib qoldi King Edwardning bepul grammatika maktabi 1552 yilda.[115] Jon Rojers 1500 yilda Deritendda tug'ilgan, u ushbu asarni tuzgan va qisman tarjima qilganida shaharning birinchi taniqli adabiy vakili bo'ldi Matto Injil, ingliz tilida paydo bo'lgan Muqaddas Kitobning birinchi to'liq vakolatli nashri.[116] The birinchi Birmingem kutubxonasi 1642 yilgacha tashkil etilgan,[117] o'sha yili Nataniel Nye - shaharning birinchi taniqli olimi - uni nashr etdi Yangi Almanacke va Prognostication Warwickshire-dagi Birmichamning peri va aholi sonli shaharchasi uchun aniq hisoblab chiqilgan..[118] Va nihoyat 1652 yil Birmingemda kitob sotuvchisi va Birmingemda nashr etilgan birinchi kitobning rekordini qayd etdi: Shrift himoyalangan, mahalliy tomonidan puritan Tomas Xoll.[119]
Sanoat va iqtisodiyot
Garchi charm va to'qimachilik savdolar 16-asr boshlarida Birmingem iqtisodiyotining asosiy xususiyatlari bo'lib qolmoqda,[120] temir buyumlar ishlab chiqarishning tobora ortib borayotgan ahamiyati, shuningdek Birmingem ishlab chiqaruvchilari va keyinchalik hudud deb nomlanuvchi ushbu hududning xom ashyolari o'rtasidagi o'zaro bog'liqlik Qora mamlakat, antikvar tomonidan tan olingan Jon Leland u 1538 yilda sayohat qilganida, shaharning omon qolgan dastlabki guvohlari tavsifini bergan.[121]
Warwike-shire yo'lining narigi tomonida joylashgan Bremischamning yaxshi avtoulovi, bir milya kvartal uzunligidagi mene tepaligidan deyarli bir goynge upe deyarlie-da joylashgan. Men sochiqda bitta paroch cherchini ko'rdim. Tirnoqda pichoqlar tayyorlashda ishlatiladigan pichoqlar va manjetdan yasalgan asbob-uskunalar, baytlar yasaydigan ko'plab lorimerlar va ko'plab naylorlar mavjud. Shunday qilib, sochiqning katta qismi smitslar tomonidan saqlanib qolinmaydi. Smitschilar u erda Staffordshire va Warwikeshire-dan chiqib ketishdi va Staffordshire-dan koalni ko'rishdi.
— Jon Leland, 1535–1543 yillarda yoki taxminan Jon Lelandning marshruti[122]
Asr o'sishi bilan temir hunarlarning ahamiyati yanada oshdi, asosan to'lg'azish Birmingem hududidagi tegirmonlar silliqlash uchun tegirmonlarga aylantirilmoqda pichoqlar asrning oxiriga kelib.[121] 1586 yilda Uilyam Kamden shaharni "aholi bilan to'lib-toshgan va anvilar shovqini bilan sado beradigan deb ta'rifladi, chunki bu erda temir va po'latdan yasalgan juda ko'p ustalar va boshqa hunarmandlar bor, ularning chiqishlari uyda ham, chet elda ham juda hayratda".[iqtibos kerak ]
Birmingemning o'zi butun dunyo bo'ylab sodir bo'lgan ishlab chiqarish faoliyati uchun savdo markazi sifatida faoliyat yuritgan Birmingem platosi o'z-o'zidan cho'zilgan temir temir va pechlar tarmog'ining markazini tashkil etdi Janubiy Uels va Dekan o'rmoni ga Cheshir.[123] XVI asrning amallari yozilgan bo'lsa-da mixchilar yilda Mozli, Harborne, Xendvort va King's Norton; temirchilar yilda Vitton, Erdington va Semvik va zargarlar yilda Aston, Erdington, Yardli va Bordesli; The temirchilar - moliya ishlarini tashkil etgan savdogarlar, xom ashyo etkazib beradigan va mahsulotlarni sotadigan, temirchilar, ularning etkazib beruvchilari va mijozlari o'rtasida vositachilik vazifasini bajaradiganlar - Birmingemning o'zida to'plangan.[124] Birmingem temirchilarining sotilishi qayd etilgan Qirollik qurol-yarog ' katta miqdorda veksellar 1514 yildayoq; 1550 yillarga kelib Birmingem savdogarlari London, Bristol va qadar uzoqroq savdo qilar edilar Norvich,[125] 1596 yilda Birmingemdagi erkaklar Irlandiyada qurol sotishgan,[106] va 1657 yilga kelib Birmingemdagi metall buyumlar bozorining obro'siga erishildi G'arbiy Hindiston.[126] 1600 yilga kelib Birmingem London bilan bir qatorda o'zining iqtisodiy erkinligi va ishlab chiqaruvchilarga va xom ashyoga yaqinligidan rivojlanib, mamlakatdagi temir savdogarlarning ikkita katta kontsentratsiyasidan biri sifatida o'rin oldi, London savdogarlari esa kuchli korporativ tashkilot nazorati ostida qoldi.[106]
Birmingemdagi temir savdogarlarning kontsentratsiyasi shaharning ishlab chiqarish va tijorat faoliyatini rivojlantirishda muhim ahamiyatga ega edi. Shaharning keng savdo aloqalari tufayli yanada keng bozorga xizmat ko'rsatishga qodir bo'lgan Birmingemdagi metallurglar tobora ixtisoslashgan faoliyat turlarini diversifikatsiya qilishlari mumkin edi.[127] 17-asr davomida quyi malakali mutaxassislar mix, o'roq va jilov savdo - mahalliy qishloq xo'jaligi bozorlari uchun asosiy temir mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarish - keyinchalik g'arbiy shaharlarga ko'chib o'tgan shaharlarga Qora mamlakat Birmingemning o'zi borgan sari ko'proq mutaxassis, yuqori malakali va ko'proq daromadli faoliyat turlariga e'tibor qaratdi.[128] The o'choq solig'i 1671 va 1683 yillarda Birmingemga qaytish sonini ko'rsatadi temirchilik shaharchada 69 dan 202 gacha ko'tarilgan,[129] ammo keyingi raqamlar, shu jumladan, savdolarning ancha xilma-xilligini namoyish etadi hiltmeykerlar, bukuvchilar, o'lchov ishlab chiqaruvchilar, qalaychilar, simli simlar, chilangarlar, qilichbozlar va ishchilar lehim va qo'rg'oshin.[130] Birmingemning iqtisodiy moslashuvchanligi ushbu dastlabki bosqichda allaqachon aniq ko'rinib turardi: ishchilar va binolar ko'pincha savdo-sotiqni o'zgartirgan yoki bir nechta amaliyot bilan shug'ullangan,[106] cheklovlarsiz keng malakali ishlab chiqaruvchilarning mavjudligi savdo gildiyalari butunlay yangi sanoat tarmoqlarini rivojlantirishni rag'batlantirdi.[131] XVII asr oxirida Birmingemda ishlab chiqarilgan tovarlarning assortimenti va uning xalqaro miqyosdagi obro'si frantsuz sayyohi tomonidan tasvirlangan Maksimilien Misson kim tashrif buyurgan Milan 1690 yilda "tosh kristallari, qilichlar, qamishlarning boshlari, snuff qutilari va boshqa po'latdan yasalgan buyumlarni" topish, "oldin ularni Birmingemda yaxshiroq va arzonroq qilish mumkin" deb ta'kidlamagan.[132]
Siyosat, din va fuqarolar urushi
17-asrning boshlariga kelib Birmingemning jadal rivojlanayotgan iqtisodiyoti, o'z-o'zidan ishlab chiqarilgan savdogarlar va yangi metall savdolarini ishlab chiqaruvchilar an'anaviy quruqlik manfaatlari o'rniga; uning kengayib borayotgan aholisi va yuqori darajasi ijtimoiy harakatchanlik; va rezidentning hududida deyarli to'liq yo'qligi zodagonlar; u ko'proq an'anaviy shahar va qishloqlardan farq qiladigan yangi ijtimoiy tuzilishni ishlab chiqishini ko'rgan: munosabatlar qat'iy paternalizm va hurmatga qaraganda pragmatik tijorat aloqalariga asoslangan edi. feodal jamiyat va shahar keng tarqalgan cherkov va zodagonlarning an'anaviy ierarxiyalariga sodiqligi zaif bo'lgan shahar sifatida qaraldi.[133] Birmingemda siyosiy o'z-o'zini anglashning o'sishining dastlabki belgilarini 1630-yillarda ko'rish mumkin puritan ma'ruzalar ta'limotlari va tuzilmalarini shubha ostiga qo'yishga qaratilgan Angliya cherkovi va atrofdagi okruglarga keng ta'sir ko'rsatdi.[134] 1640 puritan tomonidan ilhomlangan iltimosnoma shaharliklar tomonidan mahalliylarga qarshi ko'tarilgan Tinchlik adolati Ser Tomas Xolte mahalliy hukumatda hukmronlik qilgan mamlakat janoblari bilan to'qnashuvning dastlabki dalillarini keltiradi.[135]
Ning tarqalishi Ingliz fuqarolar urushi 1642 yilda Birmingem puritanning ramzi sifatida paydo bo'lgan va Parlament a'zosi radikalizm,[135] bilan Royalist Klarendon grafligi "s Angliyada qo'zg'olon va fuqarolik urushlari tarixi shaharni "Angliyadagi har qanday joy kabi samimiy, irodali va ta'sirchan shohga bo'lgan sadoqatsizligi uchun katta shuhrat qozongan" deb qoraladi.[136] Birmingemdan qurollangan 400 kishining kelishi xavfsizlikni ta'minlashda hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega edi Koventri tan olishdan bosh tortish Karl I tashkil etilgan 1642 yil avgustda Warwickshire parlament a'zolari sifatida.[137] Podshoh va uning armiyasining yurishi janubdan Shrewsbury gacha bo'lgan kunlarda Edge Xilldagi jang 1642 yil oktyabrda boshchiligidagi qo'shinlar bilan kuchli mahalliy qarshilikka duch keldi Reyn shahzodasi Rupert va Derbi grafligi mahalliy odamlar tomonidan pistirma qilinmoqda poezdlar yilda Mozli va King's Norton va Qirolning bagaj poezdi Birmingem shahar aholisi tomonidan hujumga uchragan va uning shaxsiy mol-mulki talon-taroj qilingan va ko'chirilgan Uorvik qasri qirol esa qirolist ser Tomas Xolte bilan qoldi Aston zali.[135] Birmingemdagi metall savdolarining strategik ahamiyati ham katta ahamiyatga ega edi: bitta xabarga ko'ra, shaharning asosiy fabrikasi faqat Parlament kuchlari uchun 15000 ta qilich ishlab chiqargan.[138]
Royalistlarning qasosi 1643 yil 3-aprel, dushanba kuni Pasxada, knyaz Rupert 1200 otliq askar, 700 ta foolist va 4 ta qurol bilan Birmingemga qaytib kelganida olingan. Shoshilinch ravishda qurilgan tuproq ishlari ortida 200 nafar himoyachining kichik kuchi tomonidan ikki marotaba qaytarilgan qirollik otliq qo'shinlari mudofaani ortda qoldirib, shaharchani egallab olishdi. Birmingem jangi, 80 uyni yoqib yuborishdan va o'n beshta shahar aholisining yalang'och jasadlarini qoldirmasdan oldin. Garchi qirollik g'alabasi harbiy jihatdan ahamiyatsiz bo'lgan va o'lim hisobiga sodir bo'lgan Denbiy grafligi, asosan, fuqarolik kuchlarining qirollik otliqlariga qarshi qarshiligi va shaharning keyingi ishdan bo'shatilishi, Dumaloq boshlarga keng targ'ib qilingan risolalar tomonidan g'ayrat bilan ishlatilgan katta tashviqot kuchini taqdim etdi.[139]
Fuqarolar urushining keyingi yillarida Birmingemning ishlab chiqarishga asoslangan jamiyatining buzg'unchilik salohiyati mahalliy parlament polkovnigi tomonidan namoyish etildi. Jon "Tinker" Tulki, Birmingem hududidan 200 kishilik garnizonni yollagan va egallab olgan Edgbaston zali 1643 yildan.[140] From there he attacked and removed the Royalist garrison from nearby Aston zali, established control over the countryside leading out to Royalist Vorsestershire, and launched a series of audacious raids as far afield as Bevdli.[141] Highly active, and operating largely independently of the parliamentarian hierarchy, to Royalists Fox came to symbolise a dangerous and uncontrolled overturning of the established order, with his background in the Birmingham metal trades seeing him caricatured as a tinker.[142] By 1649 his national notoriety was such that he was widely rumoured to have been Charles I's executioner.[143]
The Midlands Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, 1680–1791
Enlightenment, Nonconformism and industrial innovation
