Germaniyaning blokadasi (1939–1945) - Blockade of Germany (1939–1945) - Wikipedia
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The Germaniyaning blokadasi (1939–1945), shuningdek, iqtisodiy urush deb nomlanuvchi, davomida amalga oshirildi Ikkinchi jahon urushi Buyuk Britaniya va Frantsiya tomonidan minerallar, metallar, oziq-ovqat va boshqa mahsulotlarni etkazib berishni cheklash maqsadida to'qimachilik tomonidan kerak Natsistlar Germaniyasi - va keyinroq Fashistik Italiya - urush harakatlarini davom ettirish uchun. Iqtisodiy urush asosan a dengiz blokadasi, bu kengroq qismini tashkil etdi Atlantika okeanidagi jang va dushmanga sotilishining oldini olish uchun neytral mamlakatlardan urush materiallarini aniq sotib olishni o'z ichiga olgan.[1]
Blokadaning to'rtta alohida bosqichlari mavjud edi. Birinchi davr 1939 yil sentyabrda Evropada harbiy harakatlar boshlangandan to oxirigacha bo'lgan davr »Feneni urushi, "davomida Ittifoqchilar va Eksa kuchlari ikkalasi ham dushmanga yo'lda etkazib berishni ushlab qolish uchun neytral savdo kemalarini ushlab qolishdi. Blokirovka samarasiz bo'lib qoldi, chunki o'qlar Sovet Ittifoqidan 1941 yil iyungacha hal qiluvchi materiallarni olishlari mumkin edi, Ispaniyadagi portlar esa Germaniyaga urush materiallarini olib kirish uchun ishlatilgan. Ikkinchi davr Evropaning aksariyat quruqliklarini eksa tomonidan tez bosib olinishidan so'ng boshlandi, bu ularga sanoat va qishloq xo'jaligining yirik markazlarini boshqarish imkoniyatini berdi. Uchinchi davr 1941 yil oxiridan boshlab Qo'shma Shtatlar va Yaponiya imperiyasi. Oxirgi davr urush to'lqini oxirigacha va keyin ham og'ir harbiy mag'lubiyatlardan so'ng Axisga qarshi qaratilganidan keyin keldi Kun, bu esa ittifoqchilarning katta miqdordagi harbiy hujumi oldida bosib olingan hududlardan bosqichma-bosqich chiqib ketishga olib keldi.[1]
Tarixiy ma'lumot
Boshida Birinchi jahon urushi 1914 yilda Buyuk Britaniya o'zining kuchli dengiz flotidan va geografik joylashuvidan foydalanib, dunyodagi tijorat kemalarining harakatini belgilab berdi.[2] Britaniya hukmronlik qildi Shimoliy dengiz, Atlantika okeani, O'rtayer dengizi va uning nazorati tufayli Suvaysh kanali Frantsiya bilan, kirish va chiqish Hind okeani uchun ittifoqdosh kemalar, ularning dushmanlari Afrikani aylanib o'tishga majbur bo'ldilar. Blokada vazirligi neytral tijorat kemalari olib o'tilmaydigan narsalarning to'liq ro'yxatini e'lon qildi Markaziy kuchlar (Germaniya, Avstriya-Vengriya, va Usmonli imperiyasi ).[1] Bunga oziq-ovqat, qurol-yarog ', oltin va kumush, zig'ir, qog'oz, ipak, kopra kabi minerallar Temir ruda va hayvonlarning terilari poyabzal va etiklarni ishlab chiqarishda ishlatiladi. Buyuk Britaniya va Frantsiya birgalikda asosiy yuk tashish yo'llari bo'ylab joylashgan 20 ta yonilg'i quyish punktidan 15tasini nazorat qilganliklari sababli, ular talablarini bajarishdan bosh tortganlarni o'zlarining chekinishlari bilan qo'rqitishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. bunker yoqilg'isini boshqarish inshootlar.[3]
Birinchi jahon urushida neytral kemalar qidirib topilishi to'xtatilgandi kontrabanda. Deb nomlanuvchi katta kuch Dover Patrol Shimoliy dengizning bir uchida, ikkinchisida patrul O'ninchi kruizer otryad ikkinchisini kutdi. O'rta er dengizi ikkala uchida ham to'sib qo'yilgan edi qo'rqinchli emas jangovar kemalar ning Katta flot kutdi Skapa oqimi suzib yurish va Germaniyaning har qanday tajovuzkor xavfini qondirish. Urush oxirida katta minalar maydoni deb nomlanuvchi Shimoliy Barrage, o'rtasida joylashtirilgan Faroes va Germaniyaning kema harakatlarini yanada cheklash uchun Norvegiya qirg'oqlari.[4]
Angliya dengizni qamal qilishni urushning to'liq qonuniy usuli deb hisobladi,[1] oldini olish uchun ilgari o'n to'qqizinchi asrning boshlarida strategiyani qo'llagan Napoleon porti Angliyani bosib olishga urinish uchun o'z portlarini tark etishdan -Napoleon Angliyani ham qamal qilgan edi. Ayniqsa, Germaniya keng ko'lamli xorijliklarga juda ishonar edi import va qamaldan juda yomon azob chekdi. O'zi zamonaviy harbiy kemalarning katta floti ning tagida kesilgan Kiel va Wilhelmshaven va asosan rahbariyat tomonidan tashqariga chiqish taqiqlangan.[1] Germaniya Ittifoq tijoratiga qarshi urush paytida o'zining juda samarali qarshi blokadasini amalga oshirdi (Handelskrieg ), uning U-qayiqlar ko'plab ittifoqdosh savdo kemalarini cho'ktirish. 1917 yilga kelib bu urushni Markaziy kuchlar yo'liga olib bordi.[1] Ammo Britaniya javobni topgani uchun konvoy tizimi, Ittifoqning doimiy blokadasi 1918 yil oxiriga kelib Germaniya qurolli kuchlarining qulashi va oxir-oqibat mag'lub bo'lishiga olib keldi.
Ikkinchi jahon urushiga qadar qurilish
1933 yilda Adolf Gitler bo'ldi Germaniya kansleri va quyidagilarga rioya qilish Reynning remilitarizatsiyasi, Anschluss Avstriya bilan va keyinchalik bosib olinishi Chexoslovakiya, ko'p odamlar yangi "Buyuk urush" kelishiga ishona boshladilar,[5] va 1937 yil oxiridan boshlab ser Frederik Leyt-Ross Buyuk Britaniya hukumatining iqtisodiy masalalar bo'yicha bosh maslahatchisi, hukumatning yuqori lavozimli shaxslarini blokadani qayta tiklash rejasini o'ylab topishga unday boshladi, shunda qirollik dengiz kuchlari - dunyodagi eng qudratli dengiz floti - urush boshlangandan so'ng darhol Germaniyaga yuklarni etkazib berishni to'xtatishga tayyor bo'lishi kerak. e'lon qilingan.[3] Ley-Ross uzoq yillar davomida chet elda Britaniya manfaatlarini himoya qilib, Italiya, Germaniya, Xitoy va Rossiyani o'z ichiga olgan bir qator muhim xorijiy missiyalarni boshlagan, bu tajriba unga juda foydali dunyo siyosiy nuqtai nazarini taqdim etdi. Uning rejasi Birinchi Jahon urushi blokadasini qayta tiklash, ammo texnologiyani va Buyuk Britaniyaning yirik xorijiy biznes va tijorat tarmog'idan unumli foydalangan holda, uni yanada soddalashtirish edi. Nyu York, Rio-de-Janeyro, Tokio, Rim yoki Buenos-Ayres ma'lumot to'plashning ulkan tizimi bo'lib xizmat qilishi mumkin. Bankirlar, savdo xaridorlari, qirg'oq kabi ko'plab odamlar tomonidan taqdim etilgan ma'lumotlardan foydalanish stevedores va kema operatorlari o'zlarining vatanparvarlik burchlarini bajarib, dengiz floti qaysi kemalar portga etib kelishidan ancha oldin kontrabanda olib ketishi mumkinligi to'g'risida bebaho ma'lumotga ega bo'lishlari mumkin edi.
Dastlab Bosh vazir Nevill Chemberlen bu g'oyaga qiziqmagan va hali ham urushdan qochishga umid qilgan, ammo uning fikriga amal qilgan. Gitlerni tinchlantirish Myunxenda 1938 yil sentyabr oyida, vaqtni sotib olish uchun to'xtash chorasi sifatida qaraladigan, u ham urushga shoshilinch tayyorgarlik ko'rish zarurligini anglay boshladi. Oxirgi 12 oylik tinchlik davomida Angliya va Frantsiya qurolli kuchlarini va qurol-yarog 'ishlab chiqarishni jadal rivojlantirdilar. Uzoq kutilgan Spitfire qiruvchi xizmatga kirishni boshladi, 1936 yilgi favqulodda dasturga binoan buyurtma qilingan yangi dengiz kemalarining birinchisi flotga qo'shila boshladi va Havo vazirligi samolyotga so'nggi tegishni amalga oshirdi Uy zanjiri radio yo'nalishini aniqlash bo'yicha erta ogohlantirish tarmog'i (keyinchalik chaqirildi) radar ) stantsiyalar, uni to'liq ekspluatatsiya darajasiga etkazish.
1939 yil aprelda chop etilgan strategik siyosat bo'yicha Britaniya-Frantsiya qo'shma shtabida Germaniya bilan bo'lgan har qanday urushning birinchi bosqichida iqtisodiy urush Ittifoqchilarning yagona samarali hujum quroli bo'lishi mumkinligi tan olindi.[6] 1939 yil yanvar oyida flotga etkazilgan Qirollik dengiz flotining urush rejalari dengizda bo'lajak urushning uchta muhim elementini belgilab berdi.[7] Eng asosiy e'tibor Buyuk Britaniyaning o'z hayoti uchun zarur bo'lgan tovarlarni importini ta'minlash uchun uy suvlari va Atlantika okeanidagi savdoni himoya qilish edi. O'rta er dengizi va Hind okeanida savdoni himoya qilish ikkinchi darajali ahamiyatga ega edi. Agar Italiya, shuningdek, urush e'lon qilsa va tajovuzkor raqibga aylansa, uning hukmron geografik mavqei kemalarni dengiz bo'ylab uzoq yo'lni bosib o'tishga majbur qilishi mumkin. Yaxshi umid burni (Janubiy Afrika), lekin uni O'rta dengizda kuchli floti bilan qamrab olishga umid qilingan edi. Va nihoyat, Germaniya va Italiyaga qarshi kuchli blokadaga ehtiyoj sezildi.
Germaniyadagi urushdan oldingi holat
Gitler o'z generallari va partiya rahbarlarini 1934 yildayoq yana urush bo'lishi haqida ogohlantirgan Germaniyada,[8] yangi blokadaning yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan oqibatlari to'g'risida katta tashvish tug'dirdi. Germaniyani imzolashga majbur qilish uchun Versal shartnomasi, dastlabki blokada 1918 yil oktyabrda janglar tugaganidan keyin qo'shimcha to'qqiz oyga uzaytirildi.[iqtibos kerak ] Gitler "barcha zamonlarning eng katta e'tiqod buzilishi" deb atagan ushbu harakat yo'nalishi[9] nemis xalqi orasida dahshatli azob-uqubatlarni keltirib chiqardi va yarim milliondan ortiq odamning o'limiga olib keldi ochlik.[10][11][12] Germaniya, shuningdek, urush oxirida zamonaviy harbiy kemalarning butun jangovar parkini yo'qotib qo'ydi va garchi yangi kemalar tezroq ishlab chiqarilgan bo'lsa ham - jangovar kemalar Bismark va Tirpitz ishga tushirilgan, ammo hali tugallanmagan - ular Angliya va Frantsiya dengiz kuchlari bilan teng sharoitlarda duch kelishga qodir emas edilar.
Uchburchaklar davlatlar oltin konvertatsiyasini to'xtatib turadigan va / yoki oltinga nisbatan o'z valyutalarini qadrsizlantiradigan nuqtalarni belgilaydilar.
Juda kam Tabiiy boyliklar, Germaniya iqtisodiyoti an'anaviy ravishda importga bog'liq edi xom ashyolar ga ishlab chiqarish reeksport uchun tovarlar va u yuqori sifatli mahsulot ishlab chiqarish uchun obro'-e'tibor qozondi tovar. 1900 yilga kelib Germaniya eng katta mamlakatga ega bo'ldi iqtisodiyot Evropada va u 1914 yilda mo'l-ko'l zaxiralari bilan urushga kirdi oltin va chet el valyutasi va yaxshi kredit reytinglari. Ammo urush oxiriga kelib, Buyuk Britaniya ham o'zining haqiqiy boyligining chorak qismini yo'qotdi,[13] Germaniya vayron bo'ldi va o'shandan beri u bir qator jiddiy moliyaviy muammolarni boshdan kechirdi; birinchi giperinflyatsiya urush uchun tovon puli to'lash talabidan kelib chiqqan, keyin esa - 1920 yillarning o'rtalarida nisbiy farovonlikning qisqa davridan so'ng Veymar Respublikasi - the Katta depressiya, ergashgan Wall Street halokati 1929 yil, bu qisman siyosiy ekstremizmning kuchayishiga olib keldi Evropa va Gitlerning hokimiyatni egallab olishi.
Garchi Gitler tushgan deb hisoblansa ham ishsizlik 6 milliondan (ba'zi manbalarda haqiqiy raqam 11 millionga teng) harbiy xizmatga chaqirish va ulkan jamoat ishlarini boshlash orqali deyarli nolgacha (shunga o'xshash) Ruzvelt "s Yangi bitim ) bilan bo'lgani kabi Avtobahn u iqtisodiyotga unchalik qiziqmagan va Germaniyaning "tiklanishiga" aslida asosan qurollanish va boshqalar tomonidan amalga oshirilgan boshqa sun'iy vositalar erishilgan. Chunki Germaniya hech bir joyda, avvalgi avloddagidek, boy valyuta zaxiralari va nolga teng kreditga ega bo'lgan darajada boy emas edi,[14] Xyalmar Shaxt va keyinroq Uolter Fank Iqtisodiyot vaziri sifatida bir qator moliyaviy vositalardan foydalanilgan - ba'zilari juda aqlli - valyutani boshqarish va Germaniya iqtisodiyotini yo'naltirish Wehrwirtschaft (Urush iqtisodiyoti). Bir misol Mefo hisob-kitobi, bir xil IOU tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan Reyxbank qurol ishlab chiqaruvchilarga to'lash, ammo bu Germaniya banklari tomonidan ham qabul qilingan. Mefo qonun loyihalarida hukumatning byudjet bayonotlarida ko'rsatilmaganligi sababli, ular qayta qurollanish sirini saqlashga yordam berishdi va Gitlerning so'zlari bilan aytganda, shunchaki pulni bosib chiqarish usuli edi.[iqtibos kerak ] Shaxt ham juda foydali muzokaralarda mohirligini isbotladi barter Germaniya harbiy tajribasi va jihozlarini etkazib berish evaziga ko'plab boshqa davlatlar bilan shug'ullanadi.
Germaniya sanoatini urushga tayyorlashda etakchi rol o'ynagan natsist amaldor Hermann Göring. 1936 yil sentyabrda u To'rt yillik reja Buning maqsadi Germaniyani 1940 yilgacha o'zini o'zi ta'minlaydigan va blokirovkadan o'tkazmaydigan qilib qo'yish edi. O'zining aloqalari va mavqeidan, shuningdek, pora va maxfiy bitimlardan foydalanib, o'zining ulkan sanoat imperiyasini yaratdi Hermann Göring Works, pastdan po'lat ishlab chiqarish uchun. - Germaniyani temir javhari bilan yutib yuboring Rur kompaniyalar va bu jarayonda o'zini juda boy qilish.[15] Ishlar chegaralangan hududda joylashgan edi Gannover, Halle va Magdeburg quruqlikka qarshi hujumlardan xavfsiz deb topilgan va mavjud bo'lgan hal qiluvchi sanoat tarmoqlarini chegaralariga yaqin joyga ko'chirish dasturi boshlangan. Sileziya, Rur va Saksoniya xavfsizroq markaziy mintaqalarga. Buyuk Dunay, Elbe, Reyn, Oder, Weser, Asosiy va Neckar daryolar chuqurlashtirilib, to'liq qurildi suzuvchi va murakkab tarmoq kanallar ularni o'zaro bog'lash va yirik shaharlarga ulash uchun qurilgan.[16]
Qurolli kuchlar tuzilayotganda, import eng past darajaga tushirildi, narxlar va ish haqiga qattiq nazorat o'rnatildi, kasaba uyushmalari blokirovka boshlanganidan keyin ba'zi tovarlarni olish qiyin bo'lganligini bilgan holda, Shvetsiya, Ruminiya, Turkiya, Ispaniya, Finlyandiya va Yugoslaviya bilan hayotiy materiallar zaxirasini osonlashtirish uchun bitimlar tuzildi. volfram, yog ', nikel, urush davrida qurolli kuchlarni ta'minlash uchun zarur bo'lgan jun va paxta. Katta sarmoyalar kiritildi ersatz (sintetik) sanoat Germaniyada tabiiy resurslardan tovar ishlab chiqarish, masalan, to'qimachilik tsellyuloza, ko'mir, shakar va .dan qilingan kauchuk va moy etil spirti kartoshkaning yuqori qismidan ishlab chiqarilgan matbaa va matbaa uchun materiallar. Kabi ersatz oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari ham bo'lgan kofe dan qilingan hindibo va pivo shakar lavlagi. Germaniya shuningdek, chet el sanoatiga va ularning ehtiyojlarini bevosita qondirishga qaratilgan qishloq xo'jaligi sxemalariga, masalan ko'proq o'sishni rejalashtirishga sarmoya kiritdi soya loviya va kungaboqar o'rniga makkajo'xori Ruminiyada.[17]
Amerikalik jurnalist Uilyam L. Shirer yashagan Berlin 1934 yildan beri va u uchun AQShga muntazam radioeshittirishlar qilgan CBS, urush boshlanishidan oldin ham har xil tanqisliklar bo'lganligini ta'kidladi.[18] Britaniyadan farqli o'laroq, qaerda me'yorlash ancha keyin kelgan va hech qachon bunday jiddiy bo'lmagan, shuning uchun metallga ehtiyoj bor edi, chunki mashinalar panjaralari allaqachon eritib yuborish uchun olib ketilgan edi va Shirer uning mehmonxonasida restoranida apelsin yo'qligini aniqladi. 1939 yil 10-avgustda natsistlar rasmiylari Shirerga Polshani bosib olgandan so'ng, boshqa sharqiy ekanligini xususiy ravishda tan olishdi Bolqon davlatlari Vengriya, Ruminiya va Yugoslaviya ham ishg'ol qilinishi kerak edi, shundan keyin Germaniya o'zini o'zi ta'minlay oladi va endi ittifoqchilar blokadasidan qo'rqish kerak emas.
1939 yil 24-avgustda Polshaga bostirib kirish Urushni boshlagan Germaniya oziq-ovqat, ko'mir, to'qimachilik va sovunni iste'mol qilish miqdorini e'lon qildi va Shirerning ta'kidlashicha, aynan shu harakatlar nemis xalqini urush yaqinlashib kelayotganligini uyg'otdi.[18] Ularga oyiga bitta sovun bor edi, erkaklar oxirgi besh oyda bitta naychadan soqol ko'pikini tayyorlashlari kerak edi. Tez orada uy bekalari bir necha soat davomida mol-mulk olish uchun navbatda turishdi; do'kondorlar ba'zida tez-tez buzilib ketmaydigan tovarlarni, masalan, konservalangan sardalalarni yig'ishni oldini olish uchun sotib olganlarida, xaridorlar oldida ochishgan. Kiyinish nafaqasi shu qadar arzimas ediki, barcha amaliy maqsadlarda odamlar urush tugaguniga qadar bo'lgan har qanday kiyim-kechak bilan shug'ullanishlari kerak edi. Erkaklarga bitta palto va ikkita kostyum, to'rtta ko'ylak va oltita juft paypoqga ruxsat berildi va yangilarini olish uchun eskilarining eskirganligini isbotlashlari kerak edi. Kuponlarda ko'rsatilgan ba'zi narsalar, masalan choyshablar, ko'rpalar va stol choyshablari faqat maxsus litsenziyani ishlab chiqarishda olinishi mumkin edi.
Natsistlar rahbariyati ittifoqchilarning blokirovka qilish strategiyasi noqonuniy ekanligini ta'kidlagan bo'lsa-da, ular baribir barcha zarur vositalar bilan unga qarshi turishga tayyor edilar. Ning dahshatli oldindan tasavvurida cheklanmagan dengiz osti urushi kelish, the Kriegsmarine (dengiz kuchlari) 1939 yil may oyida jangovar ko'rsatmalarni jo'natdilar, unda dahshatli ibora bor edi "jang usullari hech qachon shunchaki ishlatilmaydi, chunki ba'zi xalqaro qoidalar ularga qarshi".[7]
Birinchi bosqich
 | Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. (2017 yil sentyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) |
Gitler Polshani bosib oldi 1939 yil 1 sentyabrda va Angliya va Frantsiya urush e'lon qildi ikki kundan keyin. Bir necha soat ichida ingliz laynerlari Afiniya tomonidan torpedo qilingan U-30 off Gebridlar 112 kishining hayotini yuqotishi bilan, qirollik floti cheklanmagan U-qayiq urushi boshlangan deb taxmin qilishga olib keldi.
Garchi Frantsiya, Britaniyadan farqli o'laroq, asosan o'zini oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minlagan va oz miqdordagi oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini chetdan olib kirishga muhtoj bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, u urush harakati uchun chet eldan qurol va xom ashyoning keng importini talab qilar edi va ikki ittifoqchi o'rtasida yaqin hamkorlik mavjud edi. Birinchi Jahon Urushidagi kabi strategiya va siyosatni kelishib olish uchun birlashgan Urush Kengashi tuzildi va xuddi shunday Britaniya ekspeditsiya kuchlari, tezda safarbar qilingan va Frantsiyaga jo'natilgan Frantsiyaning umumiy vakolatiga berildi, shuning uchun Frantsiya dengiz flotining turli tarkibiy qismlari joylashtirildi Admirallik boshqaruv.
Buyuk Britaniyada katta shaharlarni bombardimon qilish va tinch aholining katta miqdordagi qurbonlari deklaratsiyadan so'ng darhol boshlanadi deb keng tarqalgan edi.[19] 1932 yilda Deputat Stenli Bolduin deb taniqli nutq so'zladi ".Bombardimonchi har doim o'tib ketadi ". Ushbu xabar xalqning ongiga chuqur singib ketgan, ammo hujumlar darhol kelmaganida, yuz minglab evakuatorlar keyingi bir necha oy ichida asta-sekin o'z uylariga yo'l olishdi.
Skapa oqimi Germaniyaning aerodromlaridan juda uzoqligi sababli yana Britaniyaning asosiy dengiz bazasi sifatida tanlangan, ammo Birinchi Jahon urushi paytida qurilgan mudofaa xarob bo'lgan. Erta bazaga tashrif buyurganida Cherchill havo va suvosti hujumlaridan himoya darajalariga ta'sir qilmagan va flagmani ko'rib hayratga tushgan. HMSNelson esminets eskortisiz dengizga chiqish, chunki bo'shashadigan joy yo'q edi. Tinchlik davridagi e'tiborsizlikni tiklashga qaratilgan harakatlar boshlandi, ammo 14 oktyabrga o'tar kechasi U qayig'ining oqimga kirib ketishini va jangovar harbiy kemani cho'ktirishni oldini olish juda kech edi. Royal Eman 800 dan ortiq o'lim bilan.
Garchi U-qayiqlar asosiy tahdid bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, er yuzidagi bosqinchilar tomonidan ko'rib chiqilishi kerak bo'lgan xavf ham mavjud edi; ostida Germaniya qurishga ruxsat berilgan uchta "cho'ntak jangovar kemalari" Versal shartnomasi okean tijoratiga qarshi hujumlarni hisobga olgan holda ishlab chiqilgan va qurilgan edi. Ularning kuchli zirhlari, 11 dyuymli qurollari va 26 tugunli (48 km / soat) tezligi ularga har qanday ingliz kreyseridan ustun turishga imkon berdi va ulardan ikkitasi Admiral Graf Spi va Deutschland 21 va 24 avgust kunlari suzib ketgan va endi dengizdan qochib qutulgan Shimoliy patrul, Shotlandiya va Islandiya. The Deutschland yopiq qoldi Grenlandiya savdo kemalarining hujumini kutmoqda, shu bilan birga Graf Spee Ekvator bo'ylab janubga tezlik bilan sayohat qildi va tez orada Atlantika okeanining janubiy qismida ingliz savdo kemalarini cho'ktira boshladi. Nemis flotida an'anaviy jangovar chiziqni o'rnatish uchun kapital kemalar yetarli bo'lmaganligi sababli, inglizlar va frantsuzlar nemis tijorat reyderlarini ta'qib qilish va cho'ktirish uchun ov guruhlarini tuzish uchun o'z parklarini tarqatib yuborishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi, ammo ikkala bosqinchi uchun ov bog'lash edi yordamchi kemalar va konvoylarni himoya qilish uchun qo'shimcha og'ir kemalar bilan birga 23 dan kam bo'lmagan muhim kemalar.
Urush boshlanganda nemis savdo flotining katta qismi dengizda edi va 30% atrofida Ispaniya, Meksika, Janubiy Amerika, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari kabi hujum qilish mumkin bo'lmagan neytral portlarda boshpana izladilar. Portugaliyaning Sharqiy Afrikasi va Yaponiya. Yigirma sakkiz nemis boksit kemalar joylashtirilgan Triest kabi bir nechta yo'lovchi laynerlari, masalan Nyu York, Sent-Luis va Bremen uyga sudralib ketishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi, aksariyati tovarlari yomonlashib yoki o'z uylarida chiriyotgan bo'lib qolishdi va agar ittifoq kemalari portdan chiqib ketmoqchi bo'lsalar, ularni zudlik bilan ushlashni yoki cho'ktirishni kutmoqdalar. Nemislar kemalarni yo'qotishdan saqlanishning turli usullarini sinab ko'rishdi, masalan, o'zlarini neytral kemalar qiyofasida ko'rsatish yoki kemalarini chet el bayroqlariga sotish, ammo xalqaro huquq urush davrida bunday operatsiyalarga yo'l qo'ymadi. 1939 yil Rojdestvoga qadar kamida 19 nemis savdo kemalari ittifoqchilar tomonidan qabul qilinishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik o'rniga, o'zlarini chalg'itdilar.[20] Cho'ntak jangovar kemasi Graf Spee o'zi edi chayqalib tashqarida Montevideo, Urugvay, qaerda u zarar etkazilgan zararni tiklashni qidirgan Daryo plitasining jangi, inglizlar uni cho'ktirishga topshirilgan katta dengiz kuchlarining kelishi haqida yolg'on mish-mish tarqatgandan so'ng, Qirollik floti uchun dastlabki muvaffaqiyat.
