COBOL - COBOL

COBOL

Ning qopqog'i COBOL 60 hisobot berish KODASIL (1960 yil aprel)
Paradigma	Protsessual, majburiy, ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan
Loyihalashtirilgan	Xovard Bromberg, Norman chegirmasi, Vernon Rivz, Jan E. Sammet, Uilyam Selden, Gertruda Tirni[1]
Ishlab chiquvchilar	KODASIL, ANSI, ISO
Birinchi paydo bo'ldi	1959; 61 yil oldin (1959)
Barqaror chiqish	ISO / IEC 1989: 2014/2014
Matnni yozish	Zaif, statik
Fayl nomi kengaytmalari	.cbl, .cob, .cpy
Mayor amalga oshirish
GnuCOBOL, IBM COBOL, Mikro fokus Vizual COBOL
Lahjalar
COBOL / 2, DEC COBOL-10, DEC VAX COBOL, DOSVS COBOL, Envyr ICOBOL, Fujitsu COBOL, Hitachi COBOL2002, HP3000 COBOL / II, IBM COBOL SAA, IBM COBOL / 400, IBM COBOL / II, IBM Enterprise COBOL, IBM COBOL, IBM OS / VS COBOL, ICL COBOL (VME), Micro Focus ACUCOBOL-GT, Micro Focus COBOL-IT, Micro Focus RM / COBOL, Micro Focus Visual COBOL, Microsoft COBOL, Raincode COBOL, Realia COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM / COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM / COBOL-85, Tandem (NonStop) COBOL85, Tandem (NonStop) SCOBOL, UNIVAC COBOL, Unisys MCP COBOL74, Unisys MCP COBOL85, Unix COBOL X / Open, Veryant isCOBOL, Wang VS COBOL.
Ta'sirlangan
AIMACO, C ++,[a] COMTRAN, Eyfel,[a] FAKT, FLOW-MATIC, Kichik munozarasi[a]
Ta'sirlangan
CobolScript,[5] EGL,[6] PL / I,[7] PL / B[iqtibos kerak ]
COBOL Vikikitoblarda

COBOL (/ˈkoʊbɒl,-bɔːl/; an qisqartma "biznesga yo'naltirilgan umumiy til" uchun) bu a tuzilgan Ingliz tiliga o'xshash kompyuter dasturlash tili biznesdan foydalanish uchun mo'ljallangan. Bu majburiy, protsessual va 2002 yildan beri, ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan. COBOL asosan kompaniyalar va hukumatlar uchun biznes, moliya va ma'muriy tizimlarda qo'llaniladi. COBOL hali ham o'rnatilgan dasturlarda keng qo'llaniladi asosiy kompyuterlar, masalan, keng ko'lamli partiya va bitimni qayta ishlash ish joylari. Ammo mashhurligi pasayib borayotgani va tajribali COBOL dasturchilarining nafaqaga chiqqanligi sababli dasturlar yangi platformalarga ko'chirilmoqda, zamonaviy tillarda qayta yozilgan yoki dasturiy ta'minot paketlari bilan almashtirilmoqda.^[8] COBOL-da dasturlashning aksariyati hozirda mavjud dasturlarni saqlab qolish uchun mo'ljallangan, ammo 2006 yilda ham yirik moliya institutlari COBOL-da asosiy tizimni qayta ishlash tezligi tufayli yangi tizimlarni ishlab chiqmoqdalar.^[9]

COBOL 1959 yilda ishlab chiqilgan KODASIL va qisman dasturlash tiliga asoslangan edi FLOW-MATIC tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Greys Hopper. U a qismi sifatida yaratilgan AQSh Mudofaa vazirligi yaratish uchun harakat ko'chma ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash uchun dasturlash tili. Dastlab u to'siq sifatida ko'rilgan, ammo Mudofaa vazirligi zudlik bilan kompyuter ishlab chiqaruvchilarini uni taqdim etishga majbur qildi, natijada u keng tarqaldi.^[10] Bo'lgandi standartlashtirilgan 1968 yilda va shu paytgacha to'rt marta qayta ko'rib chiqilgan. Kengayish uchun qo'llab-quvvatlash kiradi tuzilgan va ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan dasturlash. Amaldagi standart ISO /IEC 1989:2014.^[11]