The 18th century saw the sudden emergence of Birmingham at the forefront of worldwide developments in science, technology, medicine, philosophy and tabiiy tarix as part of the cultural transformation now known as the Midlands ma'rifati.[144] By the second half of the century the town's leading thinkers – particularly members of the Birmingem oy jamiyati kabi Jozef Priestli, Jeyms Keyr, Metyu Boulton, Jeyms Vatt, Uilyam Vitering va Erasmus Darvin – had become widely influential participants in the Xatlar respublikasi, the free circulation of ideas and information among the developing pan-European and trans-Atlantic intellectual elite.[145] The Lunar Society was "the most important private scientific association in eighteenth-century England"[146] and the Midlands Enlightenment "dominated the English experience of enlightenment",[147] but also maintained close links with other major centres of the Ma'rifat davri, particularly the universities of the Shotlandiya ma'rifati,[148] The Qirollik jamiyati in London, and scientists, philosophers and academicians in France, Sweden, Saksoniya, Rossiya va Amerika.[149]
This "miracle birth" has traditionally been seen as a result of Birmingham's status as a stronghold of religious Konformizm, creating a free-thinking culture unconstrained by the established Angliya cherkovi. This accords with wider historical theories such as the Mertonning tezislari va Weber thesis, that see Protestant culture as a major factor in the rise of experimental science and industrial capitalism within Europe.[150] Birmingham had a vigorous and confident Nonconformist community by the 1680s, at a time when ibodat qilish erkinligi for Nonconformists nationally had yet to be granted; and by the 1740s this had developed into an influential group of Rational Dissenters.[151] Around 15% of households in Birmingham were members of Nonconformist congregations in the mid-18th century, compared to a national average of 4–5%.[152] Presviterianlar va Quakers in particular also had a level of influence within the town that was disproportionate to their numbers, customarily holding the position of Low Bailiff – the most powerful position in the town's local government – from 1733, and making up over a quarter of the Ko'cha komissarlari appointed in 1769, despite being legally barred from holding office until 1828.[153] Despite this, Birmingham's Enlightenment was by no means a purely Nonconformist phenomenon: the members of the Lunar Society had a wide range of religious backgrounds,[154] and Anglicans formed a majority of all sections of Birmingham society throughout the period.
Recent scholarship no longer sees the Midlands Enlightenment as primarily having an industrial or technological focus.[155] Analysis of the subject-matter of Lunar Society meetings shows that its main concern was with pure scientific investigation rather than manufacturing,[156] and the influence of Midlands Enlightenment thinkers can be seen in areas as diverse as education,[157] The aql falsafasi,[158] Romantik she'riyat,[159] The evolyutsiya nazariyasi[160] and the invention of photography. A distinctive and significant feature of the Midlands Enlightenment, however, that partly resulted from Birmingham's unusually high level of ijtimoiy harakatchanlik, was the close relationship between the practitioners of theoretical science and those of practical manufacturing.[161] The Lunar Society included industrialists such as Semyuel Galton, kichik as well as intellectuals such as Erasmus Darvin va Jozef Priestli;[162] scientific lecturers such as Jon Uorltir va Adam Uoker communicated basic Newtonian principles widely to the town's manufacturing classes;[163] and men such as Metyu Boulton, Jeyms Keyr, Jeyms Vatt va Jon Rebuk were simultaneously highly regarded both as scientists and as technologists, and in some cases also as businessmen.[164] The intellectual climate of 18th century Birmingham was therefore unusually conducive to the transfer of knowledge from the pure sciences to the technology and processes of manufacturing, and the feeding back of the results of this to create a "chain reaction of innovation".[165]
The Midlands Enlightenment therefore occupies a key cultural position linking the expansion of knowledge of the earlier Ilmiy inqilob with the economic expansion of the Sanoat inqilobi.[166] 18th century Birmingham saw the widespread and systematic application of reason, experiment and scientific knowledge to manufacturing processes to an unprecedented degree, resulting in a series of technological and economic innovations that transformed the economic landscape of a wide variety of industries, laying many of the foundations for modern industrial society.[167] In 1709 Ibrohim Darbi I, who had trained as an apprentice in Birmingham and worked in Bristol for the Birmingham ironmonger Sampson Lloyd,[168] ko'chib o'tdi Koalbrookdeyl in Shropshire and established the first yuqori o'choq to successfully smelt iron with koks.[169] 1732 yilda Lyuis Pol va Jon Vayt ixtiro qilingan valik yigirish – the "one novel idea of the first importance" in the development of the mechanised cotton industry[170] – and in 1741 they opened the world's first cotton mill in Birmingham's Upper Priory.[171] In 1765 Matthew Boulton opened the Soho manufakturasi, pioneering the combination and mechanisation of previously separate manufacturing activities under one roof through a system known as "rational manufacture".[172] By the end of the decade this was the largest manufacturing unit in Europe with over 1,000 employees, and the foremost icon of the emerging zavod tizimi. Jon Rebuk 's 1746 invention of the qo'rg'oshin kamerasi jarayoni first enabled the large-scale manufacture of sulfat kislota,[173] esa Jeyms Keyr ishlab chiqarishga kashshof bo'lgan gidroksidi at his plant in Tipton;[174] between them these two developments marked the birth of the modern kimyo sanoati.[175]The most notable technological innovation of the Midlands Enlightenment, however, was the 1775 development by Jeyms Vatt va Metyu Boulton ning industrial steam engine, which incorporated four separate technical advances to allow it to cheaply and efficiently generate the rotary motion needed to power manufacturing machinery.[176] Freeing the productive potential of society from the limited capacity of hand, water and animal power, this was arguably the pivotal development of the entire industrial revolution, without which the spectacular increases in economic activity of the subsequent century would have been impossible.[177]
Commercial and industrial expansion
The explosive industrial growth of Birmingham started before that of the to'qimachilik towns of the Angliyaning shimolida and can be traced as far back as the 1680s.[178] Birmingham's population quadrupled between 1700 and 1750.[179] By 1775 – before the start of the mechanisation of the Lankashir paxta savdosi[180] – Birmingham was already the third most-populous town in England, smaller only than the older southern ports of London and Bristol and growing faster than any of its rivals.[181] As early as 1791 Birmingham was being described by the economist Artur Yang as "the first manufacturing town in the world".[182]
The factors that drove Birmingham's rapid industrialisation were also different from those behind the later development of textile manufacturing towns such as "Manchester", whose spectacular growth from the 1780s onwards was based on the o'lchov iqtisodiyoti inherent in mechanised manufacture: the ability of a low-wage, unskilled labour force to produce bulk commodities such as cotton in huge quantities. Although the developments that enabled this transformation – valik yigirish, zavod tizimi va industrial steam engine – often had Birmingham origins,[183] they had little role in Birmingham's own expansion. Birmingham's relatively inaccessible location meant that its industries were dominated by the production of a wide variety of small, high value metal items – from tugmalar va tokalar to guns and jewellery. Its economy was characterised by high wages and a diverse range of specialised skills that were not susceptible to wholesale automation.[184] The small-scale workshop, rather than the large factory or mill, remained the typical Birmingham manufacturing unit throughout the 18th century,[185] and the use of steam power was not economically significant in Birmingham until the 1830s.[186]
Rather than low wages, efficiency and scale, Birmingham's manufacturing growth was fuelled by a highly skilled workforce, specialisation, flexibility and, above all, innovation.[187] Past kirish uchun to'siqlar to the Birmingham trades gave the town a high degree of ijtimoiy harakatchanlik va aniq tadbirkor iqtisodiyot;[188] zamonaviy Uilyam Xatton described trades that "spring up with the expedition of a blade of grass, and, like that, wither in the summer".[189] In terms of manufacturing technology Birmingham was by far the most inventive town of the era: between 1760 and 1850 Birmingham residents registered over three times as many patents as those of any other town or city.[190] Despite the landmark inventions of engineers such as Jeyms Vatt, most of these developments are better characterised as part of a continuous flow of small-scale technological improvements.[191] Metyu Boulton remarked in 1770 how "by the many mechanical contrivances and extensive apparatus wh we are possess'd of, our men are enabled to do from twice to ten times the work that can be done without the help of such contrivances".[192] Innovation also took place in production processes, particularly in the development of an extreme mehnat taqsimoti.[193] Contemporary sources noted that in Birmingham even simple products such as buttons would pass through between fifty and seventy different processes, performed by a similar number of different workers.[194] The resulting competitive advantage was noticed by Oy jamiyati a'zo Richard Lovell Edgevort when he visited Paris, observing that "each artisan in Paris ... must in his time 'play many parts', and among these many to which he is incompetent", concluding that "even supposing French artisans to be of equal ability and industry with English competitors, they are left at least a century behind".[195]
Innovation also extended to Birmingham's products, which were increasingly tailored to its merchants' national and international connections.[196] During the first half of the century growth was largely driven by the domestic market and based on increased national prosperity,[197] but foreign trade was important even in the mid-century[198] and was the dominant factor from the 1760s and 1770s,[199] dictated by the markets and fashions of London, France, Italiya, Germaniya, Rossiya va Amerika mustamlakalari.[196] The adaptability and speed to market of the Birmingham economy allowed it to be heavily influenced by fashion[196] – the market for tokalar collapsed in the late 1780s, but workers transferred skills to brass or button trades.[200] Birmingham manufacturers sought design leadership in fashionable circles in London or Paris, but then priced their goods to appeal to the emerging middle class consumer economy;[201] "for the London season the Spitalfields silk weavers produced each year their new designs, and the Birmingham toy-makers their buttons, buckles, patchboxes, snuff boxes, chatelaines, watches, watch seals ... and other jewellery."[202] Competitive pressure drove Birmingham manufacturers to adopt new products and materials:[203] shaharning birinchi shishaxona opened in 1762,[204] ishlab chiqarish papier-mashe developed from the award of a patent to Genri Kley in 1772, foreshadowing the Birmingham invention of plastics the following century,[205] The minting of coins grew from 1786.[205]