Kontrabanda nazorati
Deklaratsiyadan bir kun o'tib, Britaniya Admiralti barcha savdo kemalari dengiz kontrabandasini nazorat qilish xizmati va o'z kemalarini Angliya qo'mondonligi ostiga olgan Frantsiya blokadasi vazirligi tomonidan ekspertizadan o'tkazilishi kerakligini e'lon qildi.[21] Dastlabki strategiyadan foydalanish natijasida yuzaga kelgan dahshatli azob-uqubatlar va ochlik tufayli qasddan rasmiy ravishda blokirovka e'lon qilinmadi,[22] lekin kommunikatsiya olib o'tilgan taqdirda musodara qilinishi kerak bo'lgan kontrabanda urush turlarini sanab o'tdi. Unga barcha turdagi oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari, hayvonlar uchun yem, em-xashak va kiyim-kechaklar hamda ularni ishlab chiqarishda ishlatiladigan buyumlar va materiallar kiritilgan. Bu "Shartli kontrabanda urushi" deb nomlangan. Bundan tashqari, quyidagilarni tashkil etuvchi Mutlaq kontrabanda bor edi.
- Ishlatishga yaroqli barcha o'q-dorilar, portlovchi moddalar, kimyoviy vositalar kimyoviy urush
- Quruqlikda, suvda yoki havoda transport vositalari uchun har qanday yoqilg'i va har xil yoqilg'i
- Dushmanlik harakatlarini amalga oshirish uchun zarur bo'lgan barcha aloqa vositalari, asboblar, asboblar va asboblar
- Tanga, quyma, valyuta va qarz dalillari
Qirollik floti kontrabandani boshqarish uchun uy sharoitida uchta joyni tanladi: Veymut va Pastliklar qoplash uchun janubda Ingliz kanali yondashuvlar va Kirkvol yilda Orkney Shimoliy dengizni qoplash uchun. Agar kemalar hukumat charterida yoki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Ittifoq portlariga yuk yoki yo'lovchilarni tushirish uchun suzib ketayotgan bo'lsa, ular shaxsini aniqlash uchun zarur bo'lgan vaqtdan ko'proq ushlab turilmas edilar, ammo agar boshqa yo'nalishlarda ular belgilangan kontrabandani boshqarish portlarida batafsil ma'lumot olish uchun to'xtab qolsalar. imtihon. Sharqqa qarab harakatlanadigan kemalar Ingliz kanali Downs-dan o'tish niyatida, agar boshqa biron bir kanal portiga qo'ng'iroq qilmasa, kontrabandani tekshirish uchun Veymutga qo'ng'iroq qilishlari kerak.[23] Evropa portlariga boradigan yoki Shotlandiyaning shimoliy qismiga boradigan kemalar Kirkvalda qo'ng'iroq qilishlari kerak.
Uchta ingliz kontrabandasini tekshiradigan yana uchta bino tashkil etildi Gibraltar g'arbiy O'rta er dengizi ichiga va undan chiqishni nazorat qilish, Hayfa Shimoliy Falastinda O'rta dengizning boshqa uchida va Adan Hind okeanining qirg'og'ida Yaman janubiy kirish qismida Qizil dengiz Suvaysh kanali orqali O'rta dengizga kirishni boshqarish. O'rta er dengizi va Qizil dengizning Hind okeaniga chiqishini nazorat qilish uchun Angliya frantsuzlar bilan birgalikda ish olib borar edi, uning dengiz kuchlari dunyoda to'rtinchi o'rinni egalladi va ko'plab zamonaviy, kuchli kemalarni o'z ichiga oladi va qurilishi tugash arafasida. G'arbiy O'rta er dengizi havzasini frantsuzlar orqali ushlab turishga kelishib olindi Marsel va uning bazasi Mers El Kébir (Oran) Jazoir sohilida, inglizlar esa Sharqiy havzani o'z bazasi orqali ushlab turishadi Iskandariya. Ittifoqchilar amaldagi nazoratga ega edilar Suvaysh kanali orqali sharqiy O'rta er dengizi va Hind okeani o'rtasida o'tishni ta'minladi Port-Said kanalning shimoliy kirish qismida. O'sha paytda asosan Frantsiya poytaxti tomonidan qurilgan kanal Britaniya yurisdiksiyasiga kirdi 1936 yildagi Angliya-Misr shartnomasi.
Yuklarni haqiqiy tekshirish ishi bojxonachilar va qirollik dengiz flotining zobitlari va erkaklar tomonidan amalga oshirildi, ular kemalari bilan birgalikda kontrabanda nazorati xizmatiga turli muddatlarda tayinlangan. Nazorat xodimi ishi g'azablangan va ashaddiy neytral skipperlar, xususan Germaniya bilan uzoq muddatli savdo-sotiq an'analariga ega bo'lgan golland va skandinaviyaliklar oldida katta taktikani talab qildi. Kontrabanda nazorati patrullari barcha amaliy ahamiyatga ega edi dengiz yo'llari, barcha neytral kemalarni to'xtatish va sirg'alib o'tmoqchi bo'lganlarning hayotini juda qiyinlashtirishi, ularni portlarga majburlash va tekshiruvdan bir necha kun oldin qo'yish, ba'zi hollarda tez buziladigan tovarlarni buzish. Boshqarish portlari ko'pincha juda ko'p edi, teleprinters doimiy ravishda yuklar ro'yxati va manifestlarini yuborish, import kvotalari ro'yxatiga qarab tekshirilishi kerak. Hatto begunoh kemalar uchun ham bir-ikki kunga kechikish muqarrar edi; Kontrabanda nazorati bo'yicha xodimlar barcha manfaatdorlar uchun nihoyatda muloyim va kechirimlilik ko'rsatmalariga ega edilar. Neytral kapitanlar tez-tez inglizlarning o'z faoliyati to'g'risida oldindan bilganlari darajasida hayrat va hayratni izhor etdilar va tez orada hech narsani yashirish qiyinligini angladilar. Blokadan chetlab o'tishga ko'plab urinishlar qilingan bo'lsa-da, tarmoqdan qochish juda qiyin bo'lgan va aksariyat neytral kapitanlar o'z ixtiyori bilan sakkizta Ittifoq kontrabandasini boshqarish portlaridan birida to'xtashgan.[24]
Iqtisodiy urush vazirligi
Blokada ishtirok etgan turli idoralarni muvofiqlashtirish ishi Iqtisodiy urush vazirligi (MEW), urush boshlanishidan oldin so'nggi bir necha hafta ichida Frederik Ley-Ross tomonidan tashkil etilgan edi. Leyt-Ross tomonidan kechiktirilmagan edi Chemberlen Dastlab blokadani tiklash rejasini iliq kutib olgan, ammo aslida Myunxendan keyin tayyorgarlikni davom ettirish uchun vaqt sarflagan. Leith-Ross o'z ichiga aqlli bankirlarni, statistik mutaxassislarni, iqtisodchilarni va xalqaro huquq bo'yicha mutaxassislarni hamda 400 dan ortiq ma'muriy ishchilar va davlat xizmatchilari uning yangi xizmati uchun.[3] Turli xil chet ellardan va boshqa aloqalardan olinadigan xom razvedkalarni yig'ish va saralash, ularni kema harakatlari va yuklari to'g'risidagi ma'lum ma'lumotlar bilan o'zaro bog'lash va Kontraband nazorati bilan bog'liq har qanday ma'lumotlarni etkazish ularning vazifasi edi. Shuningdek, ular muntazam ravishda savdo qilishlari ma'lum bo'lgan yoki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Germaniya tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan kompaniyalarning qonuniy ro'yxatini - ba'zida "qora ro'yxat" deb ham atashadi. Sentyabr oyi o'rtalarida Vazirlik butun dunyo bo'ylab 278 nemisparast shaxslar va kompaniyalar ro'yxatini e'lon qildi, ular bilan ingliz savdogarlari va kema egalari og'ir jazolarga tortilgan holda, biznes qilishlari taqiqlandi. Ushbu kompaniyalardan jo'natmalar aniqlanganda, ular odatda ushlash uchun ustuvor ahamiyat kasb etdilar.
Birinchi jahon urushidan olingan bir saboq shundaki, dengiz floti ochiq dengizda kemalarni to'xtata olsa ham, vositachi sifatida ish olib borgan savdogarlar, fashistlar uchun zarur bo'lgan materiallarni o'z neytral mamlakatlariga olib kirib, keyin uni quruqlikdan Germaniyaga etkazib berishdi. foyda olish uchun.[25] Leyt-Ross urushdan bir necha oy oldin Germaniya bilan chegaradosh davlatlar odatdagidek olib kiradigan yillik materiallar miqdori bo'yicha katta ma'lumot to'plashda sarflagan, agar urush davrida ushbu darajadan oshib ketsa, bu davlatlarning hokimiyat organlariga chora ko'rish uchun bosim o'tkazilishi mumkin edi. Skandinaviya davlatlari, shuningdek Italiya va Bolqon mamlakatlaridan, shuningdek Germaniyaga yirik etkazib beruvchilar bo'lgan diplomatlarga turli xil tovarlarning kvota ro'yxatlari berildi va ularga bu miqdorlarni olib kirish mumkinligi va bundan buyon ularga qarshi choralar ko'rilishi aytilgan.
Boshqarish portida to'xtab turgan kema tekshiruvni kutayotganligini bildirish uchun ko'k chegarali qizil va oq bayroqni ko'tarib chiqdi. Kechasi port ma'murlari signalni yoritib, kemani to'xtatib qo'yishi kerakligini ogohlantirdilar va bayroq kema o'tib ketguncha ko'tarilishi kerak edi. Kemalarga chiqish va ularni ko'rib chiqish ishlari "internat xonasi" da amalga oshirildi va oxir-oqibat 2 nafar zobit va 6 kishidan iborat guruh baliq ovi haydovchisiga yoki motorga kemaga yo'l oldi. Kapitandan muammo uchun kechirim so'raganlaridan so'ng, ular kemaning hujjatlarini ko'zdan kechirdilar konosamentlar. Shu bilan birga simsiz idishni muhrlangan edi, shuning uchun kema boshqariladigan zonada bo'lganida signal yuborilmasligi mumkin edi. Yuklarning yozma yozuvlarga mos kelishini qoniqtirgandan so'ng, ziyofat qirg'oqqa qaytib keldi va manifest, yo'lovchilar, kelib chiqish joylari va manzillari haqida qisqacha ma'lumot Vazirlikka teleprinter orqali yuborildi. Vazirlik roziligi olgach, kemaning hujjatlari kapitanga dengiz floti rasmiylashtiruvi to'g'risidagi guvohnoma va bir qator maxsus bayroqlar - har kuni uchun bittadan - ular allaqachon tekshirilganligini va boshqa patrul va portlardan o'tishlari mumkinligini bildirgan holda qaytarib berildi. to'xtadi. Agar vazirlik shubhali narsani aniqlagan bo'lsa, guruh yukni tekshirish uchun qaytib keldi. Agar yukning bir qismi yoki barchasi aniqlansa, kema yuklarni saqlash joyi bo'lgan qulayroq portga yo'naltirilgan Mukofot sudi Admirallik Marshal tomonidan sud qarorini qabul qilish uchun o'tirguniga qadar o'tkazgan, bu kapitanga qaytarib berilishi yoki keyinchalik sotilishi uchun musodara qilinganligini tasdiqlashi va tushgan mablag'lar parkdan keyin taqsimlash uchun mukofot fondiga joylashtirilishi mumkin. urush. Bundan norozi kapitan musodara to'g'risida noqonuniy deb da'vo qilishi mumkin edi, ammo taqiqlangan tovarlarning ro'yxati ataylab "urush materiallari ishlab chiqarishga ishlatilishi yoki ishlab chiqarishga konvertatsiya qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan har qanday tovarlarni" o'z ichiga olgan holda keng tarqalgan.
Urushning dastlabki to'rt haftasida rasmiy ma'lumotlarga ko'ra Qirollik floti 289 ming tonna kontrabanda va Frantsuzcha Marine Nationale 100000 tonna. Nemislar bunga javoban ittifoqchilarning portlariga mo'ljallangan mollarni o'zlarining blokirovkalari bilan javob berishdi va deyarli inglizlar ro'yxatiga o'xshash kontrabanda ro'yxatini e'lon qilishdi.[26] Barcha neytral trafik Boltiq dengizi tekshirish uchun Kiel kanalidan o'tishi kerak edi, ammo ularning dushmanlarining dengiz kuchlarining bir qismi bilan bu harakat ko'proq bo'ysunmadi, ammo bu boshqa materiallar qatori Buyuk Britaniyani ta'minlaydigan neytral Skandinaviya kemalariga katta ta'sir ko'rsatishi kerak edi. katta miqdorda yog'och xamiri portlovchi tsellyuloza va gazeta qog'ozi uchun. Germaniya Norvegiya, Shvetsiya va Finlyandiya pulpa qayiqlarini nishonga olishni boshladi, Shvetsiya pulpa sanoatini to'xtatmasdan va hujumlar to'xtamaguncha Germaniyaga temir javhari yuborishni to'xtatish bilan tahdid qildi.[27] Keyin Germaniya Daniyaga dushmanlari bilan erkin savdo qilishga ruxsat berish to'g'risidagi va'dasini buzgan holda, Britaniyaga sariyog ', tuxum va bekon olib ketayotgan Daniya kemalarini tortib olishni boshladi.
1939 yil 21 sentyabrgacha 300 dan ortiq ingliz va 1225 neytral kemalar hibsga olingan, ularning 66 tasida yuklar musodara qilingan. Ko'pgina hollarda ushbu yuklar ittifoqchilarning o'z urush harakatlari uchun foydalidir - Kontrabanda nazorati Germaniya uchun mo'ljallangan 2 tonna kofe partiyasini ham ushlab oldi, u erda aholi uzoq vaqtdan beri umuman qahva loviyasidan tayyorlanmagan ichimlik o'rnini bosuvchi moddalarga aylantirilgan edi. Daniya kemasining manifesti qachon Daniya, "Halal Shipping Company Ltd" tomonidan boshqariladigan, tekshirildi, oluvchi "Herr Gitler, Republique Grand Allemagne Prezidenti" ro'yxatiga kiritildi.[23] Urushning boshidan oktyabrning boshigacha kunlik o'rtacha soni neytral Veymutda ixtiyoriy ravishda to'xtagan kemalar 20 tani tashkil etdi, shulardan 513000 tonnani tashiydigan 74 ta; 90 300 tonna kontrabanda temir rudasi, bug'doy, mazut, benzin va marganets ushlangan.[28] Orkney va Kentdagi boshqa ikkita kontrabanda stantsiyalarida bundan ham ko'proq ishlar amalga oshirildi.
Yuk tashish tanqisligi
Urush boshida Germaniya 60 ta qayiqqa ega edi, ammo tezda yangi kemalarni qurayotgan edi va 1940 yil yoziga qadar 140 dan ortiq kemalarga ega bo'lar edi. Angliya to'g'ridan-to'g'ri kema qarama-qarshiliklari uchun ta'sirchan jangovar kemalar va kreyserlarning flotilalarini chaqirishi mumkin edi. og'ir kemalar U qayiqlariga nisbatan cheklangan darajada foydalanilgan. Angliya 1917 yilda jang avjida bo'lgan 339 esminetsning yarmidan kamini saqlab qoldi. U-qayiqlar Britaniyani taslim bo'lishni o'ylashga majbur qilganda.
Zudlik bilan yangi deb nomlangan kichik eskort kemasining 58 tasiga buyurtmalar berildi korvet 12 oy ichida yoki undan kam vaqt ichida qurilishi mumkin. Sohil bo'yida ishlash uchun Admiraltining yangi dizaynidagi motorlar ishga tushirildi va keyinchalik korvetning takomillashtirilgan versiyasi - frekat yotqizilgan. Oceangoing va haqiqiy jangovar harakatlar uchun esminetslarni bo'shatish uchun savdo kemalari konvertatsiya qilingan va eskort ishi uchun qurollangan, frantsuz kemalari ham jihozlangan ASDIC suvga botgan qayiq borligini aniqlashga imkon beradigan to'plamlar.
Kema qurilishining keng miqyosda kengayishi Britaniyaning kema qurish imkoniyatlarini, shu jumladan Kanadadagi hovlilarini ham cheklab qo'ydi. 1940 yildan keyin tugamaydigan kemalarning qurilishi yoki qurilishi qisqartirildi yoki foydasiga to'xtatildi yoki tezda tugatilishi mumkin bo'lgan kemalar, shu bilan birga to'rtta yangi aviatashuvchi kemalar parkiga topshirildi. Xayolparast sinf, 1936 yilda favqulodda tekshiruv ostida buyurtma qilingan va barchasi tugatilgan yoki tugash arafasida bo'lgan, keyinchalik ko'proq foydali kemalar foydasiga urush oxirigacha qoldirilgan. Yangi harbiy kemalarni tugatish uchun katta kuch sarflandi Qirol Jorj V va Uels shahzodasi oldin Bismark nihoyasiga etkazishi va ittifoqchilar konvoylariga hujum qilishni boshlashi mumkin edi, frantsuzlar ham xuddi shunday ilg'or harbiy kemalarni tugatishga majbur bo'lishdi. Richelieu va Jan Bart 1940 yilning kuzida O'rta er dengizi xavfini qondirish uchun Italiyaning ikkita harbiy kemasi tugash arafasida.
Yordamchi dengiz osti kemalari tayyorlanayotgan birinchi muhim haftalardagi bo'shliqni bartaraf etish uchun aviatsiya kemalari Britaniya qirg'oqlariga yaqinlashib kelayotgan ko'plab himoyasiz kemalarni kuzatib borish uchun ishlatilgan. Ammo bu strategiya qimmatga tushdi; yangi tashuvchi Ark Royal 14 sentyabr kuni U-qayiq tomonidan hujumga uchragan va u qochib ketganda, eski tashuvchi Jasoratli bir necha kundan keyin og'ir hayot yo'qotish bilan cho'kib ketganligi uchun omadli emas edi. Portdan chiqadigan kemalar quruqlikdagi bazalardan uchadigan samolyotlardan cheklangan himoya ekrani bilan ta'minlanishi mumkin edi, ammo ziddiyatning ushbu bosqichida "Atlantika oralig'idagi bo'shliq, bu erda avtoulovlar havo qopqog'i bilan ta'minlanmagan. Cherchill yo'qotilganidan afsuslandi Berexaven va boshqasi Janubiy Irlandiya portlari, Irlandiya rahbarining qat'iyati tufayli eskortlarning operatsion radiusini sezilarli darajada kamaytiradi Éamon de Valera ziddiyatda qat'iyat bilan betaraf qolish.
Urushning birinchi haftasida Angliya 65000 tonna yuk tashishni yo'qotdi; in the second week, 46,000 tons were lost, and in the third week 21,000 tons.By the end of September 1939, regular ocean convoys were in operation, outward from the Thames and Liverpool, and inwards from Gibraltar, Fritaun va Galifaks. To make up the losses of merchant vessels and to allow for increased imports of war goods, negotiations began with neutral countries such as Norway and the Netherlands towards taking over their freighters on central government charter.
Elsewhere, the blockade began to do its work. From Norway, across and down the North Sea, in the Channel and throughout the Mediterranean and Red Sea, Allied sea and air power began slowly to bleed away Germany's supplies. In the first 7 days of October alone, the British Contraband Control detained, either by confiscating neutral cargoes or capturing German ships, 13,800 tons of petrol, 2,500 tons of sulphur, 1,500 tons of jute (the raw material from which hessian and burlap cloth is made), 400 tons of textiles, 1,500 tons animal feed, 1,300 tons oils and fats, 1,200 tons of foodstuffs, 600 tons oilseeds, 570 tons copper, 430 tons of other ores and metals, 500 tons of phosphates, 320 tons of timber and various other quantities of chemicals, cotton, wool, hides and skins, rubber, silk, gums and resins, tanning material and ore crushing machinery.
Two months into the war, the Ministry reintroduced the 'Navicert' (Navigational Sertifikatificate), first used to great effect during World War I. This system was in essence a commercial passport applied to goods before they were shipped, and was used on a wide scale. Possession of a Navicert proved that a consignment had already been passed as non-contraband by His Majesty's Ambassador in the country of origin and allowed the captain to pass Contraband Control patrols and ports without being stopped, sparing the navy and the Ministry the trouble of tracking the shipment. Violators, however, could expect harsh treatment. They could be threatened with Bunker Control measures, refused further certification or have their cargo or their vessel impounded. Conversely, neutrals who went out of their way to co-operate with the measures could expect 'favoured nation' status, and have their ships given priority for approval. Italy, though an ally of Hitler, had not yet joined the war, and its captains enjoyed much faster turnarounds by following the Navicert system than the Americans, who largely refused to accept its legitimacy.
U.S. reaction to the British blockade
Passenger ships were also subject to Contraband Control because they carried luggage and small cargo items such as postal mail and parcels, and the Americans were particularly furious at the British insistence on opening all mail destined for Germany.[29] By 25 November 1939, 62 U.S. ships of various types had been stopped, some for as long as three weeks, and a lot of behind-the-scenes diplomacy took place to smooth over the political fallout. On 22 December the AQSh Davlat departamenti made a formal protest, to no avail. On 30 December the Manxetten, carrying 400 tons of small cargo, sailed from New York to deliver mail to Italy, but was stopped six days later by a British destroyer at Gibraltar. Although the captain went ashore to make a furious protest to the authorities with the American Consulate, the ship was delayed for 40 hours as British Contraband Control checked the records and ship's manifest, eventually removing 235 bags of mail addressed to Germany.
In the U.S., with its tradition that "the mail must always get through", and where armed robbery of the mail carried a mandatory 25-year jail term, there were calls for mail to be carried on warships, but the exercise – as with all such journeys – was repeated on the homeward leg as Contraband Control searched the ship again for anything of value that might have been taken out of Germany. On 22 January the UK ambassador was handed a note from the State Department calling the practice 'wholly unwarrantable' and demanding immediate correction. But despite the Buyuk Britaniya tashqi ishlar vazirligi urging the Ministry of Economic Warfare to be cautious for fear of damaging relations with the US, the British claimed to have uncovered a nationwide US conspiracy to send clothing, jewels, securities, cash, foodstuffs, chocolate, coffee and soap to Germany through the post, and there was no climbdown.
Gruss und Kuss
From the war's beginning, a steady stream of packages, many marked Gruss und Kuss ("greetings and kisses!") had been sent from the United States through neutral countries to Germany by a number of US-based organisations, euphemistically termed 'travel agencies', advertising special combinations of gift packages in German-language newspapers.[30] Despite high prices, one mail company, the Fortra Corporation of Manhattan admitted it had sent 30,000 food packages to Germany in less than three months, a business which exceeded US$1 million per year. The British said that, of 25,000 packages examined in three months, 17,000 contained contraband of food items as well as cash in all manner of foreign currency, diamonds, pearls, and maps of "potential military value." When a ton of air mail from the Pan American Airlines (PAA) flying boat Amerika Clipper was confiscated in Bermuda, the American government banned outright the sending of parcels through the US airmail. During this period, the Italian Lati Airline, flying between South America and Europe was also used to smuggle[31] small articles such as diamonds and platinum, in some cases, concealed within the airframe, until the practice was ended by the Brazilian and US governments and the airline's assets in Brazil confiscated after the British intelligence services in the Americas engineered a breakdown in relations between the airline and the Brazilian government. The US travel agencies were eventually closed down along with the German consulates and information centres on 16 June 1941.
Fenilar urushi
During the early months of the war—the Feneni urushi —the only place where there was substantial fighting was at sea.[4] News of the successes achieved by the men of Contraband Control were rarely out of the newspapers, and provided useful propaganda to shore up civilian morale. In the first 15 weeks of the war the Allies claimed to have taken 870,000 tons of goods, equal to 10% of Germany's normal imports for an entire year. This included 28 million US gallons (110,000 m3) of petrol and enough animal hides for 5 million pairs of boots, and did not take account of the loss to Germany from goods that had not been shipped at all for fear of seizure.
German preparations to counter the effects of the military and economic war were much more severe than in Britain. On 4 September a tax of 50% was placed on beer and tobacco, and income tax went up to 50%. For months previously, all able-bodied people in cities had by law to carry out war work such as filling sandbags for defenses and air-raid shelters, and it was now made an offense to ask for a raise in salary or to demand extra pay for overtime.[27] On 7 September wide-ranging new powers were granted to Geynrix Ximmler to punish the populace for 'Endangering the defensive power of the German people'; the next day a worker was shot for refusing to take part in defensive work.[18] The new legislation, frequently enforced by the Peoples Court, was made deliberately vague to cover a variety of situations, and could be very severe. In time it would lead to the death penalty for such crimes as forging food coupons and protesting against the administration. Shirer recorded in his diary on 15 September that the blockade was already having a direct effect. It had cut Germany off from 50% of her normal imports of nickel, cotton, tin, oil and rubber, and since the war's beginning she had also lost access to French iron ore, making her extremely reliant on Sweden for this vital material.
Germany now looked to Romania for a large part of the oil she needed and to Soviet Union for a wide range of commodities. In fact, apart from allowing Hitler to secure his eastern borders and annihilate Poland, the Nazi-Soviet Pact brought Germany considerable economic benefits. As well as providing refueling and repair facilities for German U-boats and other vessels at its remote Arctic port of Teriberka, sharqiy Murmansk, the Soviets – 'Belligerent Neutrals' in Churchill's words – also accepted large quantities of wheat, tin, petrol and rubber from America into its ports in the Arctic and Black Sea and, rather than transport them over the entire continent, released identical volumes of the same material to Germany in the west. Before the war total US exports to Soviet Union were estimated as less than £1m per month; by this stage, they were known to exceed £2m per month. From the outset, although they had formerly been hated enemies, large-scale direct trade took place between the two countries because both were able to offer something the other wanted.[8] Germany lacked the natural resources Soviet Union had in abundance, whereas Soviet Union was at that time still a relatively backward country in want of the latest technology. By the end of October 1939 the Soviets were sending large quantities of oil and grain in return for war materials such as fighter aircraft and machine tools for manufacturing in a deal valued at 150 million Reichmarks a year.