COBOL bayonotlari ingliz tiliga o'xshash sintaksisga ega bo'lib, u o'z-o'zini hujjatlashtiradigan va juda o'qish uchun mo'ljallangan. Biroq, bu aniq va 300 dan ortiq foydalanadi saqlangan so'zlar. Kabi zamonaviy, ixcham sintaksisdan farqli o'laroq y = x;, COBOL ingliz tiliga o'xshash sintaksisga ega (bu holda, HARAKAT x TO y.COBOL kodi to'rtga bo'lingan bo'linmalar bo'limlar, paragraflar va jumlalarning qat'iy iyerarxiyasini o'z ichiga olgan (identifikatsiya qilish, atrof-muhit, ma'lumotlar va protsedura). Katta etishmayapti standart kutubxona, standart 43 ta bayonotni, 87 ta funktsiyani va faqat bitta sinfni belgilaydi.

Akademik kompyuter olimlari, odatda COBOL yaratilayotganda biznes dasturlari bilan qiziqishmagan va uning dizayni bilan shug'ullanmagan; u ma'lumotlarning yagona turlari raqamlar va matn satrlari bo'lgan kirish va chiqishga e'tiborni qaratgan holda (samarali) biznes uchun kompyuter tili sifatida yaratilgan.^[12]COBOL butun hayoti davomida ko'p qirraliligi, dizayn jarayoni va yomon qo'llab-quvvatlanishi uchun tanqidga uchragan tizimli dasturlash. Ushbu zaif tomonlar monolitik bo'lib, ingliz tiliga o'xshash bo'lsa ham, oson tushunib bo'lmaydigan va aniq dasturlarga olib keladi.

Tarix va spetsifikatsiya

Fon

1950-yillarning oxirida kompyuter foydalanuvchilari va ishlab chiqaruvchilari dasturlash narxining ko'tarilishidan xavotirga tushishdi. 1959 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra har qanday ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlashni o'rnatishda dasturlash o'rtacha 800000 AQSh dollarini tashkil etadi va yangi qo'shimcha qurilmalarda ishlash uchun tarjima qilish 600000 dollarga tushadi. Bir vaqtning o'zida yangi dasturlash tillari ko'payib borar edi tobora o'sib borayotgan sur'atlarda, xuddi shu so'rovda, agar biznesga yo'naltirilgan umumiy til ishlatilsa, konvertatsiya qilish ancha arzon va tezroq bo'lishini taklif qildi.^[13]

1959 yil 8 aprelda, Meri K. Xeyus, kompyuter mutaxassisi Burrouz korporatsiyasi, akademiya vakillari, kompyuter foydalanuvchilari va ishlab chiqaruvchilarning uchrashuvini chaqirdi Pensilvaniya universiteti umumiy biznes tillari bo'yicha rasmiy uchrashuvni tashkil etish.^[14] Vakillar kiritilgan Greys Hopper (ingliz tiliga o'xshash ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash tilining ixtirochisi FLOW-MATIC ), Jan Sammet va Shoul Gorn.^[15][16]

Aprel oyidagi yig'ilishda guruh Mudofaa vazirligi (DoD) umumiy biznes tilini yaratish harakatiga homiylik qilish. Delegatsiya DoD ma'lumot tizimlarini tadqiq qilish bo'yicha xodimlar direktori Charlz A. Fillipsni hayratda qoldirdi,^[17] ular DoD muammolarini "yaxshilab tushunib etdim" deb o'ylaganlar. DoD 225 ta kompyuterni boshqargan, 175 ta buyurtma bo'yicha ishlagan va ularda ishlash dasturlarini amalga oshirishga 200 million dollardan ko'proq mablag 'sarflagan. Portativ dasturlar vaqtni tejashga, xarajatlarni kamaytirishga va zamonaviylashtirishni osonlashtirar edi.^[18]

Charlz Fillips uchrashuvni homiylik qilishga rozi bo'ldi va delegatsiyaga kun tartibini ishlab chiqishni topshirdi.^[19]