In addition to its own specialist manufacturing role, Birmingham retained its position as the commercial and mercantile centre for an integrated regional economy that included the more basic manufacturing and raw material production areas of Staffordshire va Vorsestershire.[206] Talab poytaxt to feed rapid economic expansion saw the town become a major moliyaviy markaz with extensive international connections.[207] During the early 18th century finance was largely provided by the iron merchants and by extensive systems of savdo krediti between manufacturers;[208] it was an iron merchant Sampson Lloyd and major manufacturer Jon Teylor who combined to form the town's first bank – the early Lloyds banki – in 1765.[209] Further establishments followed and by 1800 the West Midlands had more banking offices per head than any other region in Britain, including London.[207] Birmingham's booming economy gave the town a growing professional sector, with the number of physicians and lawyers increasing by 25% between 1767 and 1788.[210] It has been estimated that between a quarter and a third of Birmingham's inhabitants could be thought of as middle class in the last quarter of the 18th century[211] and this fuelled a large growth in the demand for tailors, merserlar va pardalar.[212] Trade directories reveal that there more drapers than edge tool makers in 1767,[213] and insurance records from 1777 to 1786 suggest that well over half of local businesses were engaged in the trading or service sectors rather than directly in industry.[214]
Enlightenment society
Georgian Birmingham was marked by the dramatic growth of the vigorous jamoat sohasi for the exchange of ideas that was the hallmark of enlightenment society. Most characteristic was the development of clubs, tavernalar va kofexonalar as places for free association, cooperation and debate, often crossing lines of social class and status.[215] Although the exceptional historic influence of the Birmingem oy jamiyati has made it much the best-known, the contemporary Uilyam Xatton described hundreds of such associations in Birmingham with thousands of members,[216] and the German visitor Philipp Nemnich commented late in the century that "the inhabitants of Birmingham are fonder of associations in clubs than almost any other place I know".[217] Particularly notable examples included Fritning kofe uyi, one of the most celebrated meeting places of Georgian England;[218] Ketlining qurilish jamiyati, dunyodagi birinchi jamiyat qurish, founded at the Golden Cross in Snow Hill in 1775; The Birmingem kitob klubi, whose radical politics saw it nicknamed the "Jacobin klubi ",[219] and which alongside other debating societies such as the Birmingham Free Debating Society va Amicable Debating Society played a prominent role in the growing expression of popular political consciousness within the town;[220] and the more conservative Birmingham Bean Club, a ovqatlanish klubi uniting leading loyalist figures in the town with prominent landowners from the surrounding counties, which played a prominent role in the emergence of a distinct "Birmingham interest" in regional politics from 1774.[221]
The printed word represented another expanding medium for the exchange of ideas. Georgian Birmingham was a highly literate society with at least seven booksellers by 1733, the largest in 1786 claiming a stock of 30,000 titles in several languages.[222] These were supplemented by eight or nine commercial lending libraries established over the course of the 18th century,[223] to the extent that it was claimed in the later part of the century that Birmingham's population of around 50,000 read 100,000 books per month.[224] More specialist libraries included St. Philip's Parish Library established in 1733, and the Birmingem kutubxonasi, established for research purposes in 1779 by a largely norozi group of subscribers.[225] Birmingham had been a centre for the bosib chiqarish and publishing of books since the 1650s[226] but the rise of Jon Baskervil and the nine other printers he attracted to the town in the 1750s saw this achieve international significance.[227] Shaharning birinchi gazetasi Birmingem jurnali founded in 1732; it was short-lived but notable as the vehicle for the first published work of Samuel Jonson.[228] Arisning Birmingem gazetasi, founded in 1741, became "one of the most lucrative and important provincial papers" of 18th century England,[229] and by the 1770s circulated as far afield as Chester, Birmingem va London.[230] Qanchalik radikal Swinney's Birmingham Chronicle, which caused controversy in 1771 by serialising Volter "s Din haqidagi fikrlar,[231] boasted in 1776 that it circulated across nine counties and was "filed by coffeehouses in practically every centre of any size from Edinburgh southwards".[232] News from outside the town also circulated widely: Freeth's Coffeehouse in 1772 maintained an archive of all the London newspapers going back 37 years and received direct personal reports of proceedings in Parlament,[233] while Overton's Coffeehouse in New Street in 1777 had the London papers delivered by express messenger the day after their publication, also having available all of the main country, Irish and European papers, and Parliamentary division lists.[234]
Birmingham's booming economy attracted immigrants from a wide area, many of whom retained bepul egaliklar – and thus votes – in their previous constituencies, giving Birmingham politics a wide electoral influence despite the town having no parliamentary representation of its own.[235] A distinct and powerful "Birmingham interest" emerged decisively with the election of Tomas Skipvit da Warwickshire by-election of 1769,[236] and over following decades candidates for seats as far afield as Vester, Nyukasl-Laym ostida, "Lester" va Linkoln sought support in the town.[237]
Transport and the growth of the town
The first map of Birmingham was produced in 1731 by William Westley, though the year before, he produced the first documentation of a newly constructed square named Eski maydon.[238] It became one of the most prestigious addresses in Birmingham. This was not the first map to show Birmingham, something that had been done in 1335, albeit showing Birmingham as a small symbol.[239] Birmingham was again surveyed in 1750 by S. Bradford.[240]
Until the 1760s, Birmingham's local government system, consisted of yodgorlik and parish officials, most of whom served on a part-time and honorary basis. However this system proved completely inadequate to cope with Birmingham's rapid growth. In 1768, Birmingham gained a rudimentary local government system, when a body of "Commissioners of the Streets " was established, who had powers to levy a rate for functions such as cleaning and street lighting. They were later given powers to provide policing and build public buildings.[37]
From the 1760s onwards, Birmingham became a centre of the kanal tizim. The canals provided an efficient transport system for raw materials and finished goods, and greatly aided the town's industrial growth.
The first canal to be built into Birmingham, was opened in November 1769 and connected Birmingham with the coal mines at Chorshanba ichida Qora mamlakat.[241] Within a year of the canal opening, the price of coal in Birmingham had fallen by 50%.[242]
The canal network across Birmingham and the Black Country expanded rapidly over the following decades, with most of it owned by the Birmingem kanali navigatsiyasi Kompaniya. Kabi boshqa kanallar Vorester va Birmingem kanali, Birmingem va Feyzli kanali, the Warwick and Birmingham Canal (now the Katta ittifoq ) va Stratford-on-Evon kanali linked Birmingham to the rest of the country. By 1830, some 160 miles (260 km) of canal had been constructed across the Birmingham and Black Country area.[243]
Due to Birmingham's vast array of industries, it was nicknamed "workshop of the World". The expansion of the population of the town and the increased prosperity led to it acquiring a library in 1779, a hospital in 1766 and a variety of recreational institutions.[244]
Victorian Birmingham 1832–1914
Xoratio Nelson va the Hamiltons visited Birmingham. Nelson was fêted, and visited Matthew Boulton on his sick-bed at Soho uyi, before taking a tour of the Soho manufakturasi and commissioning the Nil daryosi jangi medal. In 1809, a statue of Horatio Nelson tomonidan Richard Westmacott Jr. was erected by public subscription. It still stands, in Bull Ring, albeit on a 1960s plinth.
The Birmingham Manor House and its moat were demolished and removed in 1816.[245] The site was constructed upon to create the Smitfild bozorlari, which concentrated various marketing activities upon one area close to the Bull Ring which had developed into a retail-led area.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Birmingham had a population of around 74,000. By the end of the century it had grown to 630,000. This rapid population growth meant that by the middle of the century Birmingham had become the second largest population centre in Britain.[246]
Railways arrive
Railways arrived in Birmingham in 1837 with the opening of the Grand Junction temir yo'li which linked Birmingham with "Manchester" va "Liverpul". Keyingi yil London va Birmingem temir yo'li opened, linking to the capital. Buning ortidan tez orada Birmingem va Derbi-Junction temir yo'li va Birmingem va Gloucester temir yo'li.[247]
These all initially had separate stations around Curzon ko'chasi. However, in the 1840s, these early railway companies had merged to become the London va Shimoliy G'arbiy temir yo'l va Midland temir yo'li navbati bilan. The two companies jointly constructed Birmingem yangi ko'chasi which was opened in 1854, and Birmingham became a central hub of the Britaniya temir yo'l tizimi.
1852 yilda Buyuk G'arbiy temir yo'l (GWR) arrived in Birmingham, and a second smaller station, Birmingem Snow Hill ochildi. The GWR line linked the city with Oksford va London Paddington.