The Germans maintained an aggressive strategy at sea in order to press home their own blockade of the Allies. Lloydning ro'yxati showed that by the end of 1939 they had sunk 249 ships by U-boat, air attack, or by mines. These losses included 112 British and 12 French vessels, but also demonstrated the disproportionate rate of loss by neutral nations. Norway, a great seafaring nation since the days of the Vikinglar had lost almost half its fleet in World War I, yet now possessed a merchant navy of some 2,000 ships, with tonna exceeded only by Britain, the US, and Japan. They had already lost 23 ships, with many more attacked and dozens of sailors killed, while Sweden, Germany's main provider of iron ore, had lost 19 ships, Denmark 9, and Belgium 3. The Netherlands, with 75% of her commercial shipping outgoing from Rotterdam to Germany, had also lost 7 ships, yet all these countries continued to trade with Germany. Churchill was endlessly frustrated and bemused by the refusal of the neutrals to openly differentiate between the British and German methods of waging the sea war, and by their determination to maintain pre-war patterns of trade, but stopped short of condemning them, believing that events would eventually prove the Allies to be in the right. U izoh berdi;
- At present their plight is lamentable and will become much worse. They bow humbly in fear of German threats of violence, each one hoping that if he feeds the crocodile enough the crocodile will eat him last and that the storm will pass before their turn comes to be devoured. What would happen if these neutrals, with one spontaneous impulse were to do their duty in accordance with the Liga Kelishuvi [of Nations] and stand together with the British and French Empires against aggression and wrong?.
The neutral commerce which Churchill found most perplexing was the Swedish iron ore trade.[4] Sweden provided Germany with 9m tons of high grade ore per year via its Baltic ports, without which German armaments manufacture would be paralyzed. These ports froze in the winter, but an alternative route was available from the Norwegian port of Narvik from which the ore was transported down a partially hidden sea lane (which Churchill called the Norwegian Corridor) between the shoreline and the Skjaergaard (Skjærgård), a continuous chain of some 50,000 glacially formed skerries (small uninhabited islands), sea stacks and rocks running the entire 1,600 km length of the west coast. As in World War I, the Germans used the Norwegian Corridor to travel inside the 3-nautical-mile (5.6 km)-wide neutral waters where the Royal Navy and RAF were unable to attack them. Churchill considered this to be the 'greatest impediment to the blockade', and continually pressed for the mining of the Skjaergaard to force the German ships to come out into the open seas where Contraband Control could deal with them, but the Norwegians, not wishing to antagonise the Germans, steadfastly refused to allow it.
Even so, by early October the Allies were growing increasingly confident at the effectiveness of their blockade and the apparent success of the recently introduced convoy system. A convoy of 15 freighters arrived in British ports unscathed from Canada bringing half a million bushels of wheat, while in France more important ships arrived from Galifaks in another convoyed group. The French claimed that of 30 U-boats sent out in Germany's first major offensive against Allied shipping, a third had been destroyed, and Churchill declared that Britain had seized 150,000 more tons of contraband than was lost by torpedoing.[27] Oktyabr oyining o'rtalarida Adolf Gitler called for fiercer action by his U-boat crews and the Luftwaffe to enforce his counter-blockade, and warned the Allies of his new 'secret weapon'. Neutral ships were warned against joining Allied convoys, Scandinavian merchants were ordered to use the Kiel Canal to facilitate the German's own Contraband Control and the US Flint shahri, which had rescued survivors of the Afiniya became the first American ship captured as prize of war by the Germans, although the episode proved farcical and the ship was eventually returned to its owners.
Minenkrieg
Hitler's 'secret weapon' of the time was the magnit koni.[4] The Germans had used mines against freighters from the beginning, but now began laying a new type, which did not need to make contact with a ship to destroy it, off the English coast, using dengiz samolyotlari to drop them in British harbours, channels and estuaries too narrow or shallow for submarines to navigate. They ranged from small 200 lb (91 kg) mines dropped dozens at a time to large one-ton versions dropped by parachute on shoal bottoms which were almost impossible to sweep, equipped with magnetic triggers activated by a steel hull passing above. Over the next few days many ships of all sizes blew up in waters close to shore, mostly by explosions under or near the keels although the waters had been swept. Six went down in the mouth of the Temza va yangi kreyser Belfast was badly damaged at the mouth of the To'rtinchi Firth.
The British urgently set to work to find a defence against the magnetic mine and began preparations to recreate the Shimoliy Barrage, established between Scotland and Norway in 1917 as a safeguard against increasing U-boat attacks.[4] In his war speech to the Empire, Prime Minister Nevill Chemberlen declared: "Already we know the secret of the magnetic mine and we shall soon master it as we have already mastered the U-boat", but shortly afterwards two more ships were sunk, bringing the week's total to 24. Evidence that at least part of Germany's attack was with illegal floating mines came when a British freighter was sunk at anchor off an east coast port, when two mines came together and exploded off Zeebrugge, and when a large whale was found near four German mines on the Belgian coast with a huge hole in its belly.[32] Over the weekend of 18–21 November six other neutral ships were sunk off the English coast, including a 12,000 ton Japanese liner.[27]
Eventually, a method of de-magnetising ships, known as degaussing was developed, which involved girding them in electric cable, and was quickly applied to all ships. Other means of minesweeping were also developed, whereby the mines were exploded by patrolling ships and aircraft fitted with a special fuse provocation apparatus.
Export ban
From early December 1939 the British began preventing German exports as a reprisal for the damage and loss of life caused by the German magnetic mines.[32] Chamberlain said that although he realised this would be detrimental to the neutrals, (Norway got nearly all its coal from Germany) the policy was in strict adherence to the rules of law and that whereas Germany's use of mines and submarine warfare had already caused many innocent deaths regardless of nationality, no loss of life had been caused by the exercise of British sea power. Before the war, 70% of Germany's export trade was with European countries, mostly the Netherlands, France and England, but the Ministry estimated that Germany's remaining annual exports were worth £44m to South America, £19m to the Far East, £15m to the US, and that although nothing could be done to prevent the overland exports to Scandinavia, Italy, Russia and the Balkans, it was believed that German sea trade could be reduced by 45% by the measure.
Angry at the British export ban, the German Government accused the British of having deliberately sunk the Simon Bolivar, lost on 18 November with the loss of 120 people, including women and children. They advised neutrals to shun British waters and trade with Germany, declaring that because of the defensive minefields and contraband control, British waters were not mercantile fairways subject to the Hague Convention regulating sea warfare, but military areas where enemy ships of war must be attacked. Prompted by Germany, all the neutrals protested, but the overall effect was to slow the flow of neutral shipping to a standstill. The Nazi leadership later grew bullish at the apparent success of the mine strategy and admitted they were of German origin, stating that "our objectives are being achieved."
In Berlin, William Shirer recorded in his diary that there were signs of a rush to convert currency into goods to guard against inflation, but that although the blockade now meant that the German diet was very limited, there was generally enough to eat and people were at that point rarely going hungry. However, it was no longer possible to entertain at home unless the guests brought their own food and though restaurants and cafes still traded they were now very expensive and crowded.[32] Pork, veal and beef were rare, but in the early months there was still adequate venison, wild pig and wildfowl shot on estates and in forests. Coal was now very difficult to obtain however, and although sufficient crayfish were imported from the Danubian nations to allow an enjoyable festive meal, people went cold that Christmas. In fact, Germany produced large volumes of very high quality coal in the Saar region, but much of it was now being used to produce sintetik kauchuk, oil and gas. There were reports that Germany, which badly needed to raise foreign currency had been trying to export bicycles and cars to adjacent countries without tyres. The average German worker worked for 10 hours a day 6 days a week; but although he may have had enough money to buy them, most items were not available, and shops displayed goods in their windows accompanied by a sign saying 'Not For Sale'[18][33]
Such was the belief in the supreme strength of the Royal Navy that some thought that the blockade might now be so effective in restricting Germany's ability to fight that Hitler would be forced to come to the negotiation table.[34]
Meanwhile, at the beginning of 1940 there were still 60 German merchant ships alone in South American harbours, costing £300,000 per month in port and harbour dues, and Hitler eventually ordered them all to try to make a break for home. Up to the end of February 1940 about 70 had tried to get away, but very few reached Germany. Most were sunk or scuttled, and at least eight foundered on rocks trying to negotiate the way down the unfamiliar and hazardous Norwegian coast. The Germans tended to prefer to sink the ships themselves rather than allow the Allies to capture them, even at risk to those aboard. Such was the case of the Kolumb, Germany's third-largest liner at 32,581 tons, and the Glucksburg, which ran herself ashore on the coast of Spain when sighted. Another, the 'Watussi', was sighted off the Cape by the Janubiy Afrika havo kuchlari and the crew immediately set her on fire, trusting the aircrew to bring aid to the passengers and crew.
That winter was harsh, causing the Dunay to freeze and heavy snow slowed rail transport, stalling Germany's grain and oil imports from Romania. The UK, having deprived Spain of her exports of iron ore to Germany entered into a deal to buy the ore instead via the Biskay ko'rfazi, along with copper, mercury and lead to enable the Spanish, who were on the verge of famine, to raise the foreign exchange she needed to buy grain from South America to feed her people.
1940
On 17 January 1940 the Iqtisodiy urush vaziri, Ronald Cross said in a speech in the Jamiyat palatasi:
- We have made a good start, we must bear in mind that Germany does not have the same resources she had some 25 years ago. Her resources in gold and foreign currency are smaller; her stocks of industrial raw materials are far smaller. At the end of four and a half months, Germany is in something like the same economic stress she was in after two years of the last war.[14]
Shunga qaramay kinostudiyalar showing the effectiveness and power of the Nazi Blitskrig, which even her enemies believed, Germany was unable to afford a prolonged war. In order to buy from abroad without credit or foreign exchange (cash), a nation needed goods or gold to offer, but the British export ban prevented her from raising revenue. In World War I, even after two years of war Germany still had gold reserves worth 2.5m marks and over 30 billion marks invested abroad, giving her easy access to exports.[35] By this early stage of World War II, her gold reserves were down to around half a billion marks and her credit was almost nil, so any imports had to be paid for by barter, as with the high-technology equipment sent to Russia or coal to Italy.
1940 yil fevral oyida Karl Ritter, who had brokered huge pre-war barter agreements with Brazil, visited Moscow and, despite finding Stalin an incredibly fierce negotiator, an increased savdo bitimi was eventually signed between Germany and Russia. It was valued at 640 million Reyxmarks in addition to that previously agreed, for which Germany would supply heavy naval guns, thirty of her latest aircraft including the Messerschmitt 109, Messerschmitt 110 va Yunkers 88, locomotives, turbines, generators, the unfinished cruiser Lyutsov and the plans to the battleship Bismark. In return Russia supplied in the first year one million tons of cereal, ½ million tons of wheat, 900,000 tons of oil, 100,000 tons of cotton, ½ million tons of fosfatlar, one million tons of soya beans and other goods. Although the Germans had been able to find numerous ways of beating the blockade, shortages were now so severe that on 30 March 1940, when he was gearing up for his renewed Blitskrig in the west, Hitler ordered that delivery of goods in payment to Russia should take priority even over those to his own armed forces. After the fall of France Hitler, intending to invade Russia the following year, declared that the trade need continue only until the spring of 1941, after which the Nazis intended to take all they needed.[8]
As more U-boats were commissioned into the German navy, the terrible toll on neutral merchant shipping intensified. After the first 6 months of the war, Norway had lost 49 ships with 327 men dead; Denmark 19 ships for 225 sailors killed and Sweden 32 ships for 243 men lost. Mart oyining boshida, Admiral Raeder was interviewed by an American correspondent from NBC regarding the alleged use of unrestrained submarine warfare. Raeder maintained that because the British blockade was illegal, the Germans were entitled to respond with 'similar methods', and that because the British government had armed many of its merchant ships and used civilians to man coastal patrol vessels and minesweepers, any British ship sighted was considered a legitimate target. Raeder said that neutrals would only be liable to attack if they behaved as belligerents i.e. by zig-zagging or navigating without lights. The paradox with this argument – as the neutral countries were quick to point out – was that Germany was benefiting from the very same maritime activity they were trying so hard to destroy.
On 6 April, after the sinking of the Norwegian mail steamer Mira, the Norwegian Foreign Minister Professor Koht, referring to 21 protests made to belligerents about breaches to her neutrality, made a statement about the German sinking of Norwegian ships by U-boats and aircraft.[36] "We cannot understand how men of the German forces can find such a practice in accordance with their honour or humanitarian feelings". A few hours later another ship, the Navarra was torpedoed without warning, with the loss of 12 Norwegian seamen, by a U-boat which did not stop to pick up survivors.
Intensification of the blockade
Despite impressive statistics of the quantities of contraband captured, by the spring of 1940 the optimism of the British government over the success of the blockade appeared premature and a feeling developed that Germany was managing to maintain and even increase imports. Although the MEW tried to prevent it, neighbouring neutral countries continued to trade with Germany. In some cases, as with the crucial Swedish iron ore trade, it was done openly, but elsewhere, neutrals secretly acted as a conduit for supplies of materials that would otherwise be confiscated if sent directly to Germany.
A third of Dutchmen derived their livelihood from German trade, and Dutch traders were long suspected of acting as middle men in the supply of copper, tin, oil and sanoat olmoslari Amerikadan. Official figures showed that in the first 5 months of war, the Netherlands' imports of key materials from the US increased by £4.25m, but also Norway's purchases in the same area increased threefold to £3m a year, Sweden's by £5m and Switzerland's by £2m. Prominent in these purchases were cotton, petrol, iron, steel and copper – materials essential for waging war. While some increases may have been inflationary, some from a desire to build up their own armed forces or to stockpile reserves, it was exactly the type of activity the Ministry was trying to prevent.
American companies were prevented from openly supplying arms to belligerents by the Neutrality Acts, (an amendment was made on 21 September in the form of Naqd pul va tashish ) but no restrictions applied to raw materials. During the last 4 months of 1939, exports from the US to the 13 states capable of acting as middlemen to Germany amounted to £52m compared to £35m for the same period in 1938. By contrast, Britain and France spent £67m and £60m in the same periods respectively, and according to a writer in the New York World Telegram, exports to the 8 countries bordering Germany exceeded the loss of US exports previously sent directly to Germany.
But by far the biggest hole in the blockade was in the Balkans. Birgalikda Yugoslaviya, Romania and Bulgaria annually exported to Germany a large part of their surplus oil, chromium, bauxite, piritlar, oil-bearing nuts, maize, wheat, meat and tobacco. Germany also made big purchases in Greece and Turkey and viewed the region as part of its supply hinterland. Before the war, Britain recognised Germany's special interest in the region and took a very small percentage of this market, but now, via the United Kingdom Commercial Corporation they used their financial power to compete in the Balkans, the Netherlands and Scandinavia, underselling and overbidding in markets to deprive Germany of goods, although Germany was so desperate to maintain supplies that they paid considerably over the normal market rate. As elsewhere, Germany paid in kind with military equipment, for which they were greatly aided with their acquisition of the Czech Skoda armaments interests.
Germany was almost entirely dependent on Hungary and Yugoslavia for bauxite, used in the production of Duralumin, a copper alloy of aluminium critical to aircraft production. The British attempted to stop the bauxite trade by sending undercover agents to blast the Temir darvoza, the narrow gorge where the Dunay orqali kesadi Karpat tog'lari by sailing a fleet of dynamite barges down the river, but the plan was prevented by Romanian police acting on a tip-off from the pro-German Temir qo'riqchi.[iqtibos kerak ] Despite their declared neutrality, the politically unstable Balkan nations found themselves in an uncomfortable position, surrounded by Germany to the North, Italy to the West and Soviet Union to the East, with little room to refuse German veiled threats that, unless they continued to supply what was requested, they would suffer the same fate as Poland. Romania, which had made considerable territorial gains after World War I, exported a large proportion of the oil from its Ploiești site to Britain, its main guarantor of national sovereignty. Romania's production was about equal to that of Ogayo shtati, ranked 16th producer in the US, then a major oil-producing nation. The largest refinery, Astra Română, processed two million tons of petroleum a year but, as Britain's fortunes waned from the beginning of 1940, Romania turned to Germany using its oil as a bargaining tool, hoping for protection from Soviet Union. On 29 May 1940 it stopped sending its oil to Britain, and signed an arms and oil pact with Germany; Romania was soon providing half her oil needs. Britain was able to arrange alternative supplies with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Agreement, signed on 28 August 1940.
The British Supreme War Council met in London on 28 March to discuss ways to intensify the blockade. Ga binoan Iqtisodchi,[qachon? ] in April 1940 the war was costing the UK£5m per day out of total government expenditure of £6.5 – 7m per day. This was during the phoney war, before the fighting on land and air had begun. The Prime Minister said that, while it was out of the question to purchase all exportable surpluses, concentration on certain selected commodities such as minerals, fats and oil could have a useful effect, and announced a deal for Britain to acquire the entire export surplus of whale oil from Norway. Later Britain signed the Anglo-Swiss Trade Deal, and negotiations for war trade agreements were also concluded with Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark. Commercial agreements were negotiated with Spain, Turkey, and Greece, aimed at limiting material to Germany.
Chamberlain also indicated that steps were being taken to stop the Swedish iron ore trade, and a few days later the Norwegian coast was mined in Wilfred operatsiyasi. But perhaps the most important measure taken at this time was the setting up of the Maxsus operatsiyalar ijro etuvchi (SOE) As Professor William MacKenzie recounts in his book Yashirin tarix, the official government history of the organisation written in 1946 with access to SOE files later destroyed, but classified until 2000, its origins go back to March 1939 following the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. It was set up by Lord Halifax with funding from the Secret Vote authorised by Prime Minister Chamberlain. In July 1940 Winston Churchill asked the Lord President (Neville Chamberlain) to define its structure and the document held at Kew CAB66/1 Extract 2 thereafter became known as the Charter of SOE. This Charter also defined the relationship of various organs of state including the security and police services with one another and initially the minister was the new Minister of Economic Warfare Xyu Dalton. Though very few people knew of it at the time, the new organisation, the earlier version of which carried out the attempt to dynamite the Temir darvoza on the Danube, marked a new direction in the Economic War that would pay dividends later on, providing vital intelligence on potential strategic targets for the offensive bomber campaigns that came later in the war. There were turf wars from time to time with SIS who did not want to risk sources being compromised by SOE sabotage of enemy targets.
Bombing of Germany
Shortly after the German invasion of the Low Countries and France, the British took the first tentative steps towards the opening of a strategic air offensive aimed at carrying the fight to Germany. On 11 May 1940 the RAF bombed the city of Myonxengladbax.[37] On the night of 15/16 May 1940, RAF Bomber Command, which until that point had been used for little more than attacking coastal targets and dropping propaganda leaflets, set off on a night time raid on oil production and railway marshalling yards in the Rur tuman.
The mining and manufacturing region of the Ruhr, often likened to the 'Qora mamlakat "ichida Midlands of England, was one of the world's greatest concentrations of metal production and processing facilities as well as chemical and textile factories; the Ruhr was also home to several sintetik yog ' production plants. Juda ko'p tutun was produced by these industries that precision bombing was almost impossible.[iqtibos kerak ] As Germany's most important industrial region, it had been equipped with strong air defenses – Hermann Göring had already declared, "The Ruhr will not be subjected to a single bomb. If an enemy bomber reaches the Ruhr, my name is not Hermann Göring!"[iqtibos kerak ] Because of the smog and the lack of aircraft fitted for havodan suratga olish, the British were unable to determine how effective the raid had been; in fact the damage was negligible.[iqtibos kerak ]
Ikkinchi bosqich
Frantsiyaning qulashi
The signing of the armistice with France in the Compiègne Forest on 24 June 1940 greatly changed the conditions of the Economic War. Hitler assumed control over the whole of Western Europe and Scandinavia (except for Sweden and Switzerland) from the north tip of Norway high above the Arctic Circle to the Pireneylar on the border with Spain, and from the River Bug in Poland to the Ingliz kanali. Germany established new airfields and U-boat bases all the way down the West Norwegian and European coasts.[8] On 30 June 1940 Kanal orollarini Germaniya tomonidan bosib olish boshlangan. In early August Germans installed Dover Strait coastal guns.
From early July the German air force began attacking convoys in the English channel from its new bases and cross-channel guns shelled the Kentish coast in the opening stages of the Britaniya jangi. On 17 August, following his inability to convince the British to make peace, Hitler announced a general blockade of the entire British Isles and gave the order to prepare for a full invasion of England codenamed Dengiz Arslon operatsiyasi. On 1 August Italy, having joined the war, established a submarine base in Bordo. Its submarines were more suited to the O'rta er dengizi, but they successfully ran the British gauntlet through the Straits of Gibraltar and joined the Atlantic blockade. 20 avgustda Benito Mussolini announced a blockade of all British ports in the Mediterranean, and over the next few months the region would experience a sharp increase in fighting.
Meanwhile, in Spain, which had still not recovered from her own Fuqarolar urushi in which over one million died and which was in the grip of famine, General Frantsisko Franko continued to resist German attempts to persuade him to enter the war on the Axis side. Spain supplied Britain with iron ore from the Bay of Biscay, but, as a potential foe, she was a huge threat to British interests as she could easily restrict British naval access into the Mediterranean, either by shelling the Gibraltar qoyasi or by allowing the Germans to lay siege to it from the mainland. Although Spain could gain the restoration of the rock itself and Frantsiya ma'muriyati ostidagi Kataloniya, Franko Buyuk Britaniyaning mag'lubiyatdan yiroqligini va uning ulkan qudratli dengiz floti tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan ingliz kuchlarining Kanar orollarini egallab olishlarini ko'rgan. Shu payt Franko Qirollik floti Norvegiyadagi Germaniya dengiz flotini yuzaga keladigan kuchsiz tahdidga kamaytirganini, Luftvaffe Buyuk Britaniyadagi jangda mag'lub bo'lganini, Qirollik floti frantsuz flotining ko'p qismini vayron qilganini ko'rdi. Mers-el-Kebir, shuningdek, Italiya harbiy kemalarini yo'q qilgan Taranto va Britaniya armiyasi Shimoliy va Sharqiy Afrikada Italiya armiyasini tor-mor qilar edi.[38] Franko vaqt davomida o'ynashda davom etdi. Franko Gitlerga haddan tashqari talablarni qo'ydi, chunki u o'zining shaxsiy narxi sifatida qondirish mumkin emasligini, masalan, aksariyat qismini topshirish kabi. Marokash va ko'p Jazoir Frantsiyadan Ispaniyaga.[39] Feliks operatsiyasi amalga oshmadi.
Amerikaning fikri Frantsiya va undan oldingi qulashidan hayratda qoldi izolyatsionist 1935 yildan boshlab betaraflik harakatlarini olib borgan tuyg'u asta-sekin yangi realizmni keltirib chiqardi. Ruzvelt 1939 yil 21 sentyabrda aktlarga tuzatishlar kiritish to'g'risida muzokara olib borishga ulgurgan edi Naqd pul va tashish nazariy jihatdan Amerikaning xolisligini qo'llab-quvvatlagan bo'lsa-da, ochiqchasiga Angliya va uning foydasiga Hamdo'stlik. Yangi rejaga ko'ra, qurol-yarog 'endi har qanday jangchi tomonidan sotib olinishi mumkin edi, agar ular oldindan to'lashgan va etkazib berish uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmalariga olgan bo'lsalar-da, Germaniya deyarli valyuta ayirboshlamagan va Atlantika okeani orqali ko'plab materiallarni olib o'tolmagan, Buyuk Britaniyaning katta oltin zaxiralari va chet el valyutasi va U-qayiqlar tahdid solishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, uning katta dengiz floti jihozlarning aksariyat qismini portga xavfsiz etkazib berilishini ta'minlashi mumkin edi.
AQSh endi o'z mudofaasi uchun xarajatlarni ko'paytirishni, ayniqsa Yaponiyaning kuchayib borayotgan tahlikasi bilan qabul qilishni qabul qildi, ammo Buyuk Britaniya qurol etkazib berilishidan oldin qulab tushishidan xavotirda edi.[15] Million odamning uchdan bir qismini evakuatsiya qilishdagi muvaffaqiyatga qaramay Dunkirk va undan keyingi evakuatsiyalar Sent-Malo va Sent-Nayzer, Buyuk Britaniya armiyasi 2500 ta og'ir qurol, 64000 ta transport vositasi, 20000 ta mototsikl va yarim million tonnadan ortiq do'kon va o'q-dorilarni qoldirdi. Vaqtinchalik yordam berish uchun, Kongress Buyuk Britaniyada har biri uchun ellikta o'q-dorilar bilan yog'da saqlanadigan million dona mittballed Birinchi miltiq miltig'iga ega bo'lishga rozi bo'ldi. Ammo, quyidagilarga amal qiling 4-iyul kuni Angliyaning Oran shahridagi frantsuz flotiga hujumi uning nemis qo'liga tushib qolishining oldini olish uchun inglizlar kurashni davom ettirish uchun zarur bo'lgan barcha narsani qilishlarini isbotlaydilar va Ruzvelt endi Kongressni Britaniyani yanada qo'llab-quvvatlashiga ishontirish uchun o'z kampaniyasida g'olib chiqmoqda. Asoslar uchun shartnoma[39] va 4000 tank uchun Buyuk Britaniyaning buyurtmasi tasdiqlanishi bilan.
Germaniya g'arbiy Evropa qirg'og'iga yangi yaqinlashgani va transport qatnovi kamayganligi sababli, odatda ochiq dengizni qo'riqlash uchun foydalaniladigan kemalar yanada dolzarb vazifalarga yo'naltirildi.[40] Buyuk Britaniya Veymut va Daunsdagi kontrabandani boshqarish bazalarini to'xtatdi va Shvetsiya, Finlyandiya, Rossiya va uning yaqinda ilova qilingan Boltiq yo'ldoshlariga boradigan bir nechta kemalarni qidirishni davom ettirish uchun skeletlari tarkibidagi barcha xodimlarni Kirkvolddagi nazorat bazasidan olib tashladi. Estoniya, Latviya va Litva 1940 yil 21 iyunda taslim bo'ldi).
Navicert tizimi juda kengaytirildi, birinchi navbatda kontrabanda yuklarining oldini olish maqsadida majburiy Navicerts va kemalarning kafolatlarini joriy qildi.[40] Dushman bo'lmaganligi to'g'risidagi guvohnomasiz portlarga tushadigan yoki qaytib keladigan har qanday yuk va Navicert kemalari bo'lmagan har qanday kema hibsga olinishi kerak.