COBOL 60

1959 yil 28 va 29 may kunlari (Tsyurixdan bir yil o'tib ALGOL 58 uchrashuv), Pentagonda biznes uchun umumiy dasturlash tilini yaratishni muhokama qilish uchun uchrashuv bo'lib o'tdi. Unda 41 kishi qatnashdi va unga Fillips raislik qildi.^[20] Mudofaa vazirligi turli xil kompyuterlarda bir xil ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash dasturlarini ishga tushira oladimi degan xavotirda edi. FORTRAN, o'sha paytdagi yagona asosiy til, bunday dasturlarni yozish uchun zarur bo'lgan xususiyatlarga ega emas edi.^[21]

Vakillar bank va sug'urtadan tortib kommunal xizmatlar va tovar-moddiy boyliklarni nazorat qilishgacha bo'lgan har xil muhitda ishlashga qodir bo'lgan tilni hayajon bilan ta'rifladilar. Ular bir ovozdan ko'proq odam dasturlash imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishlari va yangi til zamonaviy texnologiyalarning cheklovlari bilan cheklanmasligi kerakligi to'g'risida bir ovozdan kelishib oldilar. Ko'pchilik bu til ingliz tilidan maksimal darajada foydalanishi, o'zgarishga qodir bo'lishi, mashinadan mustaqil bo'lishi va hatto kuch hisobiga ham ishlatilishi kerak degan fikrga kelishdi.^[22]

Uchrashuv natijasida a boshqaruv qo'mitasi va qisqa, oraliq va uzoq muddatli qo'mitalar. Qisqa muddatli qo'mita sentyabr oyiga (uch oy) oraliq til uchun texnik xususiyatlarni ishlab chiqarish uchun berildi, keyinchalik boshqa qo'mitalar tomonidan yaxshilanadi.^[23][24] Ammo ularning rasmiy vazifalari mavjud dasturlash tillarining kuchli va zaif tomonlarini aniqlashdan iborat bo'lib, ularni yangi til yaratishga aniq yo'naltirmagan.^[21]Belgilangan muddat qisqa muddatli qo'mita tomonidan ishonchsizlik bilan kutib olindi.^[25]Bitta a'zo, Betti Xolberton, uch oylik muddatni "qo'pol optimizm" deb ta'riflagan va bu til haqiqatan ham to'siq bo'lishiga shubha qilgan.^[26]

Boshqaruv qo'mitasi 4 iyun kuni yig'ilib, butun faoliyatni shunday nomlashga rozi bo'ldi Ma'lumot tizimlari tillari qo'mitasi, yoki KODASIL va ijroiya qo'mitasini tuzish.^[27]

Qisqa muddatli qo'mita oltita kompyuter ishlab chiqaruvchisi va uchta davlat idoralari vakillaridan iborat edi. Oltita kompyuter ishlab chiqaruvchisi edi Burrouz korporatsiyasi, IBM, Minneapolis-Honeywell (Honeywell laboratoriyalari), RCA, Sperry Rand va Sylvania Electric Products. Uchta davlat idoralari quyidagilar edi AQSh havo kuchlari, dengiz floti Devid Teylor model havzasi, va Milliy standartlar byurosi (hozirda Milliy standartlar va texnologiyalar instituti).^[28] Qo'mita raislik qildi Jozef Wegstein AQSh Milliy Standartlar Byurosi. Ish ma'lumotlar tavsifi, bayonotlar, mavjud dasturlar va foydalanuvchi tajribalarini o'rganish bilan boshlandi.^[29]

Qo'mita asosan FLOW-MATIC, AIMACO va COMTRAN dasturlash tillari.^[21][30]FLOW-MATIC tili juda ta'sirli edi, chunki u amalga oshirildi va AIMACO uning hosilasi bo'lib, uncha katta bo'lmagan o'zgarishlar kiritdi.^[31][32]FLOW-MATIC ixtirochisi Greys Hopper ham qo'mitaning texnik maslahatchisi bo'lib ishlagan.^[25] FLOW-MATIC kompaniyasining COBOL-ga qo'shgan hissasi uzoq o'zgaruvchan nomlar, buyruqlar uchun inglizcha so'zlar va ma'lumotlar tavsiflari va ko'rsatmalarini ajratish edi.^[33]Hopper ba'zan "COBOLning onasi" yoki "COBOL buvisi" deb nomlanadi,^[34][35][36] bo'lsa-da Jan Sammet, COBOL-ning etakchi dizaynerlari, Hopper "Cobol-ning onasi, yaratuvchisi yoki yaratuvchisi bo'lmagan" deb ta'kidladi.^[37][1]