Siyosiy islohot
Also in the 1830s, due to its growing size and importance, Birmingham was granted Parlament representation by the 1832 yilgi islohotlar to'g'risidagi qonun. Yangi Birmingem saylov okrugi was created with two MPs representing it. Tomas Attvud va Joshua Skoulfild ikkalasi ham Liberallar, were elected as Birmingham's first MP's.
In 1838, local government reform meant that Birmingham was one of the first new towns to be incorporated as a shahar tumani tomonidan Shahar korporatsiyalari to'g'risidagi qonun 1835 yil.[248] This allowed Birmingham to have its first elected town council. The council initially worked alongside the existing Ko'cha komissarlari, until they were wound up in 1851.
Sanoat va savdo
Birmingham's growth and prosperity was based upon metalworking industries, of which many different kinds existed.
Birmingham became known as the "Ming savdo-sotiq shahri" because of the wide variety of goods manufactured there – buttons, cutlery, nails and screws, guns, tools, jewellery, toys, locks, and ornaments were amongst the many products manufactured.
For most of the 19th century, industry in Birmingham was dominated by small ustaxonalar rather than large factories or mills.[249] Large factories became increasingly common towards the end of the century when engineering industries became increasingly important.
The industrial wealth of Birmingham allowed merchants to fund the construction of some fine institutional buildings in the city. Some buildings of the 19th century included: the Birmingem shahar zali built in 1834, the Birmingem botanika bog'lari opened in 1832, the Kengash uyi built in 1879, and the Muzey va badiiy galereya in the extended Council House, opened in 1885.
The mid-19th century saw major immigration into the city from Ireland, following the Buyuk Irlandiyalik ochlik (1845–1849).
Birmingham became a okrug tumani va a shahar 1889 yilda.[250]
Yaxshilash
As in many industrial towns during the 19th century, many of Birmingham's residents lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. During the early-to-mid-19th century, thousands of orqa-orqa uylar were built to house the growing population, many of which were poorly built and badly drained, and many soon became kechqurunlar.[251]
In 1851, a network of kanalizatsiya was built under the city which was connected to the Rea daryosi,[252] although only new houses were connected to it, and many older houses had to wait decades until they were connected.
Birmingham gained gaz yoritgichi in 1818, and a water company in 1826, to provide piped water, although clean water was only available to people who could pay. Birmingham gained its first electricity supply in 1882. Horse-drawn trams ran through Birmingham from 1873, and electric trams from 1890.[37]
In the mid 1840s, the charismatic nomuvofiq voiz Jorj Douson began to promote a doctrine of social responsibility and enlightened municipal improvement that became known as the Fuqarolik xushxabari. His philosophy inspired a group of reformers – including Jozef Chemberlen, Jessi Kollinglar, Jorj Dikson, and others – who from the late 1860s onwards began to be elected to the Town Council as Liberals, and to apply these ideas in practice. This period reached its peak during the mayoralty of Chamberlain, 1873–1876. Under his leadership, Birmingham was transformed, as the council introduced one of the most ambitious improvement schemes outside London. The council purchased the city's gas and water works, and moved to improve the yoritish and provide clean drinking water to the city, income from these utilities also provided a healthy income for the council, which was re-invested into the city to provide new amenities.
Under Chamberlain, some of Birmingham's worst kechqurunlar tozalangan. And through the city-centre a new thoroughfare was constructed, Korporatsiya ko'chasi, which soon became a fashionable shopping street. He was instrumental in building of the Council House and the Viktoriya sud sudlari in Corporation Street. Numerous public parks were also created, central lending and reference libraries were opened in 1865–6, and the city's Muzey va badiiy galereya in 1885. The improvements introduced by Chamberlain and his colleagues were to prove the blueprint for municipal government, and were soon copied by other cities. By 1890, a visiting American journalist could describe Birmingham as "the best-governed city in the world".[253] Although he resigned as mayor to become an MP, Chamberlain took close interest in the city for many years afterwards.
Birmingham's water problems were not fully solved through the creation of reservoirs in Walmley Ash, tomonidan oziqlangan O'simliklar Brook.[254] Other larger reservoirs were constructed at Vitton ko'llari va Brukvale parki ko'li to help ease the problems. The problems were finally solved, however, by Birmingem korporatsiyasi suv departamenti with the completion of a 73-mile (117 km) long Elan suv o'tkazgichi was built to a suv ombori ichida Elan vodiysi in Wales; this project was approved in 1891 and completed in 1904.
Wartime and interwar Birmingham, 1914–1945
The First World War exacted a terrible human cost in Birmingham. More than 150,000 men from the city – over half of the male population – served in the armed forces[255] of whom 13,000 were killed and 35,000 wounded.[256] The onset of mechanised warfare also served to increase the strategic importance of Birmingham as a centre of industrial production, with the British Commander-in-Chief Jon frantsuz describing the war at its outset as "a battle between Krupps and Birmingham".[257] At the war's close the Prime Minister Devid Lloyd Jorj also recognised the significance of Birmingham in the allied victory, remarking how "the country, the empire and the world owe to the skill, the ingenuity and the resource of Birmingham a deep debt of gratitude".[258] Some Birmingham men were vijdonan voz kechganlar.
1918 yilda Birmingem fuqarolik jamiyati was founded to bring public interest to bear upon all proposals put forward by public bodies and private owners for building, new open spaces and parks, and any and all matters concerned with the amenities of the city. The society set about making suggestions for improvements in the city, sometimes designing and paying for improvements themselves and buying a number of open spaces and later gifting them to the city for use as parks.
Keyin Buyuk urush ended in 1918, the city council decided to build modern uy-joy across the city to rehouse families from inner city slums. Recent boundary expansions which brought areas including Aston, Xendvort, Erdington, Yardli va Shimoliy maydon within the city's boundaries provided extra space for housing developments. By 1939, the year that the Second World War broke out, almost 50,000 council houses had been built across the city within 20 years. Some 65,000 houses were also built for owner occupiers. New council estates built during this era included Vuli qasri o'rtasida Selly Oak va Harborne, Payp Xeys yaqin Erdington and the Stockfield Estate at Acocks Green.
1936 yilda, King Edwardning grammatika maktabi kuni Yangi ko'cha was demolished and moved to Edgbaston. The school had been on that site for 384 years. The site was later transformed into an office block which was destroyed in the bombing of the Second World War. It was later rebuilt and named "King Edward's House". It is used as an office block and on the ground floor as shops and restaurants.
In Birinchidan va Ikkinchi jahon urushlari, Longbridge car plant switched to production of munitions and military equipment, from o'q-dorilar, minalar va chuqurlikdagi zaryadlar ga tank to'xtatib turish, temir dubulg'a, Jerricans, Hawker Hurricanes, Fairey jangi jangchilar va Havo tezligi Horsa gliders, with the mammoth Avro Lankaster bomber coming into production towards the end of WWII. The Spitfire qiruvchi samolyotlar was mass-produced at Bromvich qal'asi tomonidan Vikers-Armstrong urush davomida.
Birmingham's industrial importance and contribution to the war effort may have been decisive in winning the war. The city was heavily bombed by the German Luftwaffe davomida Birmingem Blits Ikkinchi jahon urushida. By the war's end 2,241 citizens had been killed by the bombing and over 3,000 seriously injured. 12,932 buildings were destroyed (including 300 factories) and thousands more damaged. The air raids also destroyed many of Birmingham's fine buildings. The council declared five redevelopment areas in 1946:[259]
- Duddeston and Nechells
- Yozgi chiziq
- Ladywood
- Vanna qatori
- Gooch Street
Post-war prosperity, 1945–1975
Loss of independence and the prevention of growth
The defining feature of Birmingham's politics in the post-war era was the loss of much of city's independence.[260] World War II had seen a huge expansion in the role of markaziy hukumat in British life, and this pattern continued into the post-war years: for Birmingham, this meant major decisions about the city's future tended to be made outside the city, mainly in Vestminster.[261] Planning, development and municipal functions were increasingly dictated by national policy and legislation; council finances came to be dominated by central government subsidies; and institutions such as gas, water and transport were taken out of the city's control.[262] Birmingham's unrivalled size and wealth may have given it more political influence than any other provincial city,[263] but like all such cities it was essentially subordinate to Uaytxoll; the days of Birmingham as a semi-autonomous city-state, with its leading citizens dictating the agenda of national politics, were over.[264]