Yo'qotilgan Gollandiya va Daniya go'sht va sut mahsulotlarining o'rnini Irlandiya va Yangi Zelandiyadagi manbalar egalladi. Kanada butun bir yillik bug'doyni ortiqcha ushlab turdi, AQSh zaxirasi esa tarixdagi eng katta zaxiraga ega edi, ammo Angliya U-qayiq sonining ko'payishi natijasida juda og'ir yuk tashish yo'qotishlariga duch keldi. Nemislar tomonidan qo'lga kiritilmagan deyarli barcha Gollandiya va Belgiya kemalari Angliya savdo flotiga qo'shilishdi, bu Norvegiya va Daniya qo'shgan tonaj bilan birga Britaniyaning savdo dengiziga uchdan bir qismini qo'shib, ularga katta miqdordagi kemalarni taqdim etdi. Dushman zahiralarni sotib olish yo'lini egallashining oldini olish uchun, bosib olingan davlatlar va band bo'lmaganlar (Vichi ) Frantsiya zonasi darhol to'siqqa uchradi, shundan so'ng qattiq tanqislik va og'ir qiyinchiliklar paydo bo'ldi. Garchi vazirlik embargo ba'zi neytral mamlakatlarga tatbiq etilishi haqidagi chaqiriqlarga qarshilik ko'rsatgan bo'lsa-da, keyinchalik butun mamlakatni qamrab olish uchun kengaytirildi metropolitan Frantsiya Jazoir, Tunis va Frantsiya Marokashni o'z ichiga oladi.[41]
Germaniya yutuqlari
Albatta Frantsiya jangi, nemislar har xil turdagi 2000 ta tankni, shu jumladan og'ir frantsuzlarni qo'lga olishdi Char B1 va inglizlar Matildas, 5000 artilleriya, 300000 miltiq va kamida 4 million o'q-dorilar. Bularning barchasi qayta tiklanishi, odam o'ldirilishi yoki hurdalar uchun olib tashlanishi mumkin edi Todt tashkiloti. Uni qo'lga olishdan oldin olib ketishga urinishlariga qaramay, bosib olingan xalqlarning oltin zaxiralari, shuningdek, ko'plab san'at asarlari bilan birga talon-taroj qilindi, ularning aksariyati hech qachon tiklanmagan.
Ishg'ol qilingan mamlakatlar Germaniya talab qilgan yoki xohlagan narsani tinimsiz, muntazam ravishda rekvizitsiya qilishdi.[42] Bu katta jismoniy talon-tarojdan boshlandi, unda Germaniyaga qo'lga kiritilgan qurol-yarog ', texnika, kitoblar, ilmiy asboblar, san'at buyumlari va mebel kabi barcha ko'char mol-mulkni olib borish uchun poezdlar rekvizitsiya qilindi. Vaqt o'tishi bilan boshqa turli xil narsalar, masalan, kiyim-kechak, sovun, parkdagi o'rindiqlar, bog 'asboblari, choyshablar va eshik tutqichlari ham olindi. Talon-taroj qilingan mollarni Germaniyaga asosan poezdlar olib ketishgan, ularni o'zlari asosan Germaniyada saqlashgan.[43]
Shuningdek, zabt etilgan millat rizq-ro'zg'orining eng yaxshisini o'zlashtirishga zudlik bilan qadamlar qo'yildi. Fermerlarni chorva mollarini va mavjud bo'lgan oziq-ovqat do'konlarini sotishga majbur qilish to'g'risida qarorlar e'lon qilindi va boshida har yili hosilning foizlari muzokaralar jarayonida sulh shartlari, keyinchalik tutilishlar ancha tasodifiy va hamma narsani qamrab olgan. Keyinchalik, ochiqdan-ochiq adolatsiz sun'iy narsa valyuta kursi e'lon qilindi (1 reichmark 20 ga frank (Frantsiyada) va amalda befoyda bo'lgan "Invasion Marks" muomalaga kiritildi, mahalliy valyutani tezda shishirdi va qadrsizlantirdi. Keyinchalik nemis agentlari ko'chma bo'lmagan aktivlarni sotib oldilar, masalan fermer xo'jaliklari, ko `chmas mulk, konlar, fabrikalar va korporatsiyalar. Shaxs markaziy banklar majbur qilingan yozmoq Germaniya sanoat sxemalari, sug'urta operatsiyalari, oltin va valyuta o'tkazmalari va boshqalarni moliyalashtirish.
Nemislar, shuningdek, bosib olingan mamlakatning tabiiy boyliklari va sanoat salohiyatiga ega bo'lishdi. Ba'zi hollarda ushbu yangi manbalar sezilarli darajada bo'lgan va fashistlarning urush mashinasi uchun tezda qayta tashkil etilgan. Avvalroq Avstriya va Chexoslovakiyani sotib olish natijasida yiliga 4 million tonna temir rudasidan tashqari ozgina tabiiy resurslar paydo bo'ldi, bu Germaniya ehtiyojining yaxshi nisbati. Avstriyaning temir va po'lat sanoati Graz, va yaqinda Chexoslovakiyaning og'ir sanoati Praga Pilsen shahridagi qudratli Skoda o'q-dorilarini o'z ichiga olgan Germaniya kabi xom ashyo importiga juda bog'liq bo'lib, juda rivojlangan. Polshani bosib olish Germaniyaga yiliga yarim million tonna va undan ko'p neft olib keldi rux hech qachon kerak bo'lmasligi kerak edi va Lyuksemburg kichik bo'lsa ham, yaxshi tashkil etilgan temir va po'lat sanoatini Germaniya kabi 1/7 darajaga olib keldi.
Norvegiya yaxshi aktsiyalarni taqdim etdi xrom, alyuminiy, mis, nikel va yiliga 1 million funt sterling molibden, yuqori tezlikli po'latlarni ishlab chiqarishda va volfram o'rnini bosuvchi kimyoviy element. Shuningdek, ularga Narvik portidan yuqori sifatli shved temir rudalarini jo'natishni davom ettirishga imkon berildi, bu savdo Buyuk Britaniya tomonidan oldini olishga urindi Wilfred operatsiyasi. Niderlandiyada ular katta, yuqori texnologik kalayni ham sotib oldilar eritish yilda Arnhem garchi inglizlar musodara qilishni oldindan bilgan bo'lsalar, bosqingacha xom qalay etkazib berishni cheklashdi, shuning uchun olingan miqdor Germaniya uchun yillik ta'minotning oltidan bir qismigacha (2500 tonna) teng edi.
Ammo hozircha eng katta sovrin Frantsiya bo'ldi. Nemis xotiralari Versal shartnomasi Birinchi Jahon Urushidan keyingi yillarda kompensatsiyalarning notinch yillari, oziq-ovqat tanqisligi va yuqori inflyatsiya boy Frantsiyani ulkan moddiy resurs sifatida qabul qilinishiga olib keldi va uning butun iqtisodiyoti Germaniyaning ehtiyojlarini qondirishga qaratilgan edi. Sulh sharoitida u okkupatsion garnizonning hisob-kitob xarajatlarini va 300-400 million frank kunlik ishg'ol uchun tovon to'lashi kerak edi. Ishg'ol qilingan zonada Frantsiyaning eng yaxshi sanoat tarmoqlari joylashgan bo'lib, u Lotaringiyadagi dunyodagi temir rudasining beshdan bir qismiga va po'lat ishlab chiqarish quvvatining 6 foiziga ega edi. Germaniyaning og'ir yuklangan temir yo'l tarmog'i 4000 frantsuz lokomotivi va uning 300000 (yarmidan ko'pi) yuk vagonlari bilan mustahkamlandi.[44]
Bo'sh Frantsiya ( Mintaqa zonasi ) atrofida faqat kauchuk sanoati va to'qimachilik fabrikalari qoldi Lion va uning katta miqdordagi boksit zahiralari, bu Britaniya blokadasi tufayli baribir nemislar qo'lida bo'lib, unga samolyot ishlab chiqarish uchun mo'l-ko'l alyuminiy zaxiralarini berdi. U mis va kalay bilan bir qatorda u Rossiyadan, Yuqoslaviya mis, yunon surma va xrom va uning Bolqon manbalari, Germaniya endi ko'p miqdordagi metallar va ko'mirni etkazib berishga ega edi. Shuningdek, u Evropaning sanoat quvvatining taxminan 2/3 qismiga ega edi, ammo o'simliklarni oziqlantirish uchun zarur bo'lgan xom ashyo yo'q edi, ularning aksariyati kam quvvat bilan ishlaydi yoki yopiq ishlaydi[iqtibos kerak ] RAF bombardimonlari, umumiy betartiblik va aholining parvozi tufayli.
Urush boshlangandan buyon Germaniya katta ishchi kuchi etishmovchiligini boshdan kechirdi va vaqt o'tishi bilan ishg'ol qilingan davlatlar ishchi kuchlari deyarli Reyxni etkazib berish uchun fabrikalarda ishlash yoki Germaniyaga yuborildi.[40] Germaniyaning o'zida dalalarda ishlash uchun surunkali erkaklar etishmovchiligi bo'lgan va minglab polshalik qullar bilan birga Italiyadan 30 ming qishloq xo'jaligi ishchilari olib kelingan. Urushgacha bo'lgan tovar zaxiralari tugab, ko'proq ersatz o'rnini bosuvchi vositalardan foydalanilgan. Bundan tashqari, Germaniya chet eldan etkazib berish, masalan, Chilidan mis, Kanadadan nikel, qalay va kauchuk kabi mahsulotlarni to'sib qo'ydi. Sharqiy Hindiston, Hindistondan marganets, Xitoydan volfram, Janubiy Afrikadan sanoat olmoslari va Braziliyadan paxta. Germaniyaning Axis bo'yicha hamkori Italiya endi qamalga olinib, unga ko'mir uchun katta ishonch bilan drenajga aylandi, ammo Gitlerning asosiy muammosi neft edi, buning uchun yiliga 12,5 million tonna kerak edi. umumiy urush. Ruminiya ta'minotidan tashqari, o'zining sintetik sanoati yiliga 600 ming tonna ishlab chiqaradi va yana 530 mingtasi Polshadan keladi. Rossiyada ulkan neft va gaz zaxiralari borligi ma'lum bo'lgan, ammo ekstraksiya tizimlari surunkali ravishda rivojlanmagan, va nemis muhandislari ularni qayta tashkil qilish to'g'risida gaplashayotgan bo'lsada, katta miqdordagi oqim boshlanishiga ikki yil vaqt ketishi kerak edi.[45]
Britaniya jangi
Gitler blokadani engish uchun eng yaxshi imkoniyat Buyuk Britaniyani urushdan chiqarib tashlash edi. Hozirgacha Buyuk Britaniyaning eng yaxshi quroli uning harbiy-dengiz floti edi, u nafaqat blokirovkani amalga oshirdi, balki kemalar va samolyotlarning urinishlariga qaramay, dengizlarni asosan nazorat qilishni davom ettirdi va uni o'z ehtiyojlari bilan ta'minladi. Uning ulkan imperiyasi unga ajoyib xorijiy manbalardan foydalanish uchun imkoniyat yaratdi kredit imkoniyatlari va oltin zahiralari va inglizlarning me'yorlari Germaniyada bo'lgani kabi hech qaerda bo'lmagan. Urush boshlanganda darhol kiritilgan yagona me'yor benzin edi. Bekon, sariyog 'va shakar 1940 yil 8-yanvarda, go'sht 11-martda, choy va margarin bilan iyulda. U-qayiqda muvaffaqiyat qozonmaguncha Atlantika okeanidagi jang 1940 yil oxirlarida ratsion keng tarqalib ketgan konvoylarni jiddiy ravishda cheklashni boshladi va shunda ham ko'plab ishchilar va bolalar o'z ratsionlarini to'ldirish uchun hali ham maktab ovqatlari va ishchi oshxonalariga ega edilar, bu ular aslida olgan oziq-ovqat miqdoriga sezilarli farq qildi. Ko'plab meva bozorlari, qassoblar, baliq sotuvchilar va baqqollarning fotosuratlari Amerika va Hamdo'stlik o'quvchilariga Angliya fashistlar da'vo qilganidek ochlikdan emasligini isbotlash uchun xorijiy nashrlarda joylashtirildi. Angliya oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining katta qismini importga ishongan va hatto keng tarqalgan bo'lsa ham 'G'alaba uchun qazish "kampaniyasi va fermer xo'jaligi ishchi ayollaridan foydalanish o'z ehtiyojlarining atigi uchdan ikki qismini ishlab chiqarishi mumkin edi.[13]
Boshlanishidan oldin Blits (aholi punktlarini bombardimon qilish), bu oxir-oqibat 40 mingdan ziyod tinch aholini o'ldirgan, ammo ingliz sanoatiga hujumni to'xtatish uchun qiruvchi samolyotlar va o'q-dorilar bilan ta'minlash uchun zarur bo'lgan nafas olish maydonini bergan, janubiy sohilidagi doklar kabi. Sautgempton, Portsmut va Plimut Germaniya tomonidan uyushtirilgan bombardimon hujumlari natijasida jiddiy zarar ko'rgan; bunga javoban iloji boricha dengiz transporti g'arbiy va shimolga yo'naltirildi. 16 avgust kuni Luftwaffe yo'q qilgan deb da'vo qilmoqda Tilbury Docks va London porti, odatda haftada bir million tonna yuk tashiydi. Natsistlarning quvonchiga ko'ra, bir braziliyalik yuk tashuvchi kemaning rahbari janubiy Britaniyaning qurilishi tugagan va uni hech narsa qutqara olmasligini aytdi,[46] ammo zarar katta bo'lsa-da, imperiyaning barcha qismlaridan kemalar, Janubiy Amerika va Uzoq Sharq Angliya uchun oziq-ovqat va urush mollarini tushirishni va eksport uchun yuklarni yuklashni davom ettirdi. Yo'lovchilar savdosi bo'lmagan holda va barcha Skandinaviya va kontinental dengiz qatnovi to'xtatilganligi sababli, port odatdagidan ancha kam band edi, ammo 35000 kishi baribir omborlarni don, tamaki, un, choy, kauchuk, shakar, go'sht, jun bilan to'ldirgan. 1940 yil avgust oyi davomida har kuni yog'och va terilar ishlab chiqarildi. Britaniya aviatsiya zavodlari, aviatsiya ishlab chiqarish vaziri boshchiligida, Lord Beaverbrook ishlab chiqarishni sezilarli darajada oshirish va RAF qulashining oldini olish uchun tunu kun ishladi. 16 sentyabrda Time jurnali "Britaniya bu kuzda pasayib ketgan taqdirda ham, bu lord Biverbrukning aybi bo'lmaydi. Agar u o'zini tutsa, bu uning g'alabasi bo'ladi. Bu urush mashinalar urushi. Bu konveyerda yutiladi".[47]
Britaniyani bo'ysunishga majbur qilish uchun Luftvaffe kuchlarini fabrikalar, portlar, neftni qayta ishlash zavodlari va aerodromlarga qaratdi. Avgust oyining o'rtalariga kelib hujumlar tobora ko'proq muvofiqlashtirilib va muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi. 24 avgustda, jang avjida, London qirg'og'idagi Fighter qo'mondonligi inshootlari va neftni qayta ishlash zavodlariga hujum qilish uchun yuborilgan bombardimonchilar navigatsiya xatosi bilan London markazidagi uylarda tinch aholini o'ldirishdi, garchi ko'pchilik bombardimon qilish qasddan qilingan deb hisoblasa ham. Havo vazirligining qarshiliklariga qaramay, Cherchill bombardimon qilishni buyurdi Berlin qasos sifatida,[48] va o'sha kecha Germaniya poytaxti birinchi marta bombardimon qilindi, garchi o'lim holatlari bo'lmagan. Britaniyaliklar Britaniyaning zarba berishga qodirligini ko'rsatganidan mamnun bo'lishdi va ertasi kuni berlinliklar hayratda qolishgan va umidsizlikka tushishgan; Hech qachon bo'lmaydi deb aytgan Göringni ikkala tomon ham masxara qilishdi. Bomba portlashi davom etgach, fashistlar rahbariyati Luftvaffega Britaniya shaharlarini bombardimon qilishni 7 sentyabrdan boshlab, bu fuqarolarning ruhiy holatiga shunchalik ziyon etkazadi, deb aytgan, chunki Britaniya tinchlik uchun sudga murojaat qiladi.[15][48]
The Britaniya jangi 1940 yil avgust va sentyabr oylari davomida avj oldi, ammo Luftvaffe bosqinchilik uchun zarur bo'lgan havo ustunligini qo'lga kiritish uchun RAFni yo'q qila olmadi. Kechasi RAF bombardimonchilar qo'mondonligi va RAF qirg'oq qo'mondonligi kanal bo'ylab qisqa masofani uchib o'tdi va portlarda yig'ilayotgan kemalar va barjalarga hujum qildi Antverpen, Ostend, Calais va Bulon bosqin kuchini kesib o'tish va oxir-oqibat flotning 20% dan ortig'ini yo'q qilish. Nihoyat, 12 oktyabrda bosqinchilik 1941 yil bahorigacha to'xtatildi, garchi Britaniya shaharlari, xususan London, Birmingem va "Liverpul" yana 6 oy davomida kuchli bombardimon qilinishda davom etdi.
Evropada oziq-ovqat etishmovchiligi
Germaniyaning sanoat yutuqlariga qaramay, oziq-ovqat boshqa masala edi. Hatto tinch sharoitda ham Evropa o'zini boqishga qodir emas edi va Germaniya hozirda Evropaning yashil maydonlarining beshdan ikki qismini egallab turgan bo'lsa-da, nemislar fermerlarni o'z mahsulotlarini va chorva mollarini sotishga majbur qilgan qarorlariga qaramay, bosib olingan erlarni oziq-ovqat nuqtai nazaridan aniq rekvizitsiya qilishdi. o'zlarining resurslarini yaxshilab bo'lmaydigan to'kilgan suvni ifodaladi.
Esa Daniya "Evropaning Larderi" katta miqdordagi bekon, tuxum va sut mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqardi, bu Britaniyadan o'g'itlar importiga juda bog'liq edi. Ko'p o'tmay, chorva mollari etishmasligi sababli so'yila boshlandi em-xashak - to'ng'izlar shunchalik to'ymaydiki, ular so'yish uchun yurib oyoqlarini sindirishdi. Daniya dehqonlari katta soliqlarni to'lashdi va savdogar dengizchilar blokada tufayli Germaniyada mardikor sifatida ishlashga majbur bo'lishdi. Xuddi shunday Nederlandiya 2,7 million qoramol, 650 ming qo'y, yarim million cho'chqa va katta miqdordagi sariyog ', pishloq, go'sht, sut, margarin va o'simlik moylari bilan Britaniyaga hayvonot boqish uchun bog'liq edi. Ochilish natijasida ekin maydonlarining katta qismi vayron bo'lgan diklar natsistlar bosqini paytida va ko'plab dehqonlar nemislarning qoramollarini sotishdan bosh tortishgan, ammo tez orada go'sht tanqisligi kelib chiqdiki, hokimiyat it go'shtidan qilingan kolbasalarni tortib olishga majbur bo'ldi. Nemislar gollandiyalik baliqchilarni qorong'i tushguncha portga qaytishga majbur qilganliklari sababli, baliqlar ham etishmayotgan edi va garchi Gollandiyaning chet eldagi mollari dunyoda tamaki etkazib beruvchilar qatoriga kirgan bo'lsa-da, bu blokadani buzolmadi. Chelik, temir va yog'ochni olish shunchalik qiyin ediki, qayta qurish ishlari Rotterdam to'xtab qoldi.
Polshada hayot ayniqsa og'ir edi. Vabo kirib keldi kontslagerlar va ommaviy ommaviy qatllar bosqinchilik paytida allaqachon o'ldirilgan 3 millionga yaqin polshaliklarni qo'shdi. Urushning birinchi qishida va uning qand lavlagi bilan minglab odamlar sovuqdan va ochlikdan o'lgan edi, javdar bug'doy muntazam ravishda olib tashlandi va erda ozgina dehqonlar qolganligi sababli, sharoit tezda yomonlashdi. Norvegiya, tog'lari keng bo'lgan hudud, oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining yarmi va barcha ko'mirlari uchun importga tayangan; tanqislik va ochlik tezda Belgiyaga ta'sir ko'rsatdi, u zich joylashgan va ehtiyojining atigi yarmini ishlab chiqarganiga qaramay, hali ham oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining keng miqyosda musodara qilinishiga duchor bo'lgan.
Odatda o'zini o'zi boqishga qodir Frantsiyada endi boshqa davlatlardan 5 million qochqin bor edi.[49] Nemislar o'z qo'shinlari uchun yarim million ot va xachirlardan fermer xo'jaliklarini tortib olib, qishloq xo'jaligi mahsuldorligining katta pasayishiga olib kelganda, ular qolgan oziq-ovqat zaxiralarining 11 foizini, million tonnani ham oldilar. Nemislar 150000 frantsuz harbiy asirlarini garovga olishdi, ularni non va sho'rva bilan yupqalashtirgan edilar, shu bois uni yig'ish uchun o't qo'shib berishdi va aksariyat buyumlar endi juda katta miqdordagi oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minlandi, ishchi kunlik ovqatlanish uchun atigi 1200 kkal. dam olish kunlari ko'p odamlar velosipedda qishloqqa oziq-ovqat olib ketishdi. Nemis askarlari ikki baravar ratsionga ega bo'lishdi, ammo bu amerika qamoqxonalaridagi mahbuslarga xizmat qiladigan oddiy kundalik ovqatlanish edi.
O'rta Yer dengizining inglizlar tomonidan qamal qilinishi Italiyani darhol 80% import hajmidan uzib qo'ydi. Kabi muhim narsalar makaron, un va guruchga qattiq ratsion berildi, bu tartibsizliklar keltirib chiqardi va har bir dehqon o'z ekinlarini majburiy saqlash joyidan saqlagan holda bir yilga ozodlikdan mahrum etilishi mumkin edi. Ularning halokatiga ergashish Yunonistonga bostirib kirish 1940 yil 28-oktabrda ishg'ol qilingan Albaniyadan italyan kauchuk, paxta, jun va boshqa tovarlarning zaxiralari kamayib bora boshladi va Germaniya tomonidan ko'mir tashish uchun yuqori narxlar Alp tog'lari dan Triest issiqlikni hashamatga aylantirdi. 11-noyabr kuni Angliya Italiya dengiz flotiga qarshi yirik g'alabani qo'lga kiritdi Taranto, bu O'rta dengizda ingliz ta'minot liniyalarini ta'minladi.
Oddiy ravishda mo'l-ko'l Bolqon mintaqasida ham, sharqda juda qattiq qish va Dunay daryosining toshqini tufayli qishloq xo'jaligi tekisliklarini vayron qilgan va ekinlarni ekishga to'sqinlik qilgan oziq-ovqat tanqisligi mavjud edi. Ruminiyada fermer xo'jaliklarining qo'llari hali ham armiyaga safarbar qilingan va Vengriya va Yugoslaviya bilan birga u ishlab chiqarilishi mumkin bo'lgan barcha bug'doyga muhtoj edi, ammo nemislar tahdid bilan qo'llab-quvvatlanib, ularga katta talablar qo'yishdi.[45]
1940 yil oxiriga qadar Gitler tinch nemisni o'rnatishga umid qilar edi gegemonlik uning ta'minoti hinterland qismi sifatida Bolqon ustidan, lekin keyin Sovet Ittifoqi tomonidan Bessarabiya va shimoliy Bukovinani bosib olish iyun oyi oxirida Ruminiyadan uning qo'li majbur bo'ldi.[6] 7 oktyabrda Germaniya Sovet armiyasini to'sish va unga kirish huquqini olish uchun Ruminiyani bosib oldi Ploieti neft konlari. Italiya halokatli bo'lganidan keyin Yunonistonga bostirib kirish 28 oktabrda inglizlar Angliya-Yunonistonning o'zaro yordami to'g'risidagi kelishuvga binoan aralashib, Kritni egallab olishdi va Ruminiya konlaridan bombalash masofasida aerodromlar tashkil etishdi. Noyabr oyi oxirida Vengriya va Ruminiya Uch tomonlama pakt, qo'shilish Eksa kuchlari va, Yugoslaviya dastlab imzolashdan bosh tortgan bo'lsa-da, Gitler endi qishloq xo'jaligi boyliklarining aksariyat qismi ustidan nazorat o'rnatgan Buyuk Vengriya tekisligi va Ruminiya neft konlari.
Britaniya Bombardimonchilar qo'mondonligi Germaniyaning strategik maqsadlariga hujum qilishni davom ettirdi, ammo Germaniyani bombardimon qilish vazifasi frantsuz aerodromlarini yo'qotish tufayli ancha qiyinlashdi, chunki bu maqsadga erishishdan oldin dushman nazorati ostidagi hudud orqali uzoq parvozlarni nazarda tutgan.[50] Ammo inglizlar bu vaqtda dushmanga qarshi tajovuzkor choralar ko'rish uchun samarali vositaga ega emas edilar va bombardimonchilarning yangilangan strategiyasini izlay boshladilar. Germaniyaning vayronagarchiliklaridan so'ng Koventri, RAF neftni qayta ishlash zavodlarida reyd o'tkazdi Manxaym 16-17 dekabrga o'tar kechasi shahar markazi. Bu birinchi "hudud reydi" edi, ammo reyddan keyingi fotosuratlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, 300 bombardimonchi samolyotning ko'pi nishonga etib bormagan va bombardimonchilar qo'mondonligi aniq reydlarni o'tkazish vositalariga ega emas. Shunga qaramay, bombardimon kampaniyasi Germaniya iqtisodiyotiga zarar etkazish uchun yagona umidni taklif qildi,[16] va 1940 yil oxiridagi direktivalarda ikkita maqsad belgilangan edi: Germaniyaning sintetik moy ishlab chiqarishiga aniq hujum va yirik shaharlardagi sanoat maydonlarini nishonga olish orqali nemislarning ruhiy holatiga qarshi hujum. 1940 yil dekabrida Ruzvelt tarixiy uchinchi muddatni qo'lga kiritib, prezident sifatida AQSh AQShga aylanishini e'lon qildi.Demokratiya Arsenal "Buyuk Britaniyani va uning Hamdo'stligini o'zi urushga kirishmasdan qurol bilan ta'minlash.