Tomonidan ixtiro qilingan IBM ning COMTRAN tili Bob Bemer, FLOW-MATIC kompaniyasining raqibi sifatida qaraldi^[38][39] Greys Hopperning hamkasblaridan tashkil topgan qisqa muddatli qo'mita tomonidan.^[40]IBM dizayn jarayonida ustunlik qilgandek ko'rinmasligi uchun uning ba'zi xususiyatlari COBOL-ga kiritilmagan,^[23] va Jan Sammet 1981 yilda ba'zi bir qo'mita a'zolari (o'zi ham kiritilgan) tomonidan "IBMga qarshi kuchli tarafkashlik" bo'lganligini aytdi.^[41]Bir holda, COMTRAN qo'llanmasi muallifi va o'rta darajadagi qo'mita a'zosi Roy Goldfinger uning tilini qo'llab-quvvatlash va algebraik iboralardan foydalanishni rag'batlantirish uchun kichik qo'mita yig'ilishida qatnashgandan so'ng, Greys Xopper Sperry Randning so'zlarini takrorlab, qisqa masofali qo'mitaga eslatma yubordi. ingliz tiliga asoslangan tilni yaratish bo'yicha harakatlar.^[42]1980 yilda Greys Hopper "COBOL 60 95% FLOW-MATIC" ekanligini va KOMTRAN "juda kichik" ta'sirga ega bo'lganligini izohladi. Bundan tashqari, u "FLOW-MATIC" va "COMTRAN" ishlarining ta'siri "boshqa odamlarni xursand qilishlari uchun [ular bizni urib yubormasliklari uchun") deb da'vo qilishini aytdi.^[43]COMTRAN kompaniyasining COBOL tarkibiga kiritilgan formulalari,^[44] The SURAT band,^[45] yaxshilangan IF zarurligini bekor qilgan bayonot BOShQALARGA OTISH va yanada ishonchli fayllarni boshqarish tizimi.^[38]

Qo'mita ishining foydaliligi katta munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi. Ba'zi bir a'zolar bu til juda ko'p murosaga keldi va natijada deb o'ylashdi qo'mita tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan, Boshqalar buni ko'rib chiqilgan uchta tildan yaxshiroq deb hisoblashdi. Ba'zilar bu tilni juda murakkab deb hisoblashdi; boshqalar, juda oddiy.^[46]Munozarali xususiyatlarga ba'zi birlari foydasiz yoki ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash foydalanuvchilari uchun juda rivojlangan deb hisoblangan xususiyatlar kiritilgan. Bunday xususiyatlar kiritilgan mantiqiy iboralar, formulalar va stol obunalar (indekslar).^[47][48] Qarama-qarshiliklarning yana bir nuqtasi - kalit so'zlarni kontekstga sezgir qilish yoki o'qishga ta'sir etadigan ta'sir qilish.^[47] Kontekstga sezgir kalit so'zlar rad etilgan bo'lsa-da, keyinchalik bu yondashuv ishlatilgan PL / I va 2002 yildan qisman COBOLda.^[49] Kichkina e'tibor berildi interaktivlik bilan o'zaro bog'liqlik operatsion tizimlar (o'sha paytda ozlari mavjud edi) va funktsiyalari (faqat matematik deb hisoblangan va ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlashda foydasiz).^[50][51]

Texnik shartlar 4 sentyabr kuni Ijroiya Qo'mitaga taqdim etildi. Ular kutilgan natijalardan qolishdi: Jozef Vagstayn "tarkibida qo'pol dog'lar borligi va ba'zi bir qo'shimchalar talab etilishini" ta'kidladi va keyinchalik Bob Bemer ularni "hodgepodge" deb ta'rifladi. Kichik qo'mitaga uni takomillashtirish uchun dekabrgacha vaqt berildi.^[25]