This was to have major implications for the direction of the city's development. Up until the 1930s it had been a basic assumption of Birmingham's leaders that their role was to encourage the city's growth. Urushdan keyingi milliy hukumatlar, Birmingemning tezlashib borayotgan iqtisodiy yutuqlarini turg'un iqtisodiyotiga zararli ta'sir sifatida ko'rdilar. Angliyaning shimolida, Shotlandiya va Uels va uning jismoniy kengayishini uning atrofidagi hududlarga tahdid sifatida ko'rdi[265] - "Vestminster nuqtai nazaridan [Birmingem] juda katta, juda obod va nazorat ostida ushlab turilishi kerak edi".[266] Dan boshlab bir qator tadbirlar 1945 yil sanoatni taqsimlash to'g'risidagi qonun, "tiqilinch hududlarda" sanoat mohiyatining o'sishini oldini olishga qaratilgan - asosan rivojlanayotgan London va Birmingem shaharlari - buning o'rniga sanoatning shimol va g'arbdagi iqtisodiy to'xtab qolgan "rivojlanish hududlari" ga tarqalishini rag'batlantirish.[267] The G'arbiy Midlend rejasi, dan shahar va mamlakat rejalashtirish vaziri tomonidan buyurtma qilingan Patrik Aberkrombi va Gerbert Jekson 1946 yilda Birmingem aholisini 1960 yilga 990 ming kishidan iborat qilib belgilab qo'ydi, bu uning 1951 yildagi 1 million 113 ming aholisidan ancha kam. Bu shuni anglatadiki, keyingi 14 yil ichida 220 ming kishi shaharni tark etishi kerak edi, shaharning ba'zi sanoat tarmoqlarini olib tashlash kerak edi va yangi sanoat korxonalari shaharda o'z o'rnini topishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik kerak edi.[268] 1957 yilga kelib kengash "shahar ichida aholi sonining ko'payishi va ish bilan ta'minlash imkoniyatlarini cheklash" majburiyatini olganini aniq qabul qildi.[269]
Shaharning o'z taqdiri ustidan hokimiyati kamayganligi sababli, Birmingem o'zining siyosiy o'ziga xos xususiyatlarini yo'qotdi. The 1945 yilgi umumiy saylovlar 70 yil ichida birinchi bo'lib, unda hech bir a'zosi bo'lmagan Chemberlenlar oilasi Birmingem tarafdoridir.[270]
Iqtisodiy rivojlanish va cheklash
Birmingem iqtisodiyoti Ikkinchi Jahon urushi tugaganidan keyingi 30 yil ichida gullab-yashnadi, uning iqtisodiy hayotiyligi va boyligi Britaniyaning boshqa yirik viloyat shaharlaridan ancha ustun edi.[271] O'tgan yarim asrdagi iqtisodiy moslashuv va qayta qurish G'arbiy Midlendni Buyuk Britaniya iqtisodiyotining uchta asosiy o'sish yo'nalishlaridan ikkitasida yaxshi namoyish qildi - avtotransport vositalari va elektr jihozlari[272] - va Birmingemning o'zi 1951 yildan 1961 yilgacha yangi ish o'rinlari yaratish bo'yicha Londondan keyin ikkinchi o'rinda turadi.[273] 1948-1966 yillarda Birmingemdagi ishsizlik kamdan-kam hollarda 1 foizdan oshgan va bir yil ichida atigi 2 foizdan oshgan.[274] 1961 yilga kelib G'arbiy Midlenddagi uy xo'jaliklarining daromadlari mamlakat o'rtacha ko'rsatkichidan 13 foizga yuqori edi,[275] hatto London va Janubi-Sharqdagidan ham yuqori.[276]
Ushbu farovonlikka Birmingemning o'sishini cheklashga qaratilgan markaziy hukumat tomonidan shahar iqtisodiyotiga qo'yilgan qattiq cheklovlarga qaramay erishildi.[277] The 1945 yil sanoatni taqsimlash to'g'risidagi qonun "Sanoat rivojlanish sertifikati" bo'lmasdan ma'lum bir hajmdagi barcha sanoat rivojlanishlarini taqiqladi, chunki kompaniyalar Londonda yoki Birmingemda kengaytirishga ruxsat berishdan bosh tortib, uning o'rniga kurashayotgan shaharlardan biriga ko'chib o'tishadi. Angliyaning shimolida.[278] 1960-1974 yillarda zavod harakati tufayli kamida 39,000 ish o'rinlari to'g'ridan-to'g'ri G'arbiy Midlanddan ko'chirildi,[279] va rejalashtirish tadbirlari kabi mahalliy firmalarda muhim rol o'ynadi British Motor Corporation va Fisher va Ludlov kengaymoqda Janubiy Uels, Shotlandiya va Mersisayd Birmingem o'rniga.[280] Shahar ichidagi iqtisodiy rivojlanishni to'xtatish uchun hukumat choralari ham bilvosita ta'sir ko'rsatdi:[280] iqtisodiy o'sish davrida shaharning jismoniy o'sishidagi cheklovlar er narxlarining nihoyatda yuqori bo'lishiga va binolar va qurilish maydonlarining etishmasligiga olib keldi;[281] va shahar aholisini kamaytirishga qaratilgan harakatlar ishchi kuchining etishmasligiga va ish haqining oshishiga olib keldi.[282]
1951-1966 yillarda Birmingemning cheklangan ishlab chiqarish sohasida bandligi 10 foizga qisqargan bo'lsa-da, bu urushdan keyingi dastlabki davrda ish bilan ta'minlanganidan ko'proq edi. xizmat ko'rsatish sohasi, bu 1951 yilda shahar ishchilarining 35 foizidan 1966 yilda 45 foizigacha o'sdi.[283] Mamlakatning eng muvaffaqiyatli mintaqaviy iqtisodiyotining tijorat markazi sifatida Markaziy Birmingem urushdan keyingi ofis binosining rivojlanishiga Londondan tashqarida asosiy e'tibor qaratgan.[284] 1953-1964 yillarda Birmingem atrofidagi xizmat ko'rsatish sohasidagi bandlik boshqa mintaqalarga qaraganda tezroq o'sdi va shu davrda shahar markazida 3 million kvadrat metr ofis maydoni qurildi va Edgbaston.[285] Shaharning iqtisodiy o'sishi sezilarli darajada tez o'sdi savdo bank faoliyati London va xalqaro banklarning yirik shaharlari sifatida shahar ichida o'zini namoyon qilganligi sababli,[286] professional va ilmiy xizmatlar, moliya va sug'urta sohalari ham juda kuchli o'sdi.[287] Biroq, xizmat ko'rsatish sohasining ushbu o'sishining o'zi 1965 yildan boshlab hukumat tomonidan cheklovlarni jalb qildi. Birmingemdagi aholi sonining ko'payishi va ish bilan bandligini "tahdid soluvchi holat" deb e'lon qildi. 1964 yilgi mehnat hukumati "Birmingemdagi ofis turar joylarining o'sishini va Birmingem konkuratsiyasining qolgan qismini qo'lidan chiqmasdan turib, sanoat ish bilan ta'minlanishining o'sishini nazorat qilish kabi" izlashga intildi.[285] Shahar Kengashi 1950-yillarning oxiri va 1960-yillarning boshlarida xizmat ko'rsatish sohasini kengaytirishni rag'batlantirgan bo'lsa-da, markaziy hukumat bu sohani kengaytirdi 1965 yilda ish bilan ta'minlash to'g'risidagi qonunni boshqarish 1965 yildan boshlab Birmingem konkuratsiyasiga, deyarli yigirma yil davomida barcha ofislarni rivojlantirishni taqiqlagan.[288]
Ushbu siyosat shahar iqtisodiyotiga katta tarkibiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Hukumat siyosati Birmingemning mavjud sanoatining o'sishining oldini olishda cheklangan yutuqlarga ega bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, shaharda yangi sanoat tarmoqlarining paydo bo'lishining oldini olishda ancha muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi.[289] Birmingemning o'tgan ikki asrdagi iqtisodiy yutuqlari uning iqtisodiy xilma-xilligi va doimiy moslashuvchanlik va innovatsiyalarni rivojlantirish qobiliyatiga asoslangan edi - yangi malakali ishchi kuchi va dinamik tadbirkorlik madaniyati bilan yangi korxonalarni jalb qilish va yangi tarmoqlarni rivojlantirish - bu aynan shu jarayon edi hukumatning sanoat joylashuvi siyosati oldini olishga harakat qildi.[290] Birmingemda mavjud bo'lgan sanoat tarmoqlari kuchli rivojlanib, iqtisodiyotni ko'tarib turdi, ammo 1970-yillarning boshlarida xavfli belgilar kuchayib borayotgan bo'lsa-da, shahar iqtisodiyoti haddan tashqari ixtisoslashgan bo'lib bormoqda degan mahalliy qo'rquvni markaziy hukumat bekor qildi.[291] 1950 yilda Birmingem iqtisodiyotini "dunyodagi teng keladigan har qanday shaharga qaraganda kengroq asosda" deb ta'riflash mumkin edi,[292] ammo 1973 yilga qadar West Midlands ish bilan ta'minlash uchun yirik firmalarga o'rtacha darajadan yuqori bo'lgan,[293] qolgan kichik firmalar esa bir nechta yirik firmalarga etkazib beruvchilar va subpudratchilar sifatida tobora ko'proq qaram bo'lib qolishdi.[294] "Ming savdo shahri" bir sohada - avtoulovlar savdosida haddan tashqari ixtisoslashgan bo'lib, ularning aksariyati 1970 yillarga kelib bitta kompaniyaga birlashdi - Britaniya Leyland.[295] Kasaba uyushma tashkiloti o'sdi va ayniqsa avtomobilsozlik sanoat munozaralarini 1950-yillardan boshlab ko'rdi.[274] O'z tarixining aksariyat qismida zaif kasaba uyushmasi va ishchilar va menejment o'rtasidagi kuchli hamkorlik uchun obro'ga ega bo'lgan shahar kasaba uyushmalarining jangari va sanoat mojarosi obro'sini rivojlantirdi.[296]
1919 yildan beri shaharda xususiy va davlat sektori uchun 150 mingdan ortiq uylar qurilganiga qaramay, 1954 yilgacha shaharning 20% uylari odam yashashga yaroqsiz deb topilgan. 1945-1954 yillarda 37000 ta kengash binolari oilalarni qayta tiklash uchun qurilgan. uy-joylar, ammo 1970 yilga kelib uy-joy inqirozi yumshatildi, chunki bu ko'rsatkich hozirda 80 mingdan oshdi.[297]
1960 va 1970 yillar davomida Birmingem mavjud shaharlari bilan shartnomalar tuzdi Reddich yilda Vorsestershire, Tamvort yilda Staffordshire va Daventri yilda Northemptonshir shaharni "haddan tashqari ko'paytiradigan" aholi va sanoatni joylashtirish uchun ularni rivojlantirish.[298][299][300] The Yangi shahar ning Telford yilda Shropshir qisman shu maqsadda yashil maydonda ishlab chiqilgan.[301]
Rejalashtirish va qayta rejalashtirish
Urushdan keyingi yillarda katta miqdordagi yiqilinch joylarni tozalash dasturi amalga oshirildi va shaharning keng hududlari qayta qurildi, odamlarning haddan tashqari ko'pligi "orqaga qarab" uylari bilan almashtirildi baland ko'tarilgan bloklar ning kvartiralar (to'rttadan qolgan oxirgi blok orqa-orqa aylandi muzey tomonidan boshqariladi Milliy ishonch ).
Bomba shikastlanishi sababli, shahar markazi ham kengashning bosh muhandisi nazorati ostida qayta tiklandi Herbert Manzoni urushdan keyingi yillarda. Unga yordam berildi Shahar me'mori bir necha kishi egallagan lavozim.[302] Buning ramzi yangi edi Bull Ring savdo markazi. Birmingem, shuningdek, milliy avtomagistral tarmog'ining markaziga aylandi Spagetti birikmasi. Urushdan keyingi davrni qayta tiklashning aksariyati keyingi o'n yilliklar ichida, ayniqsa shaharning xunukligi bilan shuhrat qozongan ko'p sonli beton binolar va aylanma yo'llar xato deb qabul qilinadi.