1940 yil oxiriga yaqinlashganda, Evropaning 525 millionlik aholisining aksariyati uchun juda og'ir edi. Blokada tomonidan oziq-ovqat ta'minoti 15% ga kamayganligi va kam hosil, ochlik va gripp kabi kasalliklar tufayli yana 15% kamayganligi sababli, zotiljam, sil kasalligi, tifus va vabo tahdid bo'lgan. Germaniya ishg'ol qilingan Belgiya va Frantsiyaga 40 ta yuk vagonlarini favqulodda yuklarni jo'natishga majbur bo'ldi Qizil Xoch, Aldrich qo'mitasi va Amerika do'stlariga xizmat ko'rsatish qo'mitasi yordam yuborish uchun mablag 'yig'ishni boshladi. Sobiq prezident Gerbert Guver Birinchi Jahon urushi paytida evropalik bolalarning ochligini engillashtirish uchun ko'p ish qilgan, yozgan:[33]
- Hozirgi urushdagi oziq-ovqat holati Birinchi Jahon urushidagi xuddi shu bosqichga qaraganda ancha umidsiz. ... Agar bu urush uzoq davom etadigan bo'lsa, unda faqat bitta engib bo'lmas oxiri bor ... tarixdagi eng katta ocharchilik.
1941
1941 yil boshidanoq urush tobora sharqqa qarab siljidi. 1940 yil 28-dekabrda Mussolini Germaniyada shoshilinch yordam so'rab murojaat qildi Yunon-Italiya urushi.[6] Germaniya ham yuborishga majbur bo'ldi Afrika Korps ga Liviya fevral boshida general boshchiligida Ervin Rommel, eksa sherigiga Shimoliy Afrikadagi Britaniya va Hamdo'stlik kuchlariga qarshi kampaniyalarida yordam berish. Italiyaliklar, shuningdek, ingliz va hindlarning kuchli qarshi hujumlari ostida bukilishdi Eritreya Sharqiy Afrikada. O'rta er dengizi strategik mavqei tufayli Sitsiliya va Britaniyaning orolidagi Axis transport yo'llari Maltada da har kuni dushman tomonidan bombardimon qilinmoqda Maltaning qamal qilinishi va yil oxiriga kelib orol taslim bo'lishga majbur qilish uchun 1000 dan ortiq bombardimon hujumiga uchradi. Ko'proq U-qayiqlar xizmatga kirishi bilan ittifoqdosh savdo kemalariga haftalik to'lovlar ko'payishda davom etdi va iyun oyiga qadar tuxum, pishloq, murabbo, kiyim-kechak va ko'mir ratsion ro'yxatiga qo'shildi.
1941 yil yanvar oyining boshlarida Germaniya rasmiylari " tarixdagi eng yirik don shartnomasi "[51] Sovet Ittifoqi va Germaniya o'rtasida. Ko'p o'tmay, Xitoy bilan 100 million funt sterlinglik qurol-yaroq bitimini tuzgan Sovetlar, Angliya va Amerikaning tanqidlarini kutishdi; Izvestiya gazeta e'lon qilindi;
Buyuk Britaniyada va Qo'shma Shtatlarda AQSh Buyuk Britaniyaga hamma narsani sotishi mumkin, deb ishonadigan ba'zi etakchi davlat arboblari bor ... Sovet Ittifoqi esa Germaniyaga tinchlik siyosatini buzmasdan hattoki don mahsulotlarini ham sotolmaydi.
Evropada gumanitar yordam
Yanvar oyida Herbert Guvverning Kichik Demokratiya uchun oziq-ovqat bo'yicha milliy qo'mitasi surgun qilingan Belgiya hukumatiga Londonda Germaniya hukumati bilan Belgiyada bir necha million qashshoq odamlarni boqish uchun oshxonalar tashkil etish to'g'risida kelishib olgan rejasini taqdim etdi.[52] Rejaga ko'ra, nemislar 1 mln. Etkazib berishga kelishib oldilar butalar (1 AQSh pog'onasi = 8 AQSh galloni, taxminan 27 kg bug'doy uchun) non donalari va qo'mita 20000 tonna yog'lar, osh sho'rva va bolalar ovqatlari bilan ta'minlashi kerak edi. Biroq, Angliya ushbu yordamga ularning blokadasi orqali ruxsat bermadi. Amerikada va bosib olingan mamlakatlarda ko'pchilik qo'llab-quvvatlagan ularning fikriga ko'ra, Germaniya zabt etgan odamlarni boqish va ta'minlash uchun javobgar edi.[53] va reja Germaniyaga bilvosita yordam berishdan qochib qutula olmasligi; agar yordam berilsa, bu nemis mollarini boshqa joylarda foydalanish uchun ozod qiladi.
Guverning ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, uning ma'lumotlari Belgiya ratsioni allaqachon 960 kaloriya miqdorida - hayotni ta'minlash uchun zarur bo'lgan miqdorning yarmidan kamrog'ida - va juda ko'p bolalar allaqachon kuchsiz bo'lib, endi ular maktabga bora olmaydilar, ammo inglizlar bunga qarshi chiqishdi. Shunga qaramay, ko'plab amerikaliklar davom etayotgan qiyinchiliklardan dahshatga tushishdi. Faqatgina 16 million frantsuz amerikaliklar bor edi va mart oyining boshlarida kamida 15 ta turli xil tashkilotlar - frantsuz yordami uchun muvofiqlashtiruvchi kengash deb nomlangan - Frantsiyada yordamni Amerika do'stlari xizmat qo'mitasi orqali tarqatishgan, Quaker qo'mitasi esa taxminan 50 000 AQSh dollariga teng oziq-ovqat tarqatgan. , Frantsiya bo'ylab oyiga kiyim-kechak va tibbiy buyumlar. The Amerika Qizil Xoch SS tomonidan "rahm-shafqat kemasi" tomonidan ijaraga olingan Sovuq Makon 12 000 000 funt (5 400 000 kg) bug'langan va quruq sut va 150 000 dona bolalar kiyimlari, 500 000 dona insulin va 20000 shisha vitaminlar ga Marsel va ko'p o'tmay, bir soniya SS yubordi Exmouth, ishsiz Frantsiyaga 1,25 million dollarlik yordam yuklarini olib borish.
Bir qator taniqli liberallar maktubida Frantsiyaga oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini chiqarilishini qoralashdi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari davlat kotibi Kordell Xall. Frantsuz sanoati nemislar uchun qanday ishlayotganini va Gitler 1 million tonna frantsuz bug'doyini bosib olingan Frantsiyada qanday tutib olganligini tasvirlab berar ekan, guruh bu harakat blokadani buzadi va fashistlarning Amerikaning boshqa bosib olingan erlarni oziqlantirishni talab qilishiga olib keladi deb hisoblar edi. Vichi Frantsiyaning AQShdagi elchisi, Gaston Genri-Xey, insonparvarlik nuqtai nazaridan blokadani yumshatish uchun bosimni davom ettirdi va AQSh hukumati qiyin axloqiy dilemmada edi. AQSh tashqi ishlar bo'yicha iqtisodchi Karl Brandt Gitler (va Stalin) ichki muxolifatni yo'q qilish, yutuqlarni mukofotlash, muvaffaqiyatsizlikni jazolash va dushmanlarini yo'q qilish uchun oziq-ovqatni siyosiy qurol sifatida qanday ishlatganligini tasvirlab berdi.[54] U qanday qilib "jangchi kasta" ga eng ko'p berilishini, so'ngra eng muhim ishchilar (Berlinda Uilyam Shirer va boshqa chet el jurnalistlari "og'ir ishchilar" deb tasniflangan va ikki baravar ratsion olgan) haqida gapirib berdilar. Yahudiylar va aqldan ozgan narsa. Bu vaqtga kelib natsistlar qisman ovqatni tejash uchun Germaniya muassasalarida boshqa sog'lom ruhiy bemorlarni qatl qilishni boshladilar va oila a'zolaridan ularning yaqinlarini olib tashlash haqida shov-shuv paydo bo'ldi.[18] Brandt shunday dedi:
- Aholini qo'rqitish uchun qancha miqdorda bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, materiallar birdan kesiladi va yomon paytda ruhiy holatni ko'tarish uchun to'satdan qo'shimcha ratsion beriladi. Oziq-ovqat statistikasi bombardimonchi samolyotlar kabi qo'riqlanadi. Natsistlar uchun oziq-ovqat - bu manevr qilish va ko'pchilikni tartibga solish uchun ajoyib vosita.
Bu vaqtga kelib tobora ko'payib borayotgan xabarlar paydo bo'ldi Vichi frantsuzcha Buyuk Britaniyaning blokadasini boshqaradigan O'rta dengizdagi kemalar Shimoliy Afrika portlar va Britaniyaning kontrabanda nazorati to'xtatish va qidiruvga topshirish buyrug'iga e'tibor bermaslik.[55] Vichi vitse-premer Admiral Darlan Vichy savdo kemasi shu vaqtgacha blokada orqali 7 million dona don, 363 ming tonna sharob, 180 ming tonna yerfıstığı yog'i bilan birga katta miqdordagi meva, shakar, kakao, go'sht, baliq va romni olib kelganini e'lon qildi. Darlan, kim paytida Frantsiya jangi Cherchillga frantsuz harbiy-dengiz floti hech qachon Germaniyaga taslim bo'lmaydi degan tantanali va'da berib, inglizlar uchinchi qonli to'qnashuvni xavf ostiga qo'yishni istamaydilar. Dakar va Oran, va ular Frantsiyaning yettita oziq-ovqat kemasini cho'ktirganda, ular hech qachon cho'kmagan va hatto to'xtamagan, harbiy kemalar hamrohligida bo'lgan frantsuz kemasi.
Qarz berish
Uning blokadasi ta'siriga qaramay, Amerikaning Britaniyani o'zi boqishga qaror qilganligi to'g'risida tortishuvlar bo'lmagan va u rekord hosil bilan bunga qodir edi. Ammo Angliya o'zining chet el investitsiyalarining bir milliard funt sterlingini allaqachon sotib yuborgan va urush materiallari uchun yana 3 milliard funt qarz olgan holda, endi urushning moliyaviy og'irligini his qilayotgan edi. 1941 yil 11 martda Ruzvelt va Kongress o'zlarining dasturlarini qabul qildilar Qarz berish Bu juda ko'p miqdordagi urush materiallarini Ittifoqdosh mamlakatlarga jo'natishga imkon berdi va Cherchill Amerika xalqiga "yangi" uchun minnatdorchilik bildirdi Magna Carta '.[56] Garchi Amerika yana to'qqiz oy urushga kirmagan bo'lsa-da, u endi butunlay betaraf bo'lishni da'vo qila olmadi va Gitler darhol U-qayiqlarga AQSh kemalariga hujum qilishni buyurdi. 10 aprelda esminets USSNiblack cho'kib ketgan Gollandiyalik yuk tashuvchisidan omon qolganlarni olib ketayotgan U-qayiq hujum qilishga tayyorlanayotganini aniqladi va uni haydash uchun chuqurlik zaryadlarini ishga tushirdi. Bu Germaniya va Ikkinchi Jahon Urushi Amerika o'rtasidagi birinchi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri harakat edi. Ertasi kuni AQSh dengizda muntazam ravishda qo'riqlashni boshladi.
Janubiy Amerika savdosiga ta'siri
Dunyo blokirovkalari umuman olganda jahon savdosi shakllariga jiddiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Urush boshlanganda ko'plab Janubiy Amerika davlatlari Birinchi Jahon Urushidagi kabi jang qiluvchilarni etkazib berishda katta foyda ko'rishni kutishdi.[57] Boliviyaning mis, qo'rg'oshin, qalay va kumushning deyarli barchasi Evropaga eksport qilindi, Urugvay va Braziliyaning janubiy qismi jun va konservalangan va muzlatilgan mol go'shti etkazib berdilar. Argentinada zig'ir urug'ining dunyo ta'minotining 84% tashkil etdi, ularning deyarli barchasi eksport qilindi, bug'doyning katta qismi (dunyo ta'minotining 23%), makkajo'xori (71%) va mol go'shti (50%). Ammo blokada va kontr-blokadaning tang ahvoli bilan tashqi savdo umumiy pasayib ketdi va katta profitsit to'planib qoldi. 1941 yil fevral oyining boshlarida Plata davlatlarining asosiy eksportchilari (Argentina, Braziliya, Urugvay, Paragvay va Boliviya) konferentsiya o'tkazdilar. Montevideo o'zlari va boshqa qit'a o'rtasidagi savdoni yaxshilash yo'llarini muhokama qilish. Ba'zilaridan tashqari Parana qarag'ay, choy va don mahsulotlari, Platalararo savdo juda oz edi va natijada delegatlar valyuta ayirboshlash qoidalarini osonlashtirish, kambag'al davlatlar uchun moliya, mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi transport aloqalarini yaxshilash, xususan dengizga chiqish imkoniyati bo'lmaganlar va bojxona to'siqlarini pasaytirish kabi bir qator tadbirlarni kelishib oldilar. omon qolish uchun chet el savdosi va Amerika dollarlariga to'liq bog'liq emasliklarini namoyish etish.
Amerikaning o'zida ham, chet el savdosiga tayanadigan ko'plab kichik korxonalar yomon ta'sir ko'rsatgan; chunki arzonroq xorijiy import mavjud emas edi, masalan, uy ishlab chiqaruvchilar Shimoliy Karolina yalpiz savdo va qo'lda ishlangan shisha idishlar sanoati Merilend va Pensilvaniya endi butun ichki bozor o'zlariga tegishli edi. AQSh pishloq ishlab chiqaruvchilari Norvegiya o'rnini bosadigan mahsulotlarni ishlab chiqarishni boshladilar Gjetost, Nederlandiya' Guda va Edam, Italiya Osiyo va Provolone va ko'k pishloqlar Frantsiya va Belgiya va Niderlandiya bilan ' lola amrullari kesilgan, AQSh paxtakorlari Michigan, Shimoliy Karolina va Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismi urushgacha bo'lgan narxlardan ikki baravar yuqori narxga erishishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. O'sish uchun Alabama shtatidagi qamoqxonada tajribalar ham boshlandi Rami, gaz mantiyalarida ishlatiladigan qattiq, qattiq tola, endi Sharq va Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo.[58]
Germaniyaning Sovet Ittifoqiga bosqini
Natsistlar uchun Rossiya quruqligini egallash, Yer yuzining oltidan bir qismi yoki 8,000,000 kvadrat mil (21,000,000 km)2), nafaqat ta'minlangan Lebensraum ular talab qildilar, shuningdek, barcha xom ashyo muammolariga javob berishdi.[8] 1941 yil 22 iyunda Germaniya bostirib kirdi Sovet Ittifoqi uch tomonlama operatsiyada sovetlarni kutilmaganda qo'lga kiritdi. Ular Sovet hududiga chuqur kirib borishdi va bir hafta ichida 300 ming kishilik qurshovni yakunladilar Qizil Armiya yaqinidagi qo'shinlar Minsk va Belostok. Fath qilingan birinchi hududlar eng samarali maydonlarni o'z ichiga olgan. Orasida Boku ustida Kaspiy dengizi va Batum ustida Qora dengiz lay the rich oilfields of Zakavkaziya, while bordering Poland and Romania was the abundant 'Granary of Russia', Ukraina, about the size of France, 40 million acres (160,000 km2) of the most fertile agricultural land on earth. Occupying a Chernozem zone of seemingly inexhaustible thick humus, it produced 25% of Russia's wheat, and immense crops of rye, barley, oats, sugar beet, potatoes, sunflowers, flax, maize, tobacco and cotton. The Ukraine was also the main industrial region. Uning Donetz Basin provided 80% of Russia's steel, 70% iron, 50% steel, 72% aluminium and 35% of the manganese, as well as being one of Europe's largest coalfields, yielding 67 million tons per year.[59]
Russia had had a reputation as a backward, agrarian country, lekin kommunistik government was well aware of the dangers of overly relying on the Ukraine and of the need to modernise its industry.[59] The whole face of the Soviet economy was transformed from 1928 onwards by Jozef Stalin 's 3 Besh yillik rejalar, and whereas three-fourths of total industry was formerly concentrated around Moskva, Sankt-Peterburg, and Ukraine, great new industrial towns had now sprung up all over the union, some, such as Stalingorsk in west Sibir va Qarag'anda yilda Qozog'iston, in places where man had previously barely set foot. A prosperous new cotton industry was created in Turkiston, new wheat regions in the centre, east and north, coal came from Siberia, rich mineral deposits from the Urals, Siberia and Asiatic Russia, and immense new oil wells began to flow, not just in the Caucasus, but in the Urals and the Volga vodiy.
During the first six months the Soviets were in complete disarray,[60] and lost whole armies of men, over 70% of their tanks, a third of their combat aircraft and two-thirds of their artillery. Despite the initial defeats, the Soviets were able to relocate large sections of their industry from the main cities and Dnepr daryosi va Donbas regions further east to the Urals and the Siberian wastes beyond, but it would take a great deal of time before they could be reassembled and production returned to normal levels. On 3 July Stalin announced a "kuygan er policy". As they retreated, everything that could not be moved east would be destroyed. Factories and oil wells were to be blown up, crops burnt and animals slaughtered so that nothing would be left for the Germans to use.[8]
Sovet Ittifoqiga ittifoqdosh yordam
On 2 August 1941 the British signed the Atlantika xartiyasi with the U.S. and extended the blockade to cover Finland, which was now fighting on the side of Germany. Churchill now embraced Soviet Union as an ally and agreed to send arms to make up the shortfall while Soviet industry reorganised itself for the fight. By mid 1942 Britain was providing Soviet Union, via the Arktika konvoylari with an array of vehicles, artillery and ammunition as part of the Lend Lease programme. In total Britain sent more than 4,500 Sevishganlar, Cherchill va Matilda tanks, and 4200 Bo'ron va Spitfire qiruvchi samolyotlar.[6]
America also provided significant support, but while Alyaska, only 50 miles (80 km) from Asia across the Bering bo'g'ozi was the obvious route for transporting Lend-Lease equipment, it was remote from Qo'shni Qo'shma Shtatlar. A land route across the roadless 800-mile (1,300 km) expanse of Canada, long discussed, now became vital, and so on 8 March 1942 the American army began construction of the Alkan avtomagistrali, a 1,671-mile (2,689 km) long stretch from Dawson Creek yilda Britaniya Kolumbiyasi, north-west through Yukon hududi to an existing road on the Canadian/Alaskan border. The highway also allowed the linking up of the Shimoliy-g'arbiy sahna yo'nalishi, a series of rough Canadian airstrips and radio ranging stations built to convey aircraft from Alberta and the Yukon to Soviet Union and China. In total the US provided Soviet Union with $11 billion worth of goods, including 4,800 Grant va Sherman tanks, 350,000 trucks, 50,000 jiplar, 7,300 Airacobra fighter aircraft, and 3700 light and medium bombers. The Soviets also received 2.3 million tons of steel, 230,000 tons of aluminium, 2.6 million tons of petrol, 3.8 million tons of food and huge quantities of ammunition and explosives.
The German attack on Soviet Union prompted the British to attempt an increase in bombing in the belief that the fighter defences would have been thinned out.[16] Attacks on oil targets remained a priority, and successful raids were mounted against Gamburg, Bremen va Kiel in May, with Kiel suffering almost complete production losses. Later attacks on rail transport targets in the Ruhr proved costly because a new radar chain, known as the Kammxuber chizig'i now stretched across the approaches to the Ruhr valley to alert the night fighter defences, which remained considerable. Between May and December the RAF made 105 separate raids over Germany but were unable to make any inroads into industrial capacity and suffered heavy losses in the process.
On 22 June 1941 Churchill proclaimed that Britain would bomb Germany night and day, in ever increasing numbers, but because of the size of Germany and because the fleet continued to be eroded by planes going overseas, Bomber Command remained too weak for effective attacks on the German war machine. The new directives called for attacks on rail transport in the Ruhr to disrupt German economy, but this was a stop gap policy; The planes were too small, carried too light a bomb load and navigation was also shown to be faulty.[50] Following losses of 10% during a raid on 7 November the RAF was ordered to conserve and build up its forces for a spring offensive, by which time a new navigation aid known as GEE would be available and the Avro Lankaster heavy bomber would be entering service.
Uchinchi bosqich
Photograph taken from a Japanese aircraft during the torpedo attack on ships moored on both sides of Ford Island shortly after the beginning of the attack.
A torpedo has just hit USS G'arbiy Virjiniya on the far side of Ford Island (center).
On the morning of 7 December 1941 the Yaponiya imperatorlik floti launched a massive oldindan biladigan strike against ships of the US Pacific Fleet at its base at Pearl Harbor, Gavayi with simultaneous invasions of the British possessions of Gonkong, Singapur va Malaya. The next day the war became a truly global conflict as America joined the Britaniya imperiyasi in the war against Japan, Germany and the other Axis powers. Like Germany, Japan was heavily deficient in natural resources, and since 1931 had become increasingly nationalistic, building up her military forces and embarking upon a series of ruthless conquests in Manchuriya, Xitoy va Frantsuz Hind-Xitoy to create an empire. Amid increasing reports of atrocities committed by her forces in these lands, such as the Nanking qirg'ini and the use of poison gas, world opinion turned against Japan,[6] and from 1938 America, Britain and other countries launched trade embargoes against her to restrict supplies of the raw materials she needed to wage war, such as oil, metals and rubber.
But the sanctions did not curb Japan's imperialistic mood. Japan signed the Uch tomonlama pakt with Germany and Italy in September 1940 and, after the US ordered a total oil embargo on all 'aggressor nations' on 1 August 1941, cutting Japan off from 90% of her oil supply, she looked to the huge reserves in the south Pacific and south east Asia, territories already largely under US, British and Dutch yurisdiktsiya. Japan knew that she could not win a prolonged war against the 'Occidental Powers ',[6] but hoped that by striking first at Pearl Harbor to knock out the American Pacific fleet then using her huge reserves of men and machines to occupy the territories she coveted while America was still unready for war, Britain was engaged in all-out struggle with Germany and the Netherlands was herself occupied, she could establish her empire and consolidate herself so firmly that although her enemies would attempt to batter at her defensive line they would eventually be forced to accept the new position and make peace on the basis of the new status quo. In the early months of the war Japan launched a series of stunning conquests in the region, among them Gonkong, Filippinlar, Malayziya, Birma va Sharqiy Hindiston, and soon threatened Australia far to the south.
Because she was an island, the blockade of Japan was a fairly straightforward matter of sinking the transport ships used to ferry materials from the occupied lands to the home islands, and remained a largely American affair.[61] The Japanese began with a barely adequate 6.1m merchant tons which American submarines and aircraft gradually whittled away until only 1.5m tons remained. The steady toll of eskirish against her merchant marine was a major factor in Japan's eventual defeat, but the Allies agreed that the situation was far more complex with Germany, where a range of measures including strategic bombing would be required to achieve final victory.
Amerika iqtisodiy urushga qo'shiladi
In December 1941 the United States joined the economic warfare system that the British had created and administered over the previous two years. The Iqtisodiy urush kengashi, (BEW) which evolved from the earlier Economic Defense Board, was created by President Roosevelt on 17 December 1941. Under the chairmanship of Vitse prezident Genri Uolles, the new department was made responsible for the procurement and production of all imported materials necessary both to the war effort and the civilian economy. The Proclaimed List – a US equivalent to the British Statutory List – was compiled and, under British direction, the United States Commercial Corporation was formed to begin making preclusive purchases of strategic materials such as chromium, nickel and manganese to supply future Allied needs and to prevent them from reaching the Germans.[62]
From the start there was close co-operation between the parallel American and British agencies,[63] over economic warfare measures, intelligence gathering and the later Safehaven Program. The American Embassy in London acted as the base for the American BEW activities in Europe and was organized in March 1942, "to establish a more intimate liaison between the manifold economic warfare activities centered in the Ministry of Economic Warfare and comparable activities in the United States Government." BEW personnel sat on the Blockade Committee on equal terms with their British counterparts, undertaking the routine work of handling Navicerts, ships permits and defining contraband. The embassy division worked with MEW in the development of new war trade agreements and the re- negotiation of existing overseas purchase – supply contracts. Together they attempted to persuade the remaining neutrals – Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, Switzerland, Ireland (and Argentina) – that by supplying Germany with the materials it needed they were prolonging the war, and over time a number of measures were tried to pressure these countries into reducing or ending trade with the Axis, with varying degrees of success:
Portugaliya
Like General Franco in Spain, Portuguese President Antonio de Oliveira Salazar was perceived as pro-Axis but walked a fine line between the two sides, who competed fiercely for Portuguese raw materials,[63] generating huge profits for her economy. Portugal provided Germany with direct overland exports of a wide range of commodities including rice, sugar, tobacco, wheat, kaliy xlorat, inflammable liquids and yellow pitch, and Portuguese merchants were also known to be sending industrial diamonds and platina via Africa and South America. But by far the most important material Portugal had to offer was tungsten. Volfram karbid was a critical war commodity with numerous applications such as the production of heat-resistant steel, armour plate, armour-piercing shells and high-speed cutting tools. Portugal was Europe's leading supplier of tungsten (and sxelit, ning boshqa a'zosi volframit series of tungsten ore minerals), annually providing Germany with at least 2,000 metric tons between 1941 and mid-1944, about 60 percent of her total requirement.
Britain was Portugal's largest trading partner and had the right to force her to fight on her side under a 500-year-old alliance, but allowed her to remain neutral; in return Portugal allowed credit when Britain was short of gold and escudos, so that by 1945 Britain owed Portugal £322 million. Germany was Portugal's second-largest trading partner, initially paying for exports with consumer goods, but after 1942 increasingly with looted gold, which the Allies warned was liable to confiscation after the war. Portugal also allowed Germany generous credit terms, partly because after the fall of France the presence of a direct land route enabled Germany to threaten Portugal with invasion if she curtailed critical exports. The Allies, who also bought Portuguese tungsten, believed that if they could persuade the Portuguese to stop selling the ore the German dastgoh industry would very quickly be crippled and she would be unable to continue to fight. Because Portugal depended on the U.S. for petroleum, coal and chemical supplies, the Allies' economic warfare agencies considered achieving their aim by embargoes, but hesitated because they also wanted access to Portuguese military bases on the Azor orollari.
Ispaniya
Since before the war, pro-Nazi Spain had suffered chronic food shortages which were made worse by the blockade. The Allies used a variety of measures to keep Spain neutral, such as limiting her oil supply and making trade deals at critical times to provide her with much-needed foreign exchange to buy food from South America.[63] On 23 November 1940 Churchill wrote to Roosevelt to inform him that the yarim orol was now near starvation point, and that a US offer to provide a month by month supply of food might be decisive in keeping Spain out of the war.