Sentyabr oyi o'rtalarida bo'lib o'tgan yig'ilishda qo'mita yangi tilning nomini muhokama qildi. "BUSY" (biznes tizimi), "INFOSYL" (axborot tizimi tili) va "COCOSYL" (umumiy kompyuter tizimlari tili) takliflari.^[52] "COBOL" nomini kim yaratgani noma'lum,^[53][54] keyinchalik Bob Bemer bu uning taklifi deb da'vo qilgan bo'lsa-da.^[55][56][57]

Oktyabr oyida o'rta darajadagi qo'mita nusxalarini qabul qildi FAKT tomonidan yaratilgan til spetsifikatsiyasi Roy Nutt. Uning xususiyatlari qo'mitani shunchalik taassurotlantirdiki, ular COBOL-ni unga asoslash to'g'risida qaror qabul qildilar.^[58]Bu spetsifikatsiya bo'yicha yaxshi yutuqlarga erishgan qisqa muddatli qo'mitaga zarba bo'ldi. Texnik jihatdan ustun bo'lishiga qaramay, FACT portativlikni hisobga olgan holda yoki ishlab chiqaruvchilar va foydalanuvchilarning kelishuvi asosida yaratilmagan. Bundan tashqari, namoyish etiladigan dastur mavjud emas edi,^[25] FLOW-MATIC-ga asoslangan COBOL-ning tarafdorlariga qarorni bekor qilishga ruxsat berish. RCA vakili Xovard Bromberg ham FACTni to'sib qo'ydi, shuning uchun COBOLni amalga oshirish bo'yicha RCA ishi behuda ketmaydi.^[59]

Tez orada aniqlandi: qo'mita juda katta bo'lib, keyingi rivojlanishni tezda amalga oshirish uchun. G'azablangan Xovard Bromberg "COBOL" yozilgan 15 dollarlik qabr toshini sotib olib, o'z noroziligini namoyish etish uchun Charlz Fillipsga yubordi.^[b][60][62]Mavjud tillarni tahlil qilish uchun kichik qo'mita tuzildi va olti kishidan iborat edi:^[21][63]

• Uilyam Selden va Gertruda Tirni, IBM kompaniyasi,
• Xovard Bromberg va Xovardning RCA chegirmasi,
• Vernon Rivz va Jan E. Sammet Sylvania Electric Products kompaniyasi.

Kichik qo'mita spetsifikatsiyani yaratish bo'yicha ishlarning aksariyatini amalga oshirdi, qisqa spektakl qo'mitasi tayyor spetsifikatsiyani ishlab chiqarishdan oldin ularning ishlarini ko'rib chiqish va o'zgartirish uchun qoldirdi.^[21]

Texnik shartlar Ijroiya qo'mitasi tomonidan 1960 yil 8 yanvarda ma'qullangan va shu kabi chop etiladigan hukumat bosmaxonasiga yuborilgan COBOL 60. Tilning maqsadlari samarali, ko'chma dasturlarni osonlikcha yozish, foydalanuvchilarga minimal kuch va xarajatlar bilan yangi tizimlarga o'tishga imkon berish va tajribasiz dasturchilarga mos bo'lishdan iborat edi.^[64]Keyinchalik CODASYL Ijroiya qo'mitasi foydalanuvchilar va sotuvchilarning savollariga javob berish va texnik xususiyatlarini yaxshilash va kengaytirish uchun COBOL texnik xizmat ko'rsatish qo'mitasini yaratdi.^[65]

1960 yil davomida COBOL kompilyatorlarini qurishni rejalashtirayotgan ishlab chiqaruvchilar ro'yxati o'sdi. Sentyabr oyiga qadar yana beshta ishlab chiqaruvchi CODASYL-ga qo'shildi (Bendiks, Ma'lumotlar korporatsiyasi, General Electric (GE), Milliy kassa va Philco ) va barcha taqdim etilgan ishlab chiqaruvchilar COBOL kompilyatorlarini e'lon qilishdi. GE va IBM COBOL-ni o'z tillariga mos ravishda GECOM va COMTRAN-ga qo'shishni rejalashtirgan. Farqli o'laroq, Xalqaro kompyuterlar va tabulyatorlar ularning tillarini, CODEL-ni COBOL-ga almashtirishni rejalashtirgan.^[66]