Ikkinchi jahon urushi tugaganidan keyingi birinchi o'n yillikda kengash qurilishi keng edi; 1954 yilning oxirigacha 37000 dan ortiq yangi uylar qurib bitkazildi. Bularga bir necha yuz qavatli ko'p qavatli uylardan birinchisi kirdi. Shunga qaramay, shahardagi uylarning 20 foizga yaqini odam yashashi uchun yaroqsiz deb e'lon qilingan. Natijada, ommaviy kengash qurilishi 20 yildan keyin ham davom etdi. Mavjud shahar atrofi kengayishda davom etdi, shu bilan bir qatorda butunlay yangi mulklar o'zlashtirildi.
Bromvich qal'asi yangi shaharchaga aylanib ulgurgan shahar 1960-yillarda shahar markazidan sharqda olti mil uzoqlikda rivojlangan. Vale qal'asi, yaqin Dunlop Fort shahar markazining shimoliy-sharqidagi shinalar zavodi, 1960 yillarda Britaniyaning urushdan keyingi eng yirik uy-joy massivi sifatida ishlab chiqilgan; jami 34 ta minora bloklarini o'z ichiga olgan bo'lsa-da, ularning 32 tasi 2003 yil oxiriga kelib, obodonchilikni qayta tiklashning bir qismi sifatida vayron qilingan bo'lsa-da, bunday rivojlanish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan mashhurlik va nuqsonlar.[303]
1974 yilda 21 kishi o'ldirilgan va yana 182 kishi shahar markazidagi ikkita pab bo'lganida yaralangan bombardimon qilingan tomonidan Vaqtinchalik Irlandiya respublika armiyasi.
Xuddi shu yili a mahalliy hukumat qayta tashkil etish, Birmingem yana kengayib, bu safar tumanni egallab oldi Satton Koldfild shimolga.[304] Birmingem uni yo'qotdi okrug tumani holati va o'rniga a bo'ldi metropolitan tumani yangi ostida G'arbiy Midlend okrugi kengashi. Bundan tashqari, nihoyat olib tashlandi Warwickshire.
Immigratsiya va madaniy xilma-xillik
1950-1980 yillarda Irlandiyadan boshqa immigratsiya to'lqinlari paydo bo'ldi, chunki emigrantlar o'z vatanidagi iqtisodiy mahrumlik va ishsizlikdan xalos bo'lishga intildilar. Shaharda, ayniqsa, Digbetda kuchli irland an'analari saqlanib qolmoqda Irlandiya mahallasi va har yili Sankt-Patrik kuni paradida Nyu-Yorkdan keyin dunyodagi eng katta uchinchi o'rinni egallashini da'vo qildi Dublin.[305]
Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyingi yillarda immigrantlarning asosiy oqimi Millatlar Hamdo'stligi Janubiy Osiyo va Karib havzasidagi yirik jamoalar shaharga joylashib, Birmingem qiyofasini o'zgartirdi,[306] Birmingemni Buyuk Britaniyaning etakchi ko'p madaniyatli shaharlaridan biriga aylantirish.
Voqealar rivoji hamma tomonidan ma'qullanmadi - o'ng qanot vakili "Vulverxempton" Enox Pauell uning mashhurini etkazib berdi Qon bilan gaplashadigan daryolar shaharda 1968 yil 20 aprelda.[307]
Boshqa tomondan, ba'zi san'atlar, ayniqsa musiqa rivojlandi: Birmingem gullab-yashnagan og'ir metall (kabi guruhlar bilan) Qora shanba, Napalm o'limi va Yahudo ruhoniysi ) va reggae sahnalar (shu jumladan, taniqli mahalliy aholi Chelik zarbasi, Pato Banton, Musiqiy yoshlar va UB40 ).
1980-yillarning boshlaridan beri Birmingem yangi migratsiya to'lqinini boshladi, bu safar Hamdo'stlik ildizlariga ega bo'lmagan jamoalar, masalan. Kosovo va Somali. Sharqiy Evropadan keyingi immigratsiya (ayniqsa Polsha ) kengayishi bilan kelgan Yevropa Ittifoqi 2004 yilda.
Etnik guruhlar va hokimiyat o'rtasidagi ziddiyat bunga olib keldi Handsworthdagi tartibsizliklar 1981 va 1985 yillarda. 2005 yil oktyabrda 2005 yil Birmingemdagi tartibsizliklar ichida Lozells va shaharning Xendvort mintaqalari, qora va Osiyo to'dalari o'rtasida ko'cha janglari bo'lib o'tdi. mish-mish natijada ikki kishi o'ldi va katta zarar ko'rdi.
Birmingem shahar kengashi, "Birmingem bo'ling" mahalliy strategik sherikligiga qadar, yanada yaxshi, birlashgan Birmingem sari intilmoqda.
Postindustrial Birmingem 1975–
Birmingem sanoat iqtisodiyotining qulashi kutilmaganda va halokatli bo'lgan. 1976 yildayoq G'arbiy Midlend mintaqasi - Birmingem o'zining asosiy iqtisodiy dinamikasi sifatida - hali ham Janubiy Sharqdan tashqarida Buyuk Britaniyada eng yuqori YaIMga ega edi, ammo besh yil ichida u Angliyada eng past ko'rsatkichga ega edi.[308] Birmingemning o'zi 1971 yildan 1981 yilgacha 200,000 ish joyini yo'qotdi, zararlar ishlab chiqarish sohasida to'plandi; G'arbiy Midlenddagi nisbiy daromad Angliyada 1970 yildagi eng yuqori ko'rsatkichdan 1983 yildagi eng past darajaga ko'tarildi.[295] 1982 yilga kelib shaharda ishsizlik darajasi 20 foizga yaqinlashdi va shaharning ichki hududlarida, shu jumladan, ikki baravarga yaqin edi Aston, Xendvort va Sparkbruk.[309]
Shahar Kengashi shahar iqtisodiyotini diversifikatsiya qilish siyosatini olib bordi xizmat ko'rsatish sohalari, ishlab chiqarishga bog'liqlikni kamaytirish uchun chakana savdo va turizm. Shaharni mehmonlar uchun yanada jozibali qilish uchun bir qator tashabbuslar qabul qilindi.
1970-yillarda Milliy ko'rgazma markazi (NEC) markazdan 10 milya (16 km) janubi-sharqda, yaqinida qurilgan Birmingem xalqaro aeroporti. Garchi u aslida qo'shni Solihullning ichkarisida bo'lsa-da, uni qo'zg'atgan va asosan Birmingem Kengashiga tegishli bo'lgan va aksariyat odamlar shaharda deb o'ylashadi. O'shandan beri u bir necha bor kengaytirildi.
21 kishi halok bo'ldi va 182 kishi yaralandi bir qator bomba hujumlari tomonidan amalga oshiriladi deb o'ylagan 1974 yilda Vaqtinchalik IRA. Portlashlar Buyuk Britaniyadagi eng dahshatli teraktlar bo'lgan 2005 yil London portlashlari[310] va ikkiga joylashtirilgan bombalardan iborat edi pablar Markaziy Birmingemda. Olti kishi sud qilindi, keyinchalik Birmingem olti nomi bilan tanilgan va umrbod qamoq jazosiga hukm qilingan, ular tomonidan 16 yil o'tib oqlangan. Apellyatsiya sudi. Hozirda sud hukmi Britaniyaning so'nggi paytlarda eng yomon odil sudlovdan biri hisoblanadi. Hujumlarning haqiqiy ijrochilari hibsga olinishi kerak.[311][312][313]
The G'arbiy Midlendning og'ir jinoyatchilik guruhi Birmingem olti tergovi uchun mas'ul bo'lgan, boshqa sud hukmi so'roq qilinganidan keyin yana tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ldi va 1989 yilda yopib qo'yildi. 1980 yillarda noto'g'ri tahdid tufayli 40 ga yaqin prokuratura qulab tushdi va bundan keyin yana 60 ta sud hukmi bekor qilindi. gumon qilinuvchilarning bayonotlarini buzish, "iqror" ga qo'shish. Ko'p holatlar shu paytgacha o'ta ishonchsiz deb topilgan 'Supergrass' dalillariga bog'liq edi.[314] Noqonuniy ravishda sudlanganlarning ba'zilari qiynoqqa solingani, shu jumladan "plastik to'rva" deb nomlanuvchi bo'g'ish usulidan foydalanilgan.[315]
G'arbiy Midlend politsiyasi 1980 va 1985 yillarda qurol bilan ikki marta jiddiy voqea sodir bo'lgan. 1980 yilda Devid Pagett Rubery shahridagi kvartiralarda hibsga olinishga qarshilik ko'rsatayotganda homilador qiz do'stini garovga olgan. Zobitlar javob qaytarib, uni otib tashlashdi.[316] Politsiya dastlab Pagett uni otib tashlagan deb da'vo qilmoqchi bo'lgan, ammo uning o'limiga aynan politsiya o'qlari sabab bo'lganligi aniq bo'ldi. 1985 yilda Jon Shotxaus G'arbiy Midlend politsiyasi tomonidan Janubiy Uelsdagi qurolli talonchilik to'g'risida so'roq qilish uchun hibsga olingan. Keyin uning uyida tintuv o'tkazildi. Uning besh yashar o'g'li Jon politsiya tomonidan bolaning karavoti ostidan tintuv o'tkazganida otib tashlangan. Ichki surishtiruv o'tkazildi va natijada o'qotar quroldan foydalanish ixtisoslashtirilgan va o'qitilgan qismga taqiqlandi.[317]
The Xalqaro anjumanlar markazi (ICC) 1990-yillarning boshlarida Birmingem markazida ochilgan. Atrof Broad Street, shu jumladan Centenary Square, ICC va Brindleyplace, 2000 yil boshida kapital ta'mirlandi. 1998 yilda G8 sammit Birmingemda bo'lib o'tdi va AQSh prezidenti Bill Klinton shahar aniq taassurot qoldirdi.
1990 va 2000 yillar davomida shaharning qayta tiklanishi, shuningdek, shaharning ko'plab turar-joylarini sezilarli darajada o'zgartirgan. Ajoyib misol Payp Xeys Kengash mulki Erdington Urushlararo yillarda qurilgan, ammo oxir-oqibat qurilish nuqsonlari tufayli butunlay qayta ishlangan shaharning maydoni. Shaharning 1960 yillardagi ko'pgina uy-joylari, asosan ko'p qavatli kvartiralar va maisonetlar, xuddi shunday qayta qurishda, shu jumladan katta binolar ham buzilgan. Vale qal'asi shaharning shimoliy-sharqidagi ko'chmas mulk, jinoyatchilik, ishsizlik va kambag'al uy-joylar bilan bezovta qilingan mulkni qayta tiklash doirasida 34 ta minoraning ikkitasidan tashqari barchasi buzilgan.