Spanish companies did important aircraft work for the Germans, Spanish merchants furnished Germany with industrial diamonds and platinum,[64] and General Franco, still loyal to Hitler because of his support during the Fuqarolar urushi, continued to supply Germany with war materials, among them mercury and tungsten. Spain, the world's second-largest producer of tungsten after Portugal, provided Germany with 1,100 metric tons of the ore per year between 1941 and 1943 (between them Spain and Portugal provided 90% of Germany's annual 3500 tons requirement). As a result of Allied economic measures and German defeats, by 1943 Spain adopted a more genuinely neutral policy. The Allied strategy with Spain was identical to that of Portugal: buy enough tungsten to satisfy the export need and prevent the rest reaching the enemy by whatever means. Britain and the US again had the option of launching an oil embargo on Spain but hesitated for fear of forcing Franco to side with Germany militarily.
Shvetsiya
Sweden had long been Germany's main source of high quality iron ore and rulmanlar, and continuation of supplies from the port of Narvik, which the British tried to stop with Wilfred operatsiyasi was one of the factors which led to the Germaniyaning Norvegiyani bosib olishi. Allied economic warfare experts believed that without the Swedish exports the war would grind to a halt,[63] but Sweden was surrounded by Axis countries and by those occupied by them, and could have herself been occupied at any time if they failed to give Germany what she wanted.
The U.S. and Britain were sympathetic to Sweden's difficult position and of her attempts to maintain her neutrality and sovereignty by making important concessions to the Nazis, such as continuing to export timber and iron ore and by allowing the Germans use of their railway system, a privilege which was heavily abused. There was a general belief however, that Sweden went too far in accommodating the Nazi regime.[63] In particular, the U.S. abhorred the use of Swedish ships to transport the ore to Germany and of her allowing Germany to transport soldiers and war materials across Sweden and through the Baltic under Swedish naval protection. Sweden received very little by way of imports due to the various blockades, and the Allies tried to use offers of a relaxation to persuade her to reduce her assistance of Germany, which they believed was actively prolonging the war. Churchill himself believed that Sweden could be instrumental in defeating Germany and after the heavy German defeats at Stalingrad va Kursk in 1943 the Russians became vocal in calling on Sweden to do more to aid the Allies.
kurka
Despite signing a military alliance with Britain and France in October 1939, Turkey, like Sweden, Spain and Portugal spent the war keeping both sides at arm's length while continuing to supply them with their war needs.[63] Despite the German occupation of the Balkans in spring 1941, no military action was taken against Turkey, who in October 1941 began selling Germany large quantities of chromite ore for the production of chromium. The Turkish chromite ore, which like tungsten was an irreplaceable and essential war material, was the only supply available to Germany, who paid using iron and steel products and manufactured goods in order to draw Turkey into her sphere of influence. Turkey still maintained its good relations with the US and Britain despite the trade, which the economic warfare agencies sought to minimize.
Via its Commercial Corporation, the US engaged in a preclusive buying programme under British direction of its materials, particularly the chromite ore. It also bought commodities, e.g., tobacco, it did not really need,[64] and sent Turkey's armed forces modern equipment under Lend Lease to replace obsolete equipment, to help maintain her neutrality. In so doing the Allies sought to maintain British influence in Turkey, and when the Allies decided, at the Kasablanka konferentsiyasi in January 1943 to attempt to persuade Turkey to enter the war against Germany, Britain was assigned the role of negotiator. Turkey eventually ended trade with Germany and declared war on her in February 1945.
Argentina
 | Ushbu bo'lim umumiy ro'yxatini o'z ichiga oladi ma'lumotnomalar, lekin bu asosan tasdiqlanmagan bo'lib qolmoqda, chunki unga mos keladigan etishmayapti satrda keltirilgan. (2012 yil noyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) |
Although most South American republics were sympathetic to the Allied cause, the AQSh Davlat departamenti was frustrated by the attitude of Argentina from the very beginning.[63] Her government refused to cooperate with US economic warfare measures or to sever financial ties with Germany, her main trading partner.[iqtibos kerak ] Though during the war she doubled her exports of bully beef to the US and to Britain, with whom she had a history of close ties, the government was openly pro-Nazi, particularly after June 1943, and even conspired to overthrow other Latin American governments and replace them with fascist regimes. German agents were permitted to operate and spread propaganda freely and subsidiaries of IG Farben, Staudt and Co. and Simens also operated in Argentinian territory, maintaining their links with Germany and supporting Nazi espionage operations in the region. Although the naval blockade, now heavily reinforced by US warships, restricted their efforts, merchants in the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires smuggled important quantities of platinum, paladyum, drugs, and other chemicals to Germany, and a major aim of the US contraband control was to use US exports to Argentina to put pressure on her government to turn away from Nazi influence and break financial ties.
Shveytsariya
Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida Shveytsariya had the most complex relationship with Germany of all the neutral countries. Expecting hardship, the Swiss government spent heavily in the years prior to World War II on stockpiling food and buying armaments and, anticipating an invasion, kept its forces constantly safarbar qilingan. Following the Nazi conquests of mid 1940, the tiny landlocked nation of seven million people, which had remained resolutely neutral since 1815 found itself in a difficult position, with German officials controlling all gateways to the outside world. But despite veiled threats and the constantly strained relations between the two nations, Switzerland was of no strategic importance to Germany, and of far more use as a workshop. Although Swiss citizens largely rejected the Nazis and subscribed to the Internationalist view expressed by the Millatlar Ligasi, in order to survive and continue to receive imports, Switzerland had little choice but to trade with Germany, for which she was paid largely in coal. Well-known companies such as Oerlikon-Bührle provided guns, Autophon A.G. provided transmitting apparatus, and other companies exported coal-gas generators, ball bearings, bomb sights, ammunition, carbon black, timepieces and rayon for parachutes.
Because of her geographic position and trade with Germany, Switzerland was subject to Allied blockade measures throughout, although she remained able to move imports and other exports such as sugar and benzol overland, mainly to Germany and other countries in the neutral zone. In December 1941 an attempt by the Swiss military to purchase American machine-gun cameras was blocked by Britain's refusal to grant a Navicert,[64] and in April 1942 the US Board of Economic Warfare considered quotas for Swiss imports from overseas sources, identifying Swiss commodities which might be bargained for. Firms such as the Fischer Steel and Iron Works at Sheffhausen were added to the blacklists because of their exports, causing them to eventually curtail supply and remodel their plant.
Despite the Allied sympathy with Switzerland's position, some individuals and companies actively supported the Nazi cause for financial or ideological reasons. In particular the Swiss were, and continue to be, criticised for the way they aided the shipment of Nazi funds abroad and provided banking facilities for the concealment of looted art treasures and gold, much of it stolen from Jews. In late 1943 safes at a Swiss bank at Interlaken were rented by high-ranking Germans to store funds. Later, high-ranking Nazi officials withdrew their deposits from German banks and transferred large sums to Swiss banks and to the Swedish Consulate at Karlsrue. Italian and Swiss press reports also stated that many leading Italians banked large sums in Shveytsariya franki in banks in Switzerland. Swiss individuals and financial institutions also acted as third-party go-betweens for transactions by others, such as for contraband shipments of cotton to Italy from the United States via a Portuguese factory, and transactions took place in Zurich which facilitated the trade of simob between Japan and Spain. Ikkinchi jahon urushi paytida, Tsyurix industrialist and armaments exporter Emil Georg Byurle began amassing one of the twentieth century's most important private collections of European art. However the collection of around 200 works, which includes medieval sculptures and masterpieces by Sezanne, Renoir va van Gog has been mired in controversy since the war because of the unclear provenance of some pieces, leading to the return of 13 paintings to the former French-Jewish owners or their families. (On 10 February 2008 the collection was subjected to what Zurich police declared to be "the biggest ever robbery committed in Switzerland and perhaps even Europe").[65]
US files show that there was a belief that neutrals that traded with the Axis should be threatened with post-war reprisals, but although the Americans believed that the Swiss trade with Germany justified bombing her,[64] it was also thought that her exports should be cut down without endangering the work of the Red Cross and intelligence work underway in Switzerland. The Xalqaro Qizil Xoch qo'mitasi (ICRC), which was founded in 1863 in Jeneva, did a great deal of invaluable humanitarian work, particularly in the worst-affected occupied territories, for example Greece. The children's section of the ICRC sent vitamins, medicine and milk products for children, and in 1944 it was awarded its second Tinchlik bo'yicha Nobel mukofoti uning ishi uchun. Switzerland also provided asylum for qochqinlar and persecuted individuals such as Jews and foreign workers forced to work in Germany. Following the collapse of the Mussolini regime, thousands of escaped Allied Asirlar were given sanctuary and the crews of damaged Allied bombers (both sides regularly invaded Swiss airspace) returning from raids over Germany often put down in Swiss territory and were allowed refuge.
Despite the German trade and various measures for food self-sufficiency, Switzerland eventually used up her food stockpiles and suffered severe shortages of fuel through lapses in the German coal supply, increasingly relying on her forests and gidroelektr energiyasi. To help keep her people supplied with imports, and despite having no shoreline, the Swiss government developed its own savdo dengiz, acquiring several vessels that had been impounded for smuggling or withdrawal foreign flags.[tushuntirish kerak ] The ships were based in the Rhine port of Basel, which gave access to the seaport of Rotterdam, until Allied bombing of a German dam interrupted it.
1942
At the start of 1942 the Allies were yet to achieve a major victory. February was an important month. The Germans sank 117 ships in the Atlantic during the first two months of the year, and in Russia Hitler was about to launch a huge offensive to take the Caucasus oilfields. 9 fevral kuni Albert Sper became the new head of the German Armaments Ministry. Speer was an inspired choice by Hitler, performing better than could have been expected of him, expertly organising the resources at his disposal, ensuring the speedy repair of bomb-damaged factories and pushing productivity up month after month.[16] On 14 February the British War Cabinet took the decision to adopt area bombing as a means of undermining civilian morale and on 22 February Air Marshal Arthur Harris was appointed head of Bomber Command. Uzoq kutilgan Lancaster bombardimonchisi was at last being delivered to squadrons, along with the new navigational aid GEE.
The renewed campaign got under way in early March with a 'saturation raid' by 200 RAF aircraft on the Renault truck and tank works at Bulon-Billankur, Parij yaqinida. 623 French people were killed, mostly workers who had gathered outside to cheer the accurate hits.[44] This was followed by the first of a series of eight raids on Essen which proved a great disappointment. Despite an initial yo'l topish force being sent to light up the target area with flares, only one bomb in 20 fell within five miles (8 km) of the town. On the night of 28–29 March the RAF used incendiaries for the first time to hit factories in Lyubek, an old town with many combustible buildings, but although the British considered it a resounding success production was back to normal a week later. More disaster followed on 17 April during a daylight 'precision' raid on the KISHI diesel engine factory in Augsburg. There was little effect on production and, with no fighter cover, 7 of the 12 Lancaster bombers were lost, leading to a return to night bombing.
Minglab bombardimonchilar reydi
Heavy investment had been made in building up the bomber force, but faith in its potential was beginning to wane, and Harris realised a major tashviqot success was vital to demonstrate his belief that bombers could be decisive in defeating the enemy.[16] Harris began pushing for a mass raid using the magic number of 1,000 bombers, although in fact the RAF barely had that many. At last, using every plane available including trainee crews, the RAF raided Kyoln on 30/31 May 1942 with over 1,000 bombers; although over half the city was destroyed and it was seen as a success, the city made a surprising recovery. RAF assaults on medium-sized industrial towns to the east of the Rhine, the Ruhr and Berlin from mid-1942 also did little to weaken Germany economically. From July the B-24 ozod qiluvchi va Uchayotgan qal'a parklari Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari havo kuchlari (USAAF) took on the role of daytime precision bombing of German arms and communication targets. They began by raiding airfields and railway stations in France and the Netherlands and badly damaged the Heroya aluminium centre near Trondxaym in Norway which produced synthetic kriyolit, used in the manufacture of aluminium. From mid-November the RAF began a series of 16 massed night raids on Berlin, but though the damage was considerable, the raids were less effective than those on the Ruhr and Hamburg. Essen and Bremen also suffered 1,000 plane raids and upwards of 1,000 tons of bombs. In 1942 the RAF dropped 37,000 tons of bombs on German targets, probably three times the weight dropped on Britain in 1940 and early 1941.
On 21 December 1942 the USAAF attacked the Krupp o'simlik Essen and, although they were unsuccessful at first, demonstrated their intention to paralyse German industry by concentrating on key sectors and persevering until lasting damage was inflicted.[16] Another important target was ball-bearing manufacture, most of which was concentrated at Shvaynfurt, which in the months to come, despite the German deployment of smoke screens, mock factories, jamming devices, searchlights and po'stloq in the area received special attention from the USAAF; Albert Speer and Erxard Milch, the Inspector-General of the Luftwaffe, realised that from this point onwards the writing was on the wall. On 25 February 1943 the Allies began a round-the-clock strategic bombing campaign in Europe, and a few days later Bomber Command began the 5-month long Rur jangi, a massive plan to wear down Germany's industrial capacity.
Blokada yuguruvchilar
Once new supplies of oil, rubber, and tungsten began flowing from the newly occupied Far East, mutually beneficial barter agreements were agreed whereby the Germans would acquire these vital commodities in exchange for the precision tools, blue prints and ball bearings which Japan badly needed.[40] There had already been some trading of ipak products early in the European war. Despite the 5,600 miles (9,000 km) and the land barrier of Russia separating Berlin from Tokyo, by mid-1942 a system of fast blockade runners was set up, the freighters traveling non-stop without showing lights or using their radio to avoid detection. The MEW believed that the first Japanese shipment of rubber reached Germany during the summer of 1942, having initially sailed from Hind-Xitoy to West Africa. From there it was transferred to small coastal vessels and ran the blockade to French Mediterranean ports by night. The MEW became concerned at the 'steady trickle' of Japanese blockade runners reaching Europe, which one estimate put at 15 ships by the end of 1942,[40] and on the anniversary of the German and Italian declarations of war on the US, General Tojo expressed his pleasure that Japan was able to contribute the resources captured in the South Pacific to the Axis cause.
Other blockade runners were known to be arriving at the French port of Bordeaux, 70 miles inside the Jironde Estuary Atlantika sohilida. The port, also a base for German and Italian submarines, was one of the most heavily defended waterways in Europe, protected by numerous patrol boats, searchlights, shore batteries and thousands of troops. Because of its distance from the sea, a naval excursion was impossible, while the RAF believed that a bombing raid would be far too inaccurate and costly in civilian life and aircraft. The difficulty of stopping the blockade runners became known as the 'Bordeaux Problem', and eventually the British decided that a different, more espionage based approach was needed.
On 7 December 1942, Kombinatsiyalangan operatsiyalar launched one of the most famous raids of the war; Frankton operatsiyasi, better known as the 'Cockleshell Heroes ' mission, in an attempt to sink the ships by sending a 12-man team of Qirollik dengiz piyoda qo'mondonlari to paddle up the Gironde in canoes to place delayed action bombs on their exposed hulls. Although the commandos displayed exceptional courage and the expedition was essentially successful in that a number of ships were damaged, only 2 men survived, including the leader, Major Herbert Hasler, who had to make their way across 80 miles of France, Spain and Gibraltar back to safety. The remaining 10 men drowned, died of exposure or were captured and interrogated by the Germans before being executed.
In addition, excessive secrecy and a lack of communication between Uaytxoll departments meant that at exactly the same time that Operation Frankton was under way, and without their knowledge, the SOE were in the final stages of their own attempt to destroy the blockade runners by deploying a team of French agents led by Klod de Baissak, posing as painting contractors who planned to carry explosives onto the ships in their baggage. The explosions caused by the commando mission ruined the preparations of the SOE team, who might well have achieved a far more effective destruction of the blockade running vessels but for the Combined Operations raid.
Even so, the combined Allied air forces and navies eventually began to track down the blockade runners. In late 1942, an 8,000-ton cargo ship was caught in the Indian Ocean, where it hoisted a neutral flag and initially gave the name of a neutral vessel but misspelled the name. When the Allied warships opened fire the crew scuttled the ship, and 78 Germans were captured.
By late 1943 the Germans became so desperate for supplies of key commodities that in one incident they sent a large destroyer force out into the Bay of Biscay to protect ships bringing a cargo into Bordeaux, and lost three vessels (Z27, T25 va T26 ) to Allied action (Stonewall operatsiyasi ). By May 1944, 15 blockade runners had been sunk and the traffic had virtually ceased apart from submarines carrying very small cargoes. The MEW stated that 45,000 tons of rubber, 1,500 tons of tungsten, 17,000 tons of tin and 25,000 tons of vegetable oils had been destroyed as well as important far-Eastern drugs such as xinin. The Ministry was also of the view that the strong blockade had probably prevented further large amounts from being transported.[66]
Yunonistonda ochlik
By early 1942, the food shortages in Greece, which had been invaded by the Germans in April 1941 along with Yugoslavia, and which was now subject to the blockade, reached the famine proportions foreseen by Hoover. With its economy and infratuzilma ruined by the war with Italy, Greece was compelled to pay occupation costs and to grant Germany a 'war loan', and was subjected to the same confiscation of food and raw materials practiced elsewhere. Using its virtually worthless 'invasion marks', more than half of Greece's already inadequate wheat production was "sold" to Germany along with livestock, clothes, dried vegetables and fruit. Potatoes were fried using Greek olive oil and shipped back to Germany, and the tomato crop was hurried to shilliqqurt -ridden German troops in Africa. One US correspondent commented; "Germany worked like a pack of driver ants, picking Greece clean",[67] but the corrupt, kooperatsionist government also controlled the qora bozor in whatever food was still available, causing rampant inflation of the draxma, which saw the price of a loaf of bread, where available, reach $15. There were reports of grave-robbing by people desperate to find the money to feed their families, but in the towns there were none of the staple potatoes, figs, raisins or tomatoes available and it was not long before the population began to die in droves from hunger, cholera, typhoid and dysentery. In September 1941, the Greeks appealed for overseas aid, particularly from Turkey. An official declared "We are not asking for food that Turks would eat, but for food they refuse to eat."
(Styleu av. yaqinida Propyle va Milliy kutubxona o'rtasida).
Ikki xalq o'rtasida o'tgan adovatga qaramay, Turkiya tezda bunga javoban javobgarlikni qabul qildi SSKurtulus va inglizlardan ruxsat olganidan keyin kema suzib ketdi Istanbul ga Pirey 6 oktyabr kuni bug'doy, makkajo'xori, sabzavot, quritilgan mevalar va dorilar bilan. Keyingi bir necha oy ichida kema Gretsiyaga 6700 tonna yuk etkazib berdi, ammo toshlarga asos solgan va uning beshinchi safarida cho'kib ketgan. Insonparvarlik harakatlariga qaramay, 1942 yil yanvar oyining oxiriga kelib 1700 dan 2000 gacha erkaklar, ayollar va bolalar halok bo'lishdi Afina va Pirey har kuni va keyinchalik Yunonistonni ishg'ol qilgan Italiya o'z xalqining bezovtalanishini oldini olish uchun yashirin ravishda o'zining oz miqdordagi ichki ta'minotidan 10 ming tonna don etkazib berishga majbur bo'ldi. Bu hali ham etarli emas edi va oxir-oqibat xalqaro bosim Britaniyani birinchi marta o'z blokadasini olib tashlashga majbur qildi. Fevral oyining boshlarida, Xyu Dalton MEW tomonidan aytilgan Jamiyat palatasi Angliya va Amerika Yunonistonga 8000 tonna bug'doy yuborishini, garchi yordam materiallari ochliklarga yo'l topishiga kafolat yo'q edi. Dalton dedi; "Bizda hech qanday kafolat yo'q va biz nemislar tomonidan berilgan narsalarga ahamiyat bermaymiz. Biz bu holatda Gretsiyadagi nemislar keltirib chiqargan dahshatli sharoitlarni hisobga olgan holda tavakkal qilamiz". Shu vaqtdan boshlab Yunon pravoslav cherkovi Qo'shma Shtatlardagi va Xalqaro Qizil Xochdagi xayriya harakatlari bilan yunon xalqiga etarlicha etkazib berishga ruxsat berildi, ammo ochlikdan o'lganlarning umumiy soni kamida 70,000, ehtimol ancha yuqori.[68]
1942 yil oxiriga kelib, Germaniya etkazib berishni soxta AQSh dollaridan foydalangan holda to'layotgani va Ruminiya savdosida defoltni boshlaganligi, buning evaziga juda zarur bo'lgan texnika va urush materiallarini etkazib bermaganligi haqidagi da'volar paydo bo'ldi. Ispaniyaning apelsin va mandarin etkazib beruvchilari ham etkazib berish muddati to'laguniga qadar etkazib berishdan bosh tortdilar.[64] Urushning bosqichma-bosqich o'zgarishi bilan bir qator neytral mamlakatlar Germaniya bilan qattiqroq yo'l tutishni boshladilar, ba'zi hollarda qo'shimcha kredit berishdan bosh tortdilar.
1943
1942–43 yillar Frantsiyada qishloq xo'jaligi uchun yana bir ozg'in yil bo'ldi. Kabi ko'plab serhosil mintaqalar Vexin, Beauce, va Brie qurg'oqchilikdan jiddiy azob chekdi. Bug'doy boshlari yengil, somon kalta va o'tloqlarda pichan qisilib, hayvonlarga ozuqa etishmasligini keltirib chiqardi. Ishg'ol qilingan hududlarda nemislar hosil bo'lishi bilanoq hosilning 40 foizini tortib olishdi; hokimiyat keng aholi uchun 40% ni oldi, fermerda faqat 20% qoldi. Yilda Normandiya, Bretan va Kanal bo'yida yomg'ir kartoshka hosilini buzdi va pomidor va loviya pishmadi. Boshqa viloyatlarda, masalan, Touraine va Burgundiya viloyati, juda quruq ob-havo sharoitida sabzavot va hatto begona o'tlar tuproqda pishirilgan, shuning uchun go'sht uchun quyon boqadigan odamlar ularni daraxt barglari bilan boqishlari kerak edi.[69]
Janubi Loire ob-havo qulayroq edi, ammo kelayotgan bosqinchilik xavfi bilan nemislar ittifoqchilar hech narsasiz qolishlari va hamma narsani Angliyadan olib o'tishga majbur bo'lishlari uchun erni tortib olishni maqsad qilishgan. Hermann Gyoring o'z nutqida fashistlarning yangi ordeni ostida Herrenvolk bosib olingan xalqlarni oziq-ovqatlaridan mahrum qilish huquqiga ega edilar va kim uni ochlikdan o'ldirsa, nemislar bo'lmaydi.[70] Ratsion juda qattiq bo'lib qoldi. Kuponlar bilan ham ko'p narsalarni sotib olishning iloji yo'q edi. Har bir narsaga maksimal narxlar belgilandi, ammo qora bozor narxlarni rasmiy tarifdan 5-15 marta oshirib yubordi. Katta shaharlardagi arzon restoranlarda har qanday yog'siz tayyorlangan sholg'om yoki sabzi tepalaridan iborat idishlar tayyorlanar edi, garchi uy egalari hanuzgacha qo'pol sharobning adolatli ratsionini olsalar ham, barcha ruhlar sanoat maqsadlarida musodara qilindi.
MEW blokadani qisman yumshatish to'g'risidagi talablarni qabul qilishni davom ettirdi, ko'pincha bu dushmanga ta'sirida sezilarli farq bo'lmaydi degan fikrda, ammo iltimoslar qat'iyan rad etildi. MEW blokadani har qanday sezilarli yoki keng miqyosda yumshatish muqarrar ravishda o'z foydasi uchun dushman tomonidan ishlatilishiga ishongan va "unga bunday tasalli bermasligini" e'lon qilgan.[40]
Og'ir og'ir Lancaster sonining ko'payishi bilan, Stirling va Galifaks bombardimonchilari uzoq masofalarga sayohat qilishi va og'ir bomba yukini ko'tarib, eskadronlarga etib borishi mumkin bo'lgan ittifoqchilar rahbarlari borgan sari strategik bombardimonning kumulyativ ta'siriga ishonadilar, ammo qaror qildilar Kasablanka konferentsiyasi 1943 yil boshida, ingliz Blitsida bo'lgani kabi, shaharlarni to'yingan bombardimon qilish orqali nemis xalqining ma'naviyatini buzishga qaratilgan dastlabki urinishlar teskari samara berdi. Yilda avtotransport zavodlariga RAF reydlari Milan, Genuya va Turin 1942 yil 2-dekabrda Italiya aholisini faqat Mussolini diktaturasi orqasida birlashtirishga xizmat qildi va reja "nemis sanoatining tartibsizligi" foydasiga bekor qilindi. Nemis tilining yarmi sintetik yog ' ishlab chiqarish Rurdagi o'simliklardan, maydon hujumlariga juda zaif bo'lgan hududlardan kelib chiqqan va ular 1943 yildan bombardimonchilar qo'mondonligining asosiy maqsadiga aylangan.[16]
To'rtinchi bosqich
Germaniyaning mag'lubiyatidan so'ng Stalingrad va El Alamein, urush Ittifoqchilar yo'lini qat'iyat bilan boshladi. Keyinchalik bardoshli qirg'inchilar va yangi yorug'lik paydo bo'lishi bilan eskort tashuvchilar konvoylarni doimiy havo qopqog'i bilan ta'minlay oladigan "Atlantika oralig'idagi bo'shliq kemalar havo qopqog'i bilan ta'minlanmaydigan joyda yopiq edi va 1943 yil o'rtalaridan boshlab Atlantika jangida U-qayiqlar mag'lubiyatga uchradi,[7] dengizdagi kontrabanda nazorati hali ham davom etgan bo'lsa-da. Germaniyada ishchi kuchi etishmovchiligi shunchalik kuchayib ketdiki, Germaniya tobora ko'proq qullar mehnatiga tayanib, mavjud bo'lgan barcha Shveytsariya ishchilariga oldindan talab qilishni talab qildi. Frantsuz hamkori Per Laval zudlik bilan Germaniyaga yana 300 ming ishchi yuborishga va'da berdi.