Shahar hayratga tushdi, 2003 yil 2-yanvar kuni Letisha Shekspir va Sharlen Ellisni o'ldirish. 2003 yil sentyabr oyida Bullring savdo majmuasi uch yillik loyihadan so'ng ochilgan. 2003 yilda shahar 2008 yil bo'lish arizasida muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi Evropa madaniyat poytaxti, bayroq ostida "Birmingem-2008da bo'ling".
Olib tashlanganidan keyin Birmingem rivojlanishda davom etmoqda Ichki halqa yo'li, bu shahar markazining kengayishiga to'sqinlik qiladigan "aniq yoqa" rolini o'ynagan, bu shaharni qayta tiklash bo'yicha ulkan loyihadir. Katta shahar rejasi jarayonda. Masalan, shaharning yangi qismida Eastside 6 milliard funt sterlingni tashkil etishi kutilayotgan ishlar olib borilayotgan tuman.
Shahar ta'sir ko'rsatdi tartibsizliklar 2011 yil avgust oyida mamlakat bo'ylab tarqalib ketgan, natijada shahar ichkarisida bir qancha jinoiy zarar ko'rilgan va uch kishi o'lgan Winson Green maydon.
Tarixiy aholi
- 1538 – 1,300
- 1550 – 1,500
- 1650 – 5,472
- 1700 – 15,032
- 1731 – 23,286
- 1750 – 24,000
- 1778 – 42,250
- 1785 – 52,250
- 1800 – 74,000
- 1811 – 85,753
- 1821 – 106,722
- 1831 – 146,986
- 1841 – 182,922
- 1851 – 232,638
- 1861 – 296,076
- 1871 – 343,787
- 1881 – 400,774
- 1891 – 478,113
- 1901 - shaharda 522,204, shaharda 630,162.
- 1911 – 840,202
- 1951 - 1 113 000 (aholi eng yuqori darajasi)
- 1981 – 1,013,431
- 2001 – 977,087
- 2011 – 1,074,300
Shuningdek qarang
- Birmingemning iqtisodiy tarixi - Birmingem iqtisodiyoti tarixi uchun
- Birmingem hukumati - Birmingemdagi mahalliy boshqaruv tarixi uchun
- Birmingemning harbiy tarixi - Birmingem armiyasining tarixi uchun
- Birmingem tarixining xronologiyasi - Birmingem tarixining xronologiyasi uchun
- Worcestershire tarixi
- Warwickshire tarixi
Izohlar
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, p. 23
- ^ Buteux va Lang 2002 yil, p. 6
- ^ Bridgland va boshq. 2006 yil, p. 20
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, 21-23 betlar
- ^ Elkes, Nil (2009 yil 24-iyul), "Digbetda tosh davri odamining dalillari topildi", Birmingem Post, Birmingem: Trinity Mirror Midlands, olingan 12 avgust 2009
- ^ a b Hodder 2004 yil, p. 24
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, p. 25
- ^ "Sanoat inqilobidan oldin arxeologiya" (pdf). Birmingem shahar kengashi. Olingan 24 fevral 2009.
- ^ "Arxeologiya - kichkintoydan ko'p narsa". Birmingem shahar kengashi. 29 dekabr 2008 yil. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2008 yil 9-iyunda. Olingan 24 fevral 2009.
- ^ a b Xoder, Mayk (2002 yil 23 sentyabr). Xerst, Derek; Jekson, Robin (tahrir). Yonib ketgan tepaliklar va undan tashqarida: Birmingem va Qora mamlakatning keyingi tarixi. 2-seminar: Keyingi davr: O'rta bronza va temir davri. Vorester: Arxeologiya uchun West Midlands mintaqaviy tadqiqot doirasi. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (hujjat) 2006 yil 25 sentyabrda. Olingan 24 fevral 2009.
- ^ Tarixiy Angliya. "Berri Mound (328850)". PastScape. Olingan 14 avgust 2009.
- ^ Birmingemning Rim qal'asi
- ^ Foard-Colby 2006 yil
- ^ a b Bassett 2000 yil, p. 8
- ^ a b v Hodder 2004 yil, p. 59; Teri 1994 yil
- ^ Margari, Ivan Donald (1973), Britaniyadagi Rim yo'llari, London: J. Beyker, 292, 294–295 betlar, ISBN 978-0-212-97001-8
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, p. 60
- ^ Bassett 2001 yil, p. 8
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, p. 77
- ^ Bassett 2000 yil, p. 9
- ^ Bassett 2000 yil, p. 3
- ^ Gelling 1956 yil, p. 14
- ^ Gelling 1992 yil, p. 140
- ^ Gelling 1956 yil, 14-15 betlar
- ^ Torp 1950 yil, p. 106
- ^ Bassett 2000 yil, p. 7
- ^ Hodder 2004 yil, p. 78; Bassett 2001 yil, 1-3 betlar
- ^ Buteux 2003 yil, p. 8
- ^ a b Hodder 2004 yil, p. 79
- ^ Bassett 2001 yil, 17-24 bet
- ^ Teri 2001 yil, p. 7
- ^ a b Bassett 2000 yil, 9-10 betlar
- ^ Torp 1950 yil, 102,108-betlar
- ^ Torp 1950 yil, p. 102
- ^ Kinvig 1950 yil, 114-115 betlar
- ^ Birmingem Domesday kitobida, Katalog ma'lumotnomasi: E 31/2/2, f. 243r, Milliy arxiv, olingan 25 iyul 2011
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format =talab qiladi| url =(Yordam bering). 88-90 betlar. ISBN 978-1520692593.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
Bibliografiya
Umumiy tarixlar
- Briggs, Asa (tahr.), Birmingem tarixi, London: Oksford universiteti matbuoti
- Gill, Konrad (1952), Manor va tuman 1865 yilgacha, Birmingem tarixi, 1, London: Oksford universiteti matbuoti
- Briggs, Asa (1952), Borof va shahar, 1865–1938, Birmingem tarixi, 2, London: Oksford universiteti matbuoti
- Satkliff, Entoni; Smit, Rojer (1974), Birmingem 1939–1970, Birmingem tarixi, 3, London: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-19-215182-7
- Cherry, Gordon E. (1994), Birmingem: geografiya, tarix va rejalashtirish bo'yicha o'rganish, Belhaven shahri seriyalari, Chichester: Uili, ISBN 978-0-471-94900-8
- Teri, Piter (2001), Birmingemning qisqacha tarixi, Studley: Brewin kitoblari, ISBN 978-1-85858-187-3
- Rix, Maykl. "Birmingem." Bugungi tarix (1951 yil iyul) 1 # 7 pp. 59-68 onlayn.
- Stephens, W. B., ed. (1964), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Upton, Kris (1993), Birmingem tarixi, Chichester: Fillimor, ISBN 978-0-85033-870-6
Tarixgacha va arxeologiya
- Bridgland, D. R .; Xovard, A. J .; Oq, M. J .; Oq, T. S. (2006), Trent vodiysi: muzlik davridagi arxeologiya va landshaft (PDF), Durham: Durham universiteti, ISBN 978-0-900974-76-2, dan arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2015 yil 19 oktyabrda, olingan 12 avgust 2009
- Buto, Simon; Lang, Aleks (2002), Yo'qotilgan, ammo unutilmagan: G'arbiy Midlandning quyi va o'rta paleolit bosqini, Arxeologiya uchun West Midlands mintaqaviy tadqiqot doirasi, 1-seminar, Birmingem universiteti Arxeologiya va qadimiylik instituti, olingan 10 avgust 2009
- Buto, Simon (2003), Bull Ring ostida: erta Birmingemdagi hayot va o'lim arxeologiyasi, Brewin kitoblari, ISBN 978-1-85858-242-9
- Xoder, Maykl A. (2004), Birmingem: yashirin tarix, Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-3135-2
- Teri, Piter (1994), "Birmingemdagi Rim yo'llari loyihasi", G'arbiy Midland arxeologiyasi (37): 9, arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2011 yil 18 oktyabrda, olingan 18 sentyabr 2011
- Foard-Kolbi, A (2006). "Old Bowling Green, Parsons Hill, Kings Norton, Birmingem". Northemptonshir arxeologiyasi. doi:10.5284/1008561. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi
| jurnal =(Yordam bering)CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
Anglo-sakson va Norman Birmingem
- Bassett, Stiven (2000), "Angliya-Saksoniya Birmingem" (PDF), Midland tarixi, Birmingem universiteti, 25 (25): 1–27, doi:10.1179 / mdh.2000.25.1.1, ISSN 0047-729X, S2CID 161966142, dan arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2009 yil 16 martda, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Bassett, Stiven (2001), "Bull Ringdan oldin Birmingem" (PDF), Midland tarixi, Birmingem universiteti, 26 (26): 1–33, doi:10.1179 / mdh.2001.26.1.1, ISSN 0047-729X, S2CID 161900178, dan arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2009 yil 16 martda, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Kinvig, R. H. (1950), "Domesday Timesdagi Birmingem okrugi", Kinvigda, R. X.; Smit, J. G.; Hikmatli, J. J. (tahr.), Birmingem va uning mintaqaviy muhiti: Ilmiy tadqiqot, S. R. Publishers Limited (1970 yilda nashr etilgan), 113-134-betlar, ISBN 978-0-85409-607-7
- Gelling, Margaret (1992), Dastlabki o'rta asrlarda G'arbiy Midland, Britaniyaning dastlabki tarixidagi tadqiqotlar, Lester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7185-1170-8
- Torp, H. (1950), "Norman fathidan oldin aholi punktining o'sishi", Kinvigda, R. H.; Smit, J. G.; Hikmatli, J. J. (tahr.), Birmingem va uning mintaqaviy muhiti: Ilmiy tadqiqot, S. R. Publishers Limited (1970 yilda nashr etilgan), 87-97 betlar, ISBN 978-0-85409-607-7
O'rta asrlar, Tudor va Styuart Birmingem
- Demidovich, Jorj (2008), O'rta asr Birmingem: 1296 va 1344-5 yillardagi ijara uylari, Dugdeyl jamiyati Vaqti-vaqti bilan nashr etiladigan hujjatlar 48, Stratford-on-Evon: Dugdeyl jamiyati, Shekspirning tug'ilgan joyiga ishonish bilan, ISBN 978-0-85220-090-2
- Xilton, R. H. (1966), O'rta asrlar jamiyati: XIII asr oxirida G'arbiy Midland, Kembrij: Kembrij universiteti matbuoti (2008 yilda nashr etilgan), ISBN 978-0-521-08155-9
- Xolt, Richard (1986), Birmingem shahrining dastlabki tarixi, 1166–1600, Dugdeyl jamiyati Vaqti-vaqti bilan nashr etiladigan hujjatlar 30, Oksford: Dugdeyl jamiyati uchun D. Stenford tomonidan chop etilgan, Universitetning printeri, ISBN 978-0-85220-062-9
- Hopper, Endryu (1999), "'Tinker Foks va G'arbiy Midlenddagi garnizon urushi siyosati, 1643–50 " (PDF), Midland tarixi, 26 (1): 98–113, doi:10.1179 / mdh.1999.24.1.98, hdl:2381/361, olingan 6 iyun 2010
- Xyuz, Ann (2002), Uorvikshirdagi siyosat, jamiyat va fuqarolar urushi, 1620–1660, Britaniyaning zamonaviy zamonaviy tarixidagi Kembrij tadqiqotlari, Kembrij: Kembrij universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-521-52015-7, olingan 12 iyun 2010
- Pelham, R. A. (1943), "O'rta asrlar davomida Birmingemning savdo aloqalari", Transaction & Proceedings, Birmingem Arxeologik Jamiyati, 62: 32–40
- Pelham, R. A. (1950), "Hisob-kitob va sanoatning o'sishi c.1100 - c.1700", Kinvigda, R. H.; Smit, J. G.; Hikmatli, J. J. (tahr.), Birmingem va uning mintaqaviy muhiti: Ilmiy tadqiqot, S. R. Publishers Limited (1970 yilda nashr etilgan), 135–158 betlar, ISBN 978-0-85409-607-7
- Tillott, P. M. (1964), "O'rta asr sanoati va savdosi", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 73-80 betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Votts, Lorna (1980), "Birmingem shamshirasi, uning tarixi, topografiyasi va yo'q qilinishi", Operatsiyalar, Birmingem va Warwickshire Arxeologik Jamiyati, 89: 1–77, ISSN 0140-4202
Gruziyalik Birmingem
- Berg, Maksin (1991), "XVIII asr Birmingemidagi savdo va ijodkorlik", Bergda, Maksin (tahr.), Dastlabki sanoat Evropasida bozorlar va ishlab chiqarish, Routledge, 173–202 betlar, ISBN 978-0-415-03720-4, olingan 6 mart 2009
- Briggs, Asa (1948), "Tomas Attvud va Birmingem siyosiy ittifoqining iqtisodiy kelib chiqishi", Kembrij tarixiy jurnali, Kembrij universiteti matbuoti, 9 (2): 190–216, doi:10.1017 / S1474691300001992, JSTOR 3020620
- Eversli, D. E. C. (1964), "Sanoat va savdo, 1500–1880", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 81-139-betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Xopkins, Erik (1987), "Birmingem iqtisodiyotining savdo va xizmat ko'rsatish sohalari 1750–1800", Davenport-Xaynda, Richard Piter Treduell; Libenau, Jonatan (tahr.), Aql asridagi biznes, Routledge, 77-97 betlar, ISBN 978-0-7146-3306-0, olingan 27 fevral 2009
- Xopkins, Erik (1989), Birmingem: Dunyodagi birinchi ishlab chiqarish shahri, 1760-1840, London: Vaydenfeld va Nikolson, ISBN 978-0-297-79473-8
- Jons, Piter M. (2009), Sanoat ma'rifati: Birmingem va G'arbiy Midlenddagi fan, texnika va madaniyat, 1760–1820, Manchester universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-7190-7770-8
- Pul, Jon (1977), Tajriba va o'ziga xoslik: Birmingem va G'arbiy Midlend, 1760–1800, Manchester universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-7190-0672-2, olingan 16 iyun 2009
- Porter, Roy (2001), Ma'rifat: Buyuk Britaniya va zamonaviy dunyoning yaratilishi, London: Pingvin, ISBN 978-0-14-025028-2
- Rose, R. B. (1964), "1832 yilgacha siyosiy tarix", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 270–297 betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Stephens, W. B. (1964), "1815 yilgacha bo'lgan ijtimoiy tarix", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 209–222 betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Uglow, Jenni (2002), Oy odamlari: kelajakni yaratgan do'stlar, London: Faber va Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-19647-0
Viktoriya shtatidagi Birmingem
- Briggs, Asa (1959), "1832 yildan siyosiy tarix", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oxford University Press (1964 yilda nashr etilgan), 298–317-betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Briggs, Asa (1960), "1815 yildan beri ijtimoiy tarix", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oxford University Press (1964 yilda nashr etilgan), 223–245-betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Briggs, Asa (1963), "Birmingem: Fuqarolik xushxabarini yaratish", Viktoriya shaharlari, London: Penguen kitoblari (1968 yilda nashr etilgan), 184–240-betlar, ISBN 978-0-14-013582-4
- Kannadin, Devid (2000), "Burjua tajribasi siyosiy madaniyat sifatida: Birmingemning palatalari", Mikikalda, Mark S.; Dietl, Robert L. (tahr.), Ma'rifat, ehtiros, zamonaviylik: Evropa tafakkuri va madaniyatidagi tarixiy insholar, Stenford, Kaliforniya: Stenford universiteti matbuoti, 148–164 betlar, ISBN 978-0-8047-3116-4, olingan 9 avgust 2009
- Xopkins, Erik (2001), Birmingem: Ikkinchi shaharning paydo bo'lishi 1850-1939, Stroud: Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-2327-2
- Rodrik, Anne B. (2004), O'z-o'ziga yordam berish va fuqarolik madaniyati: Viktoriya Birmingemidagi fuqarolik, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, ISBN 978-0-7546-3307-5, olingan 20 iyun 2009
- Uord, Rojer (2005), Shahar-davlat va millat: Birmingemning siyosiy tarixi 1830–1940, Chichester: Fillimor, ISBN 978-1-86077-320-4
Yigirmanchi asr Birmingem
- Adams, Devid. "Zamonaviy shaharning har kungi tajribasi: Birmingemdagi urushdan keyingi tiklanishni eslash." Istiqbollarni rejalashtirish 26.2 (2011): 237–260. 1945-1980
- DiGetano, Alan; Klemanski, Jon S. (1999), Kuch va shahar boshqaruvi: shahar rivojlanishining qiyosiy istiqbollari, Minnesota universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-8166-3219-0, olingan 2 avgust 2009
- Jerrard, Jon; Slater, Terri, nashrlar. (1996), Konvuratsiyani boshqarish: Birmingem va uning mintaqasi, Brewin kitoblari, ISBN 978-1-85858-083-8
- Xerd, Yan (1989), Birmingemning rivojlanishi 1889–1989: 100 yillik shahar rejalashtirish, Birmingem: Birmingem shahar kengashini rivojlantirish bo'limi, ISBN 978-0-9513371-1-0
- Xiggott, Endryu (2000), "Birmingem - zamonaviy shaharni qurish", Dekkkerda Tomas (tahr.), Zamonaviy shahar qayta ko'rib chiqildi, Teylor va Frensis, 150–168 betlar, ISBN 978-0-419-25640-3
- Jenkins, Roy (2004), "Birmingem", O'n ikki shahar: shaxsiy xotiralar, London: Pan Makmillan, 43-63 betlar, ISBN 978-0-330-49333-8, olingan 22 yanvar 2011
- Qonun, Kristofer M. (1981), Birinchi jahon urushidan buyon Britaniya mintaqaviy rivojlanishi, London: Metxuen, ISBN 978-0-416-32310-8, olingan 2 avgust 2009
- Li, Sabine (2002), "Birmingem - London - Los Alamos - Xirosima: Buyuk Britaniya va atom bombasi", Midland tarixi, 27: 146–64, doi:10.1179 / mdh.2002.27.1.146, S2CID 153970414
- Nyuton, Kennet (1976), Ikkinchi shahar siyosati: Birmingemdagi demokratik jarayon va qarorlar qabul qilish, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, ISBN 978-0-19-827197-0
- Smit, Barbara M. D. (1964), "Sanoat va savdo, 1880–1960", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 140–208 betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Spenser, Ken; Teylor, Endi; Smit, Barbara; Mawson, Jon; Flinn, Norman; Batli, Richard (1986), Sanoat yuragidagi inqiroz: G'arbiy Midlandni o'rganish, Oksford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823269-8
- Satkliff, Entoni (1986), "Midland Metropolis": Birmingem, 1890-1980 ", Gordonda, Jorj (tahr.), Buyuk Britaniyaning mintaqaviy shaharlari, 1890–1980, London: Harper & Row, 25-40 betlar, ISBN 978-0-06-318315-5
Mavzular
- Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan (1952), Kimyoviy inqilob: ijtimoiy texnologiyalarga hissa, O'qish: Gordon va buzilish (1992 yilda nashr etilgan), ISBN 978-2-88124-549-7
- Gelling, Margaret (1956), "Birmingem va uning atrofidagi tuman nomlariga oid ba'zi eslatmalar", Transaction & Proceedings, Birmingem Arxeologik Jamiyati (72): 14–17, ISSN 0140-4202
- Tepalik, Jozef (1907), Old Birmingemning kitob ishlab chiqaruvchilari: mualliflar, printerlar va kitob sotuvchilari, Nyu-York: B. Franklin (1971 yilda nashr etilgan), ISBN 978-0-8337-1706-1
- Reynolds, Syuzan (1958), "Bozorlar va yarmarkalar", Stivenda, V.B. (tahr.), Birmingem shahri, Uorvik okrugining Viktoriya tarixi, VII, Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti (1964 yilda nashr etilgan), 251–252 betlar, olingan 11 avgust 2009
- Uodsvort, Alfred P.; Mann, Julia De Leysi (1931), Paxta savdosi va sanoat Lankashir, 1600–1780, Manchester: Manchester universiteti matbuoti, OCLC 2859370
Shuningdek qarang
Tashqi havolalar
- Mahalliy tarix sahifalari - Birmingem shahar kengashining veb-sayti
- Birmingem fuqarolik jamiyati
- Birmingem tarixi - 1783 yilda yozilgan keng tarix Gutenberg loyihasi
- Birmingem, sanoat asosida qurilgan shahar
- Birmingem qora og'zaki tarix loyihasi
- Birmingemdagi joylar va joy nomlari tarixi. . . A dan Y gacha
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