Ser Artur Xarris va uning USAAF hamkasbi general-mayor Ira Eaker Uinston Cherchill va Franklin Ruzveltni Germaniyani 1943 yil oxiriga qadar urushdan tashqarida bombardimon qilish mumkin, agar Germaniyani bombardimon qilish uchun ajratilgan kuchlarni kamaytirishga hech narsa yo'l qo'yilmasa. Xarris tili keskinligi va reydlar natijasida o'ldirilgan nemis fuqarolari uchun tavba qilmasligi bilan mashhur edi; tobelaridan biri u haqida gapirdi. "Oh, biz uni yaxshi ko'ramiz, u juda qonli g'ayriinsoniy".[71] Xarris, Evropada quruqlik kuchlari uchun yagona rol, bombardimon Germaniyani mag'lubiyatga uchratganidan keyin qit'ani bosib olish bo'ladi, deb ishongan. Cherchill, boshqa choralar chiqarib tashlanmaguncha, barcha bombardimonchilar hujumi tajribasini sinab ko'rishga arziydi, deb o'ylardi va ittifoqdosh quruqlik qo'shinlari va dengiz floti qo'mondonlari bombardimon Germaniyani mag'lub etishiga shubha qilishganda, ular reydlar foydali bo'lishiga rozi bo'lishdi. Evropani bosib olishdan oldin Germaniyani zaiflashtirish. Ammo bombalarning atigi 10 foizi maqsadlariga etarlicha yaqinlashib, xitlar deb nomlandi va kuchli bombardimon qilingan qurilmalarni tez-tez ularni nokaut qilish uchun yana bombardimon qilish kerak edi. Ammo Germaniyaning temir yo'l tizimiga hujumlar harbiy operatsiyalarga jiddiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi - 1943 yil boshlarida har oy 150 ga yaqin lokomotiv va ko'plab yuk vagonlari yo'q qilindi.
1943 yil 16-maydan 17-mayga o'tar kechasi RAF mashhur Dambusters reydini o'tkazdi (Chastise operatsiyasi ) buzish Mohne, Eder va Sorpe Rur sanoatini ta'minlaydigan to'g'onlar gidroelektr po'lat ishlab chiqarish uchun zarur bo'lgan quvvat va toza suv. Reyd 1500 kishini va son-sanoqsiz qishloq xo'jalik hayvonlarini g'arq qildi, ammo da'vo qilinganidek muvaffaqiyatli bo'lmadi; va 18 bombardimonchining yarmi urib tushirildi. 1943 yil 24-iyulda yirik ishlab chiqarish markazi bo'lgan Gamburg Yo'lbars tanklari va 88 mm qurol deyarli yo'q qilindi Gomorra operatsiyasi. Bir necha kundan keyin ommaviy hujumlar natijasida shaharning katta qismi xarobaga aylanib, 42 ming kishini o'ldirgani aytilmoqda.[16]
RAF bilan taqqoslaganda, AQShning 8-havo kuchlari Germaniyada RAF sifatida bomba tonajining o'ndan bir qismidan kamini tashlab, o'sha paytda hali ham kichik edi. Ammo u tez o'sib borar va yaxshi natijalarga erisha boshlagan edi. "Bomber" Xarris Amerikaning ishlab chiqarish qobiliyatiga katta ishongan va oxir-oqibat dushmanga so'nggi hal qiluvchi zarbalarni beradigan RAF emas, balki USAAF bo'lishiga ishongan. 1 avgust kuni USAAF Ruminiyaning Ployetsi konlariga hujum qildi "Tidal Wave" operatsiyasi qismi sifatida Yog 'rejasi Axis neft ta'minotini tugatish. Ishlab chiqarishni yo'qotishiga olib kelmadi va yo'qotishlar katta bo'ldi: 177 bombardimonchilardan 54 tasi urib tushirildi. 1943 yil 14-oktabrda 8-chi USAAF Shvaynfurt sharni yotqizish ishlariga 16 ta eng muvaffaqiyatli hujumni amalga oshirdi, ammo ishlab chiqarishda vaqtincha to'xtab qoldi va bombardimonchilar samolyot eskorti bo'lganligi sababli, yo'qotishlar yana og'ir bo'ldi. Bu o'z-o'zini himoya qiladigan bombardimonchi samolyotni shakllantirish va kunduzgi hujumlarni cheklashni qayta ko'rib chiqishga majbur qildi. Noyabr oyida USAAF Norvegiyaning eng muhim sanoat maydoniga katta zarar etkazdi molibden meniki Knaben, 80 milya masofadan Stavanger.[72] Norvegiya eritish ishlari 1943 yil 21-noyabrda ham Britaniya va Norvegiya komandolari tomonidan yo'q qilindi.
Nemis rekvizitsiyalari davom etmoqda
Uch yillik urushdan keyin Angliya 10 milliard funt sarf qildi va Bosh vazirning kansleri, Kingsli Vud, davom etish uchun yana bir milliard funt sterling topish uchun jamoatlar palatasidan so'rashi kerak edi.[13] USAAF havo kuchlari Frantsiya, Niderlandiya, Belgiya va Germaniyadagi samolyotlarni ishlab chiqarish va ta'mirlash zavodlariga kuchlarini qo'shib, ortdi. 1943 yil oktyabr oyi oxiriga kelib, MEW Germaniya unumdorligi 30 foizga kamaydi, deb hisoblar edi.[73] va pasayishning yarmi o'tgan olti oyda sodir bo'lgan, ammo raqamlar barcha bombardimon qilish, to'yinganlik yoki aniqlik chegaralarini ko'rsatdi. Ilgari yo'q qilinganligi haqida xabar berilgan ko'plab qurilmalar ishlashni davom ettirdilar.
Noyabr oyining boshlarida MEW 1940 va 1941 yillarda nemislar zabt etgan hududlaridan nimani o'zlashtirganiga baho berib, bosib olingan erlardagi mavqeining qisqacha mazmunini e'lon qildi. Hisobotda 12,800,000,000 AQSh dollaridan ko'proq mablag 'yig'ilganligi taxmin qilindi. bosib olingan hududlarni bosib olish xarajatlari va boshqa to'g'ridan-to'g'ri to'lovlarda va har yili 4.800.000.000 AQSh dollari miqdorida yig'ib olishni davom ettirdilar. Polsha, eng qattiq munosabatda bo'lgan mamlakat, barcha davlat mulklari, to'qimachilik, oziq-ovqat va chorvachilikning barcha zaxiralari musodara qilingan. 9000 fabrikalar va 60000 tijorat korxonalari ekspluatatsiya qilish uchun qabul qilindi va 1942 yil hosilining 80% Germaniyaga yuborildi. Chexoslovakiya g'alla, oltin zaxiralari, konlari, og'ir sanoat va muhim to'qimachilik sanoatidan ayrildi. Uning umumiy o'lponi 1,200,000,000 dollar sifatida berilgan. Gollandiya sanoati hozirgi kunga qadar Germaniyaning to'liq nazorati ostida edi. Davlat xarajatlari Germaniyani bosib olish va boshqa xarajatlar va yig'imlarni to'lash uchun deyarli uch baravar ko'paygan. Hukumati Britaniyada muhojirlikda bo'lgan Belgiya, Vichi rejimi tomonidan 260.000.000 dollarlik oltin zaxirasini topshirdi va 1943 yil boshiga kelib mamlakatdagi 1500 ta lokomotiv va 75000 ta yuk mashinalari zaxirasi rekvizitsiya qilindi. Yugoslaviyada barcha avtoulovlar 1941 yilda hibsga olingan va topilishi mumkin bo'lgan barcha velosipedlar 1942 yilga qadar olingan. Mamlakat bo'linib ketgan va boshqa ko'plab odamlar singari bosib olish tizimi tufayli inflyatsiyadan aziyat chekkan. Norvegiyada nemislar shaxsiy mulklarini junli adyolga, chang'i shimlari va shamolga chidamli kurtkalarga qadar rekvizitsiya qilishdi, Daniyada esa barcha savdo va sanoat sohalari endi nemislar tomonidan boshqarilardi.[74]
Qo'shinlar, shuningdek, bombardimon qilingan nemis oilalaridan foydalanish uchun jo'natilishi kerak bo'lgan mebel va uy-ro'zg'or buyumlarini olib qo'yishni boshladilar. Albert Speer davrida sanoat fabrikalari Chexoslovakiyaga sezilarli darajada ko'chirildi va 1943 yil oxiriga kelib, shaharlarga katta zarar etkazilganiga qaramay - nemis raqamlari 6,9 million odam bombardimon qilingan yoki evakuatsiya qilinganligini ko'rsatdi - urush materiallari chiqarildi har qachongidan ham kattaroq. 1943 yil oktyabrda USAAF yana Ploietiga hujum qildi, ammo Germaniya yozuvlariga ko'ra 1943 yil oxirigacha neftning umumiy yo'qotilishi 150 ming tonnadan oshmagan edi.[16]
1944
1944 yil boshida bombardimonchilar hujumi va'da qilingan hal qiluvchi mag'lubiyatni keltirmagani aniq edi va Evropaga bostirib kirish uchun tayyorgarlik ishlari yaxshi boshlangan edi. Ispaniya, Portugaliya va Shvetsiya Germaniyaga hayotiy muhim tovarlarni sotishni to'xtatish uchun yana bosim o'tkazdilar.[63] 1944 yil yanvar oyida MEW Ispaniya hali ham Germaniyaga oyiga 100 tonna volfram sotayotganini taxmin qildi. Ispaniyaning sanoat va tijorat vaziri Ispaniya Germaniyani urush davrida juda yuqori qiymatga ega bo'lgan tovarni inkor etishni imkonsiz deb hisoblaganini aytib, Ispaniyaning pozitsiyasini himoya qildi. Ispaniya volframini ham sezilarli darajada sotib olgan Angliya, Ispaniyaga 1943 yilgi Germaniya volfram eksportini saqlab qolish imkoniyatini beradigan kelishuvni ma'qulladi, ammo Qo'shma Shtatlar to'liq taqiqni talab qildi va oxir-oqibat neft embargosi qayta tiklandi. Ispaniya 1944 yil may oyida Germaniya eksportini qisqartirishga rozi bo'ldi, ammo ittifoqchilar uning yashirin yuklarni jo'natishni davom ettirayotganini, 1944 yil iyulgacha 800 tonnadan ortiq volfram tashiganligini va avgust oyida Frantsiya-Ispaniya chegarasi yopilguncha savdo-sotiqni tugatmaganligini aniqladilar. 1944. Portugaliya, shuningdek, agar u volframni jo'natishni to'xtatib qo'ysa, bosqin qilish yoki shaharlarining bombardimon qilinishi va dengiz tashish kabi nemislarning repressiyalaridan qo'rqib, o'zining neytral savdo huquqini himoya qildi; ammo AQSh davlat kotibi Kordell Xall agar u Britaniyaning ko'magi bilan chin dildan yordam berganida, maqsadga erishishi mumkinligiga ishongan.[63]
Katta hafta
1944 yil 20 fevralda USAAF boshlandi "Katta hafta" operatsiyasi, hujum paytida ittifoqchilarning havo ustunligini ta'minlash uchun Luftwaffe qurol bazasini tugatish rejasi. Olti kun davomida samolyot zavodlari doimiy zarbalarga duchor bo'ldilar, amerikaliklar samolyotlarni ishlab chiqarish va yig'ish zavodlariga va Germaniyaning ko'plab shaharlaridagi boshqa maqsadlarga qarshi qattiq uchib boradigan missiyalar bilan uchib ketishdi. Leypsig, Brunsvik, Gota, Regensburg, Shvaynfurt, Augsburg, Shtutgart va Steyr. RAF tunda xuddi shu nishonlarni bombardimon qilish uchun qaytib keldi va shundan kelib chiqadiki, Milch Speer-ga 1944 yil martdagi ishlab chiqarish fevral oyining umumiy miqdorining atigi 30 - 40 foizini tashkil qilishi haqida xabar berdi. Albert Sper samolyot ishlab chiqarishni o'z zimmasiga oldi va mo''jizalar yaratishga muvaffaq bo'ldi: tez orada qurilmalar odatdagi quvvatga qaytdi va umumiy ishlab chiqarish, shu jumladan sintetik neft ishlab chiqarish eng yuqori darajaga ko'tarildi va hali ham o'sib bormoqda. Luftwaffe bir yil oldingi samolyotga qaraganda 40% ko'proq samolyotga ega edi, yangi tanklar qurilishi g'arbiy Evropani himoya qilish uchun ko'tarilgan yangi bo'linmalarni jihozlash va sharqdagi ba'zi yo'qotishlarni qoplash uchun etarli edi.[6]
Garchi Ittifoqchilar kecha-kunduz bosimni ushlab tursalar-da, bosqinni boshlashgacha bo'lgan sonli aloqa liniyalariga hujum qildilar, ammo ular nemis qo'mondonlari juda yaxshi bilgan narsalarini - Germaniyada juda ko'p tanklar borligini anglashga shoshilishdi. va samolyotlar va ularning haqiqiy axilles to'pig'i neft ta'minoti edi.[16] Mart oyining boshida USAAF reyd o'tkazdi Erkner rulmanli ishlarni bajarish, 75 ta to'g'ridan-to'g'ri hitni urish, ishlab chiqarishni bir muncha vaqt to'xtatish va "Kombinatsiyalangan bombardimon hujumini yakunlash rejasi Endi Germaniyaning harbiy mashinalarini ishlatish vositalaridan mahrum qilish uchun Ployetsi konlari va o'n to'rtta sintetik-moy zavodlariga hujum qilish orqali eksa neft qazib olishni ikki baravar qisqartirish maqsadi paydo bo'ldi.
12-may kuni USAAF Sharqiy Germaniyaning sintetik neft zavodlariga zarba berdi Leuna, Bohlen, Zayts va Lutzendorf; Ular shu qadar qattiq shikastlanishganki, ular bir necha hafta davomida hech qanday neft etkazib berolmaydilar, shu oyning oxirida ular ishlab chiqarishga qaytishidan oldin yana urishdi. Keyinchalik Albert Shpier bu urushdagi hal qiluvchi burilish nuqtasi ekanligini aytdi.[16]
Ayni paytda, Ittifoqning doimiy diplomatik bosimi natijasida, Germaniyaning harbiy pozitsiyasining yomonlashuvi bilan birga, Shvetsiya Germaniya bilan savdosini kamaytira boshladi. Ammo 1943 yil sentyabr oyida u rulmanli eksportni tugatishga rozilik bergan bitim, ularni ishlab chiqarishda ishlatiladigan yuqori sifatli po'latni sotishni cheklashni o'z ichiga olmadi; bu cheklovlarni asosan chetlab o'tishga imkon berdi va kelishuv oxir-oqibat nemis urush sanoatiga juda oz ta'sir qildi. Ittifoqchilarning Turkiyadagi sotuvlarini to'xtatishga urinishlari xrom ammo kerakli natijani bera boshlagan edi. 1943 yil noyabrda Albert Sper Turkiyaning xrom importisiz Germaniyaning qurol-yarog 'ishlab chiqarishi 10 oy ichida to'xtab qolishini va ittifoqchilarning Turkiyani boshqa neytrallarga qarshi qo'llanilgan iqtisodiy urush choralariga bo'ysundirish bilan tahdidlari oxir-oqibat uni Germaniyaga eksport qilishni to'xtatishga undadi. 1944 yil aprelga qadar.
Garchi Germaniya, bosib olingan hududlar boyligi bilan Angliyadan uch baravar ko'proq po'lat ishlab chiqarishga qodir bo'lsa ham,[75] harbiy harakatlar natijasida u o'rnini bosa olmaydigan boshqa maxsus metallarning manbalarini yo'qotishni boshladi. Sharqiy jabhada Qizil Armiya uni qaytarib olgan edi marganets minalar Balki nemislar har yili urush sanoatiga zarur bo'lgan 375 ming tonnadan 200 mingtasini olishgan. Skandinaviyada muhim ta'minot nikel endi etkazib berilishining oldi olindi Petsamo yilda Finlyandiya va minalar Knaben yilda Norvegiya endi molibden bilan ta'minlanmayotgan edi.
Overlord arafasi
Bahs paytida Lordlar palatasi oldin 1944 yil 9-maydagi iqtisodiy urush haqida Kun, Lord Natan Uyga aytdi:[42]
- Rabbimlar, yodingizga deyarli unutilgan Vazirlikni keltirmoqchiman. Orqaga 1939 yilda, urushning dastlabki kunlarida, Iqtisodiy urush vazirligi har doim sarlavhalarda bo'lgan. Keyin ba'zi odamlar o'ylashdi va ba'zilar urushni urushsiz faqat blokirovka qilish yo'li bilan yutish mumkin, Germaniya to'satdan yoqilg'i etishmasligi, maxsus po'latlarning etishmasligi va hatto oziq-ovqat etishmovchiligi tufayli qulab tushishini aytdi. Achchiq maktabda biz tez orada boshqacha o'rgandik. Bugungi kunda ham, Germaniya juda kam neftga ega bo'lsa-da, u haqiqiy harbiy operatsiyalar uchun etarli va uning xalqi hali ham oqilona ovqatlanmoqda. Ammo o'sha dastlabki kunlardan keyin biz boshqa haddan oshdik. Blokada o'z-o'zidan hiyla-nayrang qilmadi, shuning uchun biz uni xayolimizda bir tomonga qo'ydik. Agar dastlabki umidlar oshirib yuborilgan bo'lsa, biz haqiqiy yutuqlarni susaytirmasligimiz kerak. Blokada deyarli bizni mag'lubiyatdan qutqardi. Bu g'alaba qozonishimizga imkon yaratdi va so'nggi zarbaga tayyor turishimiz uchun qimmatli vaqtni berdi. Bir necha yil oldin bir iqtisodiy yozuvchi shunday degan edi: "Blokada Germaniyani buzmaydi, lekin uni mo'rt qiladi". Endi u mo'rt, bizning armiyamiz uni sindira oladi. Blokadalar hozirda eng yuqori cho'qqida, bosqinchilik arafasida, zo'riqish haqida gapirganda, har qachongidan ham muhimroq. Evropaning och qolgan xalqi endi bizning ozodlikka chiqayotgan qo'shinlarimiz va ularning poyezdida non olib kelayotgan oldinga siljishimizga e'tibor qaratishlari kerak.
Lord Selburn uyga avvaliga ozgina bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan blokadaning ta'siri kümülatif bo'lganligini va Germaniyaning eng katta etishmovchiligi ishchi kuchida ekanligini aytdi. Angliya o'zi yiliga o'n millionlab tonna materiallarni import qilayotgan paytda, dushman tobora ko'proq foydalanishga majbur bo'ldi ersatz sanoat tarmoqlari. Nemis fuqaro avtotransporti deyarli butunlay ishlab chiqaruvchi gazga o'tib ketdi, bu esa barcha ersatz materiallari kabi ishchi kuchida juda isrof bo'lgan va bu uning daladagi ulkan yo'qotishlari va mavjud bo'lgan ish kuchining nomutanosib ravishda yuqori foizini ushlab turish zarurati bilan birga. er, faqat Germaniyada etti millionga yaqin chet el qullaridan foydalanishni talab qiladigan ishchi kuchi inqirozini keltirib chiqardi. 1944 yil iyun oyida inglizlar nihoyat Azoradagi dengiz bazalariga kirishni ta'minladilar va ittifoqchilar bundan keyin Portugaliyani iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar bilan tahdid qildilar. O'z navbatida, Portugaliya ikkala tomonga ham barcha volfram eksportiga to'liq embargo qo'ydi va Germaniyani faqat ozgina Ispaniyadan etkazib berish qoldi, ittifoqchilar esa Uzoq Sharq va Janubiy Amerikada muqobil manbalarga ega edilar.
Kun
Sifatida Kun yaqinlashdi, ittifoqchilar hujumlarni birinchi o'ringa qo'yishdi Ploieti va sun'iy yonilg'i quyiladigan joylar. Nemis havo mudofaasi endi qurilmalarni himoya qila olmadi va 12 va 20 iyunda RAF Rur gidrogenatsiyalash zavodlariga hujum qildi va sharqiy o'simliklarni ishdan butunlay chiqarib yubordi, bu esa ishlab chiqarishning tez pasayishiga olib keldi; Vaziyat yaxshilanmasa, Sper sentyabrgacha falokat bo'lishini bashorat qilgan.[16] Overlordning boshidan boshlab, 6 iyunda ittifoqchilar plyaj boshi osmonini to'liq nazorat qilishdan mamnun edilar va tanker orqali dengiz orqali etarli miqdordagi neftni olib o'tishga muvaffaq bo'ldilar. PLUTO suv osti quvuri, sun'iy esa Tut tutqunlari va kichik portlarni egallab olish dastlab ularga qirg'oqqa etarlicha o'q-dorilar va oziq-ovqat zaxiralarini olib chiqishga imkon berdi.
Normandiyani himoya qiladigan nemis qo'shinlari o'zlarining tanklari uchun etarli yoqilg'ini topa olmasliklari bilan juda cheklangan edilar va tunda faqat qo'shinlar va ta'minot harakatlarini amalga oshirishlari mumkin edi. Shuningdek, ularga Gitler bir necha chaqirim ichkarida yaxshiroq pozitsiyalarga chiqib ketishni taqiqlagan va natijada ingliz va amerika qiruvchi kemalarining offshorda zinapoyalaridan kuchli kalibrli o'q uzilgan.[76] Nemis qo'mondonlari tobora yangi narsalarga ishonishmoqda Messerschmitt 262 reaktiv qiruvchi va V-qurol oqimni burmoq. Birinchi V1 1944 yil 13-iyunda Angliyaga qarshi uchar bomba uchirildi va tez orada Londonga kuniga 120 V1 o'q uzilib, ko'plab tinch aholini o'ldirdi. Iyun oyi oxiriga qadar 2000 dan ortiq V1 uchirildi; Bombardimonchilarning 40% resurslari "yo'naltirildi"Arqon "shimoldan va sharqdan 70-80 uchirish maydonlarini yo'q qilish umidida nishonlar Sena.[77]
Ittifoqdosh ta'minot muammolari
D-Day-ning dastlabki muvaffaqiyati va undan keyin Normandiya plyajidan ajralib chiqqandan so'ng, katta qo'shinlarni etkazib berishda doimiy qiyinchiliklar tufayli avans sekinlasha boshladi.[6] Muammo qit'aga etkazib berishda emas, balki ularni etkazib berish omborlaridan 800 km uzoqlikda bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan oldinga qo'shinlarga etkazishda edi. Har bir bo'linma kuniga 600-700 tonna materialni talab qilar edi, artilleriya va minomyotlar oyiga 8 million turdan foydalanar edi. Avans tezligi ko'pincha tartibli logistik tuzilmani qurish uchun vaqt yo'qligini va " Red Ball Express, avgust oxirida 5 kun davomida deyarli butun Amerika va Angliya avansi yoqilg'i etishmasligi sababli to'liq to'xtab qoldi.
Ta'minot muammosi Ittifoqchilarning katta kemalarni tushirishga qodir bo'lgan chuqur suv portini qo'lga kirita olmagani tufayli yomonlashdi. Nemislar o'zlarining yoqib yuborilgan siyosatidan foydalangan holda, ittifoqchilarni har qanday logistik afzalliklardan mahrum qilish uchun bosib olingan hududlardan chiqib ketayotganda barcha dok inshootlarini yo'q qildilar. Sentyabr oyining boshiga kelib, suvsiz qolgan yagona suv osti porti Belgiyaning Antverpen shahri bo'lib, Iqtisodiy urush vazirligi (MEW) rahbarligi ostida uning butunligini ta'minlash vazifasi berildi. Counterscorch deb nomlanuvchi operatsiya Belgiyaga qarshilik ko'rsatish bilan aloqa qilish uchun radio operatorlarini yuborish, ularni ittifoqchilar harakatlari to'g'risida xabardor qilish va ularni qurol va o'q-dorilar bilan ta'minlash bilan bog'liq edi. Belgilangan daqiqada qarshilik portni egallab oldi va nemislarni ittifoqchilar kelguniga qadar ushlab turdi va Belgiya bir haftadan kamroq vaqt ichida ozod qilindi, garchi Antverpen portining o'zi to'liq ishlamagan va katta yuklarni qo'nish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lganidan keyin ham. Sheldt jangi noyabr oyining oxirida.
Ta'minotdagi muammolar ham kelishmovchiliklarni keltirib chiqardi, chunki har bir qo'mondon o'z bo'linmasiga ustuvor ahamiyat berishini talab qildi. Ittifoq kuchlari oliy qo'mondoni, AQSh generali Duayt D. Eyzenxauer G'arbiy devorni engish uchun keng jabhada oldinga siljishni xohladi (Zigfrid chizig'i ), lekin buning o'rniga Britaniya generalini qabul qildi Bernard Montgomeri "s Market Garden operatsiyasi, G'arbiy devorni chetlab o'tib, Niderlandiya orqali sanoat Rurni o'rab olish uchun Germaniyaning shimoliy qismiga haydash rejasi. Market Garden falokat bo'ldi va asosiy maqsadiga erisha olmadi, bir nechta hududiy yutuqlar etkazib berish liniyalarini yanada kengaytirdi.
Bolqon rudalarini yo'qotish
Oktyabr oyining boshlarida Evropaning harbiy va siyosiy mavqei juda o'zgarib ketdi va MEW Germaniyaning yomonlashayotgan pozitsiyasi to'g'risida bayonot berdi.[78] Lotaringiya va Lyuksemburgdagi harbiy harakatlar, Shvetsiya kemalarining Germaniya portlari bilan savdo-sotiqdan chiqarilishi, Shvetsiya Boltiq portlari Germaniya yuk tashish uchun yopilishi va Ispaniyadan etkazib berishning yo'qolishi natijasida temir javhari zaxiralari kamaytirilganligi taxmin qilinmoqda. 1943 yilga nisbatan 65 foizga. Bundan tashqari, taxminan 45% cho'yan po'lat pechining quvvati 40% bilan birga ishlab chiqarish yo'qolgan. Mis va Turkiya va Ispaniyadan mis etkazib berish to'xtatildi va nemislar Yugoslaviyadagi Bordagi mis rudalari manbalari bilan aloqani uzdilar va Outokumpu Finlyandiyada. Yugoslaviya va boshqa Bolqon konlarining yo'qolishi xromning so'nggi zaxiralarini olib qo'ydi va qo'rg'oshin etkazib berishni taxminan 40 foizga qisqartirdi - bu holat Frantsiya, Belgiya va Gollandiyada to'plangan katta miqdordagi qoldiqlarning yo'qolishi tufayli yomonlashdi. Yuqori darajadagi frantsuz konlarini yo'qotish va Marshal tomonidan tortib olinishi bilan Iosip Broz Tito Yugoslaviya orol chekkasining kuchlari, Germaniyaning boksitning umumiy yo'qotilishi taxminan 50 foizni tashkil etdi, Finlyandiyadan kobalt etkazib berishning yo'qolishi Germaniya uning sintetik qismini ushlab turgan umumiy miqdorning 80 foizini tashkil etdi. tomonidan olingan neft ishlab chiqarish Fischer-Tropsch jarayoni.
Gollandiyalik temir yo'l ish tashlashi
Ayni paytda, ittifoqchilarga Gollandiyani ozod qilishda yordam berishga urinib, surgun qilingan Gollandiya hukumati Germaniya operatsiyalarini yanada buzish uchun milliy temir yo'l hujumiga chaqirdi. Germaniya hukumati bunga javoban mamlakatning g'arbiy qismlariga oziq-ovqat etkazib berishga embargo qo'ydi. Bu og'ir qiyinchiliklarni keltirib chiqardi. 1944 yil noyabr oyida embargo tugaguniga qadar g'ayrioddiy erta va qattiq qish kirib keldi va bu 1944 yilgi Gollandiyalik ochlik. Bolqonda Ploieti neft konlari 1944 yil avgustdan boshlab Germaniyaga neft manbai sifatida boy berildi va qarama-qarshi bo'lgan har xil harbiylashtirilgan guruhlar va partizanlar Marshal Titoning orqasida birlashdilar. Sovet yordami bilan ular eksa kuchlarini Yugoslaviya chegaralaridan tashqariga chiqarishni boshladilar, bu esa Germaniyaning oziq-ovqat va metallarni yo'qotishlariga olib keldi.
Shvetsiyaning Germaniya bilan savdosi tugashi
1944 yil avgustda Shvetsiya Germaniyaga temir javhari savdosi bilan shug'ullanadigan savdo va dengiz kemalari uchun xavf juda katta bo'lganligini aniqladi,[79] va ittifoqchilar blokadasi bilan yopilgan o'zining ba'zi paxta va jun do'konlarini olib kirishga ruxsat berish evaziga eksportni to'xtatdi. Noyabr oyida Germaniya bilan barcha shved savdolari rasmiy ravishda tugadi. Olti oylik muzokaralardan so'ng, Shveytsariya Germaniyaga mashinasozlik buyumlari va aniq asboblarni yillik 60 million dollarlik savdosini uchdan bir qismiga qisqartirishga va rulmanlarning sotilishini 10 foizga, o'q-dorilarning 1942 yilga nisbatan 5 foizigacha qisqartirishga rozi bo'ldi.
Bu vaqtga kelib, Germaniyaning yonilg'i quyish moslamalariga qarshi hujumlar shu qadar muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldiki, sentyabr oyidagi ishlab chiqarish aprel oyiga nisbatan 8 foizni tashkil qildi va zudlik bilan qiruvchi ishlab chiqarish eng yuqori darajaga etganida, etkazib berish tugadi.[16] Ittifoqchi havo qo'mondonlari keyinchalik nemis transport tarmoqlarini nishonga olishga kirishdilar. 24 sentyabr kuni RAF buzilgan Dortmund-Ems kanali - Rurni boshqa hududlar bilan bog'laydigan ichki suv yo'li - bilan Tallboy olti millik (10 km) uchastkani quritadigan bomba. Xammdagi ulkan temir yo'l marshaling hovlisiga juda zarba berildi va 9000 ishchi doimiy ravishda doimiy ta'mirlashni davom ettirdi. 12 noyabrda jangovar kema Tirpitz yaqinidagi RAF Tallboy bombalari tomonidan cho'ktirildi Tromsø, Norvegiya. "Shimolning yolg'iz malikasi" deb nomlangan kema yoqilg'ining etishmasligi sababli juda kam harakatlarni ko'rgan va urushning katta qismini uzoq fyordda o'tkazgan. Taxminan shu vaqtda RAF sintetik neft ishlab chiqarish maydonlariga hujumlarini kamaytira boshladi, chunki zavodlarning birortasi ham ishlamayapti. Faqat Leuna va Polotzdagi saytlar hali ham har qanday neft qazib olishgan, ammo dekabr oyida cheklangan ishlab chiqarish qayta boshlangan bo'lsa-da, keyingi reydlar ularni tezda ishdan bo'shatdi. 1944 yil oxirida neft maydonlari bombardimon qilinganidan so'ng, transport asosiy maqsadga aylandi. Ittifoqdosh havo kuchlari endi to'xtatib bo'lmaydigan edi.
1944 yil oxirida Germaniya armiyasi Ardennes hujumkor, Ittifoq qo'shinini bo'linishga, Antverpenni qaytarib olishga va muzokaralar olib borilgan tinchlikni majburlashga urinish. Qisman ittifoqchilarning qattiq tanqisligi, xususan yoqilg'i ta'minoti tanqisligi tufayli yuzaga kelgan dastlabki muvaffaqiyatga qaramay, operatsiya oxir-oqibat amalga oshirildi. Bu Germaniya armiyasining tashabbusni qayta tiklashga qaratilgan so'nggi jiddiy urinishi edi, garchi Luftwaffe 1945 yil boshida Belgiya, Gollandiya va Frantsiyadagi ittifoqchilar aerodromlariga qarshi 800 ta samolyot bilan bitta so'nggi hujumni boshladi.
1945
Urush boshlanganda Germaniyaning transport tizimi zamonaviy avtoulovlar, mukammal temir yo'llar va o'zaro bog'langan kanallar va daryolar tarmog'idan iborat bo'lib, dunyodagi eng yaxshi transport vositalaridan biri edi.[16] 1943 yil kuzidan so'ng sanoat markazlari o'rtasidagi aloqalar jozibali bombardimonchilar nishonlarini yaratdi, ular samarali bombardimon qilinganida ko'pchilik harbiy va sanoat operatsiyalarining asosini tashkil etgan ko'mirning taqsimlanishiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Ko'p o'tmay Germaniyaning qolgan transport tarmog'ining katta qismlari falaj bo'lib qoldi va Rur Reyxning qolgan qismidan iqtisodiy jihatdan ajralib chiqdi.
Oxir oqibat bu barqaror edi Transport tarmog'ini ittifoqchilar tomonidan bombardimon qilish bu fashistlarning qarshiligini buzdi.[16] Har bir muvaffaqiyatsizlikdan keyin ishlab chiqarishni doimiy ravishda qayta tiklashga qaratilgan ajoyib harakatlariga qaramay, 1945 yil boshidan boshlab Sper qurollanish jangida mag'lub bo'lganligini tan oldi. Nemis sanoati endi V qurol ishlab chiqarish va oyiga 3000 Me 262 reaktiv qiruvchi va bombardimonchi samolyotlarini chaqirish kabi "eng ustuvor" qurol dasturlari sonini ushlab tura olmadi. Biroq, ko'plab zavodlar Ittifoq kuchlari darvozaga etib kelgan paytgacha ishlab chiqarishni davom ettirdilar.
Hozirga kelib V1 va V2 uchirish maydonlari tobora ko'payib borar edi va ittifoqchilar Reyn tomon siljishgan va Sovet qo'shinlari sharqdan tezlik bilan yopilgandan so'ng, ko'plab qochqinlar shaharlarda to'planib, betartiblik yaratdilar. Yanvar oyida qattiq sovuq va qor tushganda, oziq-ovqat asosiy ustuvor deb e'lon qilindi,[16] Germaniya hali ham o'zining hayotiy moslamalarini juda ko'p sonli zenit to'plari bilan himoya qilish qobiliyatini saqlab qoldi. 1945 yil fevral oyining boshidan boshlab 200 dan ortiq kichik shaharlarning temir yo'llari, marshallash maydonchalari va transport tizimlari Xildesxaym va Meiningen G'arbiy Germaniyada va Jenbax Avstriyada hujum uyushtirildi Klarion operatsiyasi.
Safehaven dasturi
G'olib bo'lganlarning barchasi urush bilan hisobotlarni ko'paytirdilar - asosan asoslangan paranoya fashistlar rahbarlari adolatdan qochishga tayyorlanayotgani haqida[80] va allaqachon betaraf davlatlarda mablag 'ajratish va chet elga resurslarni ko'chirish orqali keyingi urushga yo'l tayyorlayotgandilar. 1944 yil oxiridan boshlab boy nemis va avstriyalik yahudiylarga maxsus soliqlar to'lab, barcha mol-mulkini fashistlarga topshirgandan keyin Reyxdan chiqib ketishga ruxsat berilganligi haqida xabarlar paydo bo'ldi. 1944 yil dekabrda ittifoqdosh razvedka manbalari nemis firmalari kabi Schering, IG Farben, Bosch va Mannesmann Rohrenwerke sotmoqchi bo'lgan patentlar shved firmalariga,[64] va yirik kimyoviy va elektr trestlar, xususan IG Farben, fashistlarning xorijdagi faoliyatini moliyalashtirish uchun chet el valyutasini sotib olayotgan edi. 1945 yil fevral oyida Avstriyada va Bavariya Alplari natsistlar qal'alari va yer osti fabrikalari uchun va aftidan fashistlar partiyasini chet elda tarkibiy qayta qurish uchun neytral mamlakatlardagi agentlarning hisobvarag'iga pul o'tkazish orqali rejalar tuzilgan edi. Amerikaliklar 1945 yil yanvar oyida Argentinada yashovchi Germaniya fuqarosi bo'lgan Fritz Mandl haqida ma'lumotga ega edilar peso Ispaniya davlat banki orqali Göring uchun mablag 'ajratish, Gebbels va Gimmler. 1945 yil iyuniga qadar nemis ixtirolari Shvetsiyadagi Anilin shirkatida saqlanayotgani, patentlar shved "qo'g'irchoq" vositachilari orqali bozorga tashlangani va bir qator kimyoviy, karbidlarning moliyaviy manbalari to'g'risida batafsil ma'lumotlar to'plangani aytilgan. va bo'yoq kompaniyalari fashistlarning mol-mulki uchun xavfsiz joy sifatida faol deb o'ylashgan.
AQSh boshchiligida Safehaven dasturi da Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining konferentsiyasi paytida boshlangan Bretton-Vuds 1944 yil iyulda,[81] zamonaviy uchun zamin tayyorlagan o'sha joy Jahon banki va Xalqaro valyuta fondi (XVF). Dasturda talon-taroj qilingan oltin yoki boshqa mol-mulkni tasarruf etish, topshirish yoki yashirishni oldini olish, fashistlarning talon-taroj qilingan aktivlari uchun neytral mamlakatlarda saqlanadigan joyni inkor etish va oxir-oqibat talon-taroj qilingan ashyolarni asl egalariga qaytarish bo'yicha tezkor choralar ko'rildi. Aksariyat neytrallar oxir-oqibat Germaniya bilan savdoni kamaytirish va tugatishga ishonishdi.
Shvetsiya hukumati 1944 yil noyabr oyida valyutani nazorat qilishni kuchaytirgan qoidalarini qabul qildi va nemis mulklarini aniqlashda va uning iqtisodiyotidagi nemis ta'sirini yo'q qilishda katta yutuqlarga erishdi. Biroq, talon-taroj qilingan oltinni Germaniya tomonidan qaytarib berish bo'yicha muzokaralar Germaniya tomonidan uzoq yillar davom etgan mollar uchun to'lov sifatida Germaniya tomonidan yuborilgan. Talon-taroj qilingan oltin qiymatining ittifoqchilarining taxminlari 18,5 milliondan 22,7 million dollargacha bo'lgan, ammo inglizlar, AQSh va frantsuzlar urush paytida Shvetsiyaning oltin zaxiralari ko'payganiga rozi bo'lishgan bo'lsa-da, bu ko'tarilishlarning qanchalik balandligi, agar mavjud bo'lsa, kelisha olmadilar. talon-taroj qilingan oltin tufayli. Oxir oqibat Shvetsiya 66 million dollardan ortiq Germaniyaning tugatilgan aktivlarini qoplash sifatida tarqatishga rozi bo'ldi, shu jumladan 36 million dollarlik maxsus fondni Riksbank Germaniyadagi xastalik va tartibsizliklarni bartaraf etish va Germaniya iqtisodiyoti uchun muhim bo'lgan xaridlarni moliyalashtirish. Shuningdek, urush paytida Shvetsiyaga sotilgan Belgiya pul oltinining o'rnini qoplash uchun 8 million dollardan ziyod oltin berishga kelishib olindi, ammo Shvetsiya oltin sotib olinganligini ta'kidlaganda, 8 600 kilogramm gollandiyalik oltin (9,7 million dollar) bo'yicha muzokaralar to'xtab qoldi. 1943 yil yanvarda talon-taroj qilingan oltin to'g'risidagi London deklaratsiyasidan oldin. 1955 yil aprelda Gollandiyaliklar da'vosi nihoyat tasdiqlandi va Shvetsiya 6,8 million dollarni oltinga qaytarib berdi.
Ispaniya Germaniyadan ko'p miqdordagi oltinni, ba'zi hollarda Shveytsariya vositachilik kompaniyalari orqali sotib oldi va muzokaralar ittifoqchilarning Franko rejimini chetlashtirishga qaratilgan harakatlariga to'g'ri keldi. Boshqa bir qator mamlakatlar ham Gitlerni ochiqchasiga qo'llab-quvvatlagani uchun Ispaniya bilan diplomatik aloqalarini pasaytirdi,[63] va Ispaniya 1946 yil oktyabr oyida Germaniyaning 25 million dollarlik rasmiy va yarim rasmiy aktivlarini qaytarib berishga rozi bo'ldi. Ispaniya daromadlarning to'rtdan bir qismini ushlab turishini tushunib, Germaniyaning 20-23 million dollarlik xususiy aktivlarini tugatishga rozi bo'ldi va imzoladi. 1946 yil may oyida ittifoqchilar Ispaniya valyuta institutida aniqlagan 30 million dollarga yaqin talon-taroj qilingan gollandiyalik oltinning 114,329 dollarini (101,6 kilogramm) qaytarib berishga kelishib oldilar. Ittifoqchilar Ispaniya uning talon-taroj qilinganligini bilmaganligini ommaviy ravishda tan olishdi va keyinchalik Ispaniya urush oxirida Germaniya davlat mulkidan tortib olgan 1,3 million dollarlik oltin va oltin tangalarni qaytarib berdi. Muzokaralar davom etdi, ammo kelishi bilan Sovuq urush AQSh yondashuvni yumshatdi va urushdan beri muzlatilgan 64 million dollardan ortiq aktivlarni ozod qildi va Ispaniyaga qolgan oltinlarini xususiy kreditlar garovi sifatida ishlatishga ruxsat berdi.
Germaniya bilan yaqin moliyaviy aloqalari tufayli ittifoqchilar vakillari, ayniqsa, Shveytsariya hamkorligiga erishmoqchi edilar. 1944 yil noyabrdan keyin Shveytsariya-Germaniya savdosi to'xtatilgan deb hisoblansa-da, ba'zi kompaniyalar, masalan, Shveytsariyaning Jenevadagi Tavaro o'q-dorilar fabrikasi, yashirin ravishda Germaniyaga portlovchi moddalar etkazib berishdi va Germaniyaning bir milliard frankga teng aktivlari 1945 yil noyabrdan keyin ham Shveytsariyada qoldi. Davlat kotibi o'rinbosarining so'zlariga ko'ra Din Acheson, Shveysariya Safehevenning maqsadlarini to'liq bajargan so'nggi mamlakat bo'ldi.[81] 1945 yil fevral oyida Shveytsariyaga yuborilgan Amerika delegatsiyasi dastlab Shveytsariyaning Germaniyaga eksportini sezilarli darajada qisqartirishga va Shveysariyadagi nemis aktivlarini blokirovka qilish bo'yicha Safehaven maqsadlarini tan olishga erishgan deb o'ylashdi. Ammo Reyxsbank vitse-prezidenti bilan keyingi muhokamalardan so'ng Emil Puhl, keyinchalik shveytsariyaliklar ushbu kelishuvdan voz kechishdi va 1945 yilning qolgan davrida Shveytsariyadagi Germaniya aktivlarini vayron qilingan Evropa va Holokost va boshqa natsistlar jinoyatlarining fuqaroligi bo'lmaganlar foydasiga yo'naltirish bo'yicha ittifoqchilar takliflarini qabul qilishni istamasligini ko'rsatdi. Biroq, o'zining ajoyib insonparvarlik tarixi va ittifoqchilarning harbiy asirlari va boshqa manfaatlarini himoya qilganligi sababli, ittifoqchilar oxir-oqibat Shveytsariyaga qarshi haddan tashqari choralar ko'rishga qaror qildilar.[63]
Urushdan keyingi urush
1945 yil may oyining oxirida Evropada urush tugaganidan so'ng Evropaning katta qismlari butunlay parchalanib ketdi. O'tkir oziq-ovqat, uy-joy va tibbiy tanqislik bir muncha vaqt davom etdi va vaqtincha lagerlarda yoki yo'llarda joylashgan 10 millionga yaqin qochoq.
Rivojlanayotgan ikki qudratli davlat - Rossiya va Amerikada urushdan keyingi mahsuldorlik 1948 yilga kelib sezilarli darajada oshdi, ammo sabablari bir-biridan farq qilar edi. Rossiyada urushning jadal ishlab chiqarilishi natijasida rivojlanayotgan sanoat tarmoqlariga katta turtki berildi va qisman ilg'or sanoat korxonalari tomonidan yordam berildi. Sharqiy Germaniya ishg'oldan keyin. Ayni paytda Amerika 1938 yilda og'ir depressiya holatida bo'lgan, ulkan sanoat resurslari bo'sh turgan va aholining 20% ishsiz qolgan. Qayta tiklanish va keyinchalik urush ushbu resurslarni hayotga olib keldi, bu esa investitsiyalarning ko'payishi va buzilmagan infratuzilma bilan bir qatorda amerika sanoatini jadal ushlab turdi, garchi ishsizlikning qoldiq miqdori saqlanib qoldi. Xuddi shu holat Kanadada ham mavjud edi, uning iqtisodiyoti Amerika bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi va u o'z hududida hech qanday janglarga duch kelmadi. Urush xalqaro iqtisodiyotning shaklini o'zgartirib, AQShni juda kuchli savdolashuv holatida qoldirdi, Lend-Lizing natijasida xalqaro savdoni o'z foydasiga hal qilishga muvaffaq bo'ldi va inglizlarni valyuta konvertatsiyasiga rozi bo'lishga majbur qildi.[82]
1945 yil avgustda Yaponiyaning so'nggi mag'lubiyatidan bir necha kun o'tgach, Lend-Lizning to'satdan tugashi Angliya iqtisodiyotiga jiddiy zarba berdi. Urush paytida Angliya o'zining ko'plab eksport bozorlarini yo'qotdi va endi har yili yillik qarama-qarshiliklarga duch keldi. to'lov balansi kamomad 1,2 milliard funt sterling.[13] Birinchi jahon urushida bo'lgani kabi, Buyuk Britaniya ham urushdan g'alaba qozongan, ammo iqtisodiy jihatdan qashshoqroq chiqdi (ratsion 1953 yilgacha tugamadi) va iqtisodchi Jon Maynard Keyns Britaniyani to'lash uchun 3,75 milliard funt sterling miqdorida past foizli favqulodda kreditni kelishish uchun Amerikaga yuborilgan; 45,5 million funt sterlingni (keyinchalik taxminan 83 million dollar) yakuniy qaytarish 2006 yil 31 dekabrda amalga oshirildi.[83]
Ilgari bosib olingan mamlakatlarda og'ir inflyatsiya qisman urush paytida to'plangan katta miqdordagi pul, xususan, hamkasblar tomonidan oziq-ovqat narxlarining yanada ko'tarilishiga va doimiy ravishda saqlanib qolishiga olib keldi. qora bozor. Inflyatsiyani og'irlashtiruvchi omil, qisman ko'mir etishmasligi tufayli yuzaga kelgan past mahsuldorlik edi. Frantsiya urushni qoplash uchun Rurdan katta miqdordagi nemis ko'mirini olish huquqiga ega bo'ladi deb taxmin qildi, ammo Frantsiyani va boshqa mamlakatlarni bir qator qisqa muddatli kreditlar bilan ushlab turadigan amerikaliklar va Marshall yordami, Evropaning o'sishini qayta boshlash va kommunizmning tarqalishini oldini olish uchun Germaniya iqtisodiyoti kuchiga muhtojligini tushundi va tovon puli to'lashga rozi bo'lmadi,[82] Birinchi jahon urushidan keyin Gitlerning ko'tarilishidan keyin Germaniyaning noroziligiga sabab bo'lgan narsa.
Germaniyaning o'zida odamlar deyarli hech narsadan boshlashga majbur bo'ldilar, Ittifoq kuchlari tomonidan uzoq yillar davomida sharqiy va g'arbiy Germaniyaga aylangan zonalarga bo'linib ketishdi, bu vaqtni ba'zan "soat nol" deb atashdi. Garchi ular juda katta vazifaga duch kelishgan bo'lsa-da, butun shaharlarni qayta qurish va sanoatni tinch ishlab chiqarishga aylantirish bilan bir necha yil ichida G'arbiy Germaniya iqtisodiyoti mo''jizaviy burilishga erishdi va 1950 yilga kelib Wirtschaftswunder (iqtisodiy mo''jiza) e'lon qilinayotgan edi.[84] 1951 yildan boshlab Frantsiya, G'arbiy Germaniya, Italiya va Beniluks ning yaratilishi bilan G'arbiy Evropani birlashtirishga qaratilgan harakatlar boshlandi Evropa ko'mir va po'lat hamjamiyati (ECSC), zamonaviy uchun kashshof Yevropa Ittifoqi. ECSC a yaratdi umumiy bozor Evropa tijoratining g'ildiraklarini yana harakatga keltirish uchun muhim tovarlarni etkazib berishni muvofiqlashtirish.
Nemis sintetik-neft dasturi shu qadar muvaffaqiyatli va rivojlangan ediki, 1970-yillardagi jahon yoqilg'i inqirozi paytida mojaro va noaniqlik kelib chiqdi. Yaqin Sharq kabi yirik Amerika sanoat konsernlari Dow Chemical, Union Carbide va Diamond Shamrock fashistlar davridagi texnologiyani ularning muammolariga qisman echim topishi mumkinligini tekshirish uchun qayta ko'rib chiqishni boshladi.[85] Dastur tarixiga oid 300000 ga yaqin hujjatlar, shu jumladan o'simliklarning diagrammasi, patent tavsiflari, qaysi katalizatorlar va qo'shimchalar eng yaxshi ishlashi haqida batafsil hisobotlar va ko'mir zavodlaridan olinadigan 25 ta neftning oylik hisobotlari urush oxirida Amerikaning qo'liga tushib qolgan. Vaqtida, xom neft barreli uchun 2 dollardan, texnogen neft narxining beshdan bir qismidan tayyor edi va nemis hujjatlariga qiziqish juda kam edi. Ular qutidagi omborda qolishdi Milliy arxivlar Vashingtonda keyingi 30 yil ichida kimyo muhandislari barcha ma'lumotlarni birlashtirish va ularni federal tarzda kompyuterga berish kabi mashaqqatli ishni boshlaguncha. Oak Ridge energiya markazi. Garchi AQSh arabistonlik bo'lmagan alternativ neft ta'minotini ta'minlagan bo'lsa-da - asosan Venesuela - sintetik moylar bugungi kunda asosan aviatsiya sanoati va moylash materiallari kabi ixtisoslashgan sohalarda keng qo'llanilmoqda.
OAV vakili
Urushning dastlabki oylarida - "foney urushi" yoki "Sitskrieg" deb nomlangan kontrabanda nazorati odamlarining faoliyati juda yangilik bo'lib, yaxshi ruhiy-ruhiy targ'ibot olib bordi. Germaniyadagi fuqarolik baliq ovchilariga qilingan hujumlar, magnit konini mag'lub etishga urinishlar haqidagi yangiliklar va musodara qilingan yuklarning oylik jami rasmiy statistikasi, shu kabi mashhur unvonlar haqidagi hayotiy voqealar bilan bir qatorda. Urush tasvirlangan, Rasmiy xabar va Amerika jurnali Hayot Britaniyalik yoki frantsuz urushidagi so'nggi yutuqlar haqidagi fotosuratlar va vatanparvarlik haqidagi xaftalik parhezni taqdim etdi, ko'pincha bu kabi sarlavhalar bilan
Janob Britonl buni ko'rib chiqadi
Biz fashistlarning qo'rqinchli qurbonlari bo'ldik
[yoki]
Qaytish botib ketganmi? - bu faqat fashistlarning yolg'onchiligidir
Blokada qilish odamlarning kundalik hayotiga aylandi va bu oxir-oqibat filmda aks etishi muqarrar edi.
Rejissor Maykl Pauell, tomonidan yozilgan Emeric Pressburger va bosh rollarda Konrad Veidt va Valeri Xobson, Kontrabanda (qayta nomlandi Qorayish 1940 yil may oyida, Germaniyaning Frantsiyaga hujumi boshlanishidan oldin chiqarilgan. Xuddi shu uslubda 39 qadam, film Istxtgeyning xayoliy portida joylashgan (suratga olingan Ramsgeyt ) bu erda daniyalik savdogar kapitan Anderson Kontrabanda nazorati odamlari tomonidan kechiktiriladi va turli dushman ayg'oqchilariga duch keladi. Unda "Erkak va ayolni to'xtating! Uning vazifasi osmondagi dushmannikidan ko'ra halokatli. Uning go'zalligi xavfli urush qurolidir!" Kontrabanda ham edi Debora Kerr Uning birinchi filmi, garchi uning tungi klubdagi sigareta qizi bo'lgan sahnasi so'nggi kesishni amalga oshirmagan bo'lsa.[86] An oldingi jim film shu nomdagi voqealar atrofida joylashgan bo'lib, shu nom bilan 1925 yilda ishlab chiqarilgan edi Birinchi jahon urushi.
Katta blokada tomonidan yozilgan va boshqarilgan Charlz Frend va tomonidan qilingan Ealing studiyalari Iqtisodiy farovonlik vazirligi bilan hamkorlikda. 1942 yilda xuddi shunga o'xshash epizodik tarzda qilingan Devid Lean va Noël qo'rqoq "s Biz qayerda xizmat qilamiz, ammo inglizlarning blokadasi fashistlarning urush harakatlaridan hayotni asta-sekin siqib chiqarayotganini tasvirlash uchun yaratilgan bir qator eskizlar bilan yumshoq va engil kayfiyatdagi tashviqotga ega. Katta blokada yulduzli Jon Mills "Tom" sifatida, Gannoverdagi bombardimonchilar ekipajining a'zosi, Lesli Benks samarali iqtisodiy urush vazirligi davlat xizmatchisi sifatida, Robert Morley fashistlarning qayiq kapitani Von Geyselbrecht sifatida, Maykl Redgreyv Germaniyada joylashgan rus sifatida va boshqalar Will Hay, Ronald Shiner va Bernard Maylz bit qismlarida.[87]
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