Ayni paytda, RCA va Sperry Rand COBOL kompilyatorlarini yaratish ustida ishladilar. Birinchi COBOL dasturi 17 avgust kuni RCA 501-da ishladi.^[67]6 va 7 dekabr kunlari xuddi shu COBOL dasturi (ozgina o'zgarishlarga qaramay) RCA kompyuterida va Remington-Rand da ishladi. Univac kompyuter, bu moslikka erishish mumkinligini namoyish etdi.^[68]

Tillarning ishlatilgan nisbiy ta'siri bugungi kungacha barcha COBOL ma'lumotnomalarida bosilgan tavsiya etilgan tavsiyalarda davom etmoqda:

COBOL sanoat tili bo'lib, u hech qanday kompaniya yoki kompaniyalar guruhi yoki biron bir tashkilot yoki guruhlar mulki emas.

Dasturlash tizimi va tilining aniqligi va ishlashi uchun biron bir ishtirokchi yoki CODASYL COBOL qo'mitasi tomonidan bildirilgan yoki nazarda tutilgan hech qanday kafolat berilmaydi. Bundan tashqari, biron bir ishtirokchi yoki unga aloqador qo'mita tomonidan hech qanday javobgarlik bo'lmaydi. Bu erda foydalanilgan mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan materialning mualliflari va mualliflik huquqi egalari quyidagilar:

FLOW-MATIC (Unisys korporatsiyasining savdo belgisi), UNIVAC (R) I va II uchun dasturlash, Ma'lumotlarni avtomatlashtirish tizimlari, mualliflik huquqi 1958 yil, 1959 yil, Unisys korporatsiyasi; 1959 yil IBM tomonidan mualliflik huquqi bilan himoya qilingan IBM tijorat tarjimoni № F28-8013 shakli; FAKT, DSI 27A5260-2760, mualliflik huquqi 1960 yil Minneapolis-Honeywell tomonidan.

Ular ushbu materialdan COBOL texnik shartlarida to'liq yoki qisman foydalanishga maxsus ruxsat berishgan. Bunday avtorizatsiya dasturlash qo'llanmalarida yoki shunga o'xshash nashrlarda COBOL texnik xususiyatlarini ko'paytirish va ulardan foydalanishni o'z ichiga oladi.^[69]

COBOL-61 dan COBOL-65gacha

Ko'p mantiqiy kamchiliklar topilgan COBOL 60, etakchi GE-lar Charlz Kats uni bir so'z bilan izohlash mumkin emasligini ogohlantirish uchun. Istamagan qisqa muddatli qo'mita butunlay tozalashni amalga oshirdi va 1963 yil martga kelib COBOL sintaksisining aniqlanishi aniqlandi ALGOL semantik noaniqliklar qolgan bo'lsa ham.^[66]

Dastlabki COBOL kompilyatorlari ibtidoiy va sekin edi. 1962 yilgi AQSh harbiy-dengiz kuchlarini baholashda bir daqiqada 3–11 ta bayon tezligi aniqlandi. 1964 yil o'rtalariga kelib, ular daqiqada 11-1000 ta bayonotga ko'payishdi. Xotirani ko'paytirish tezlikni keskin oshirishi va kompilyatsiya xarajatlari juda xilma-xilligi kuzatilgan: har bir bayonot uchun xarajatlar 0,23 dan 18,91 dollargacha.^[71]

1962 yil oxirida IBM COBOL ularning asosiy rivojlanish tili bo'lishini va COMTRANning rivojlanishi to'xtatilishini e'lon qildi.^[71]

COBOL spetsifikatsiyasi nashr etilganidan keyingi besh yil ichida uch marta qayta ko'rib chiqilgan. COBOL-60 1961 yilda COBOL-61 bilan almashtirilgan. Keyinchalik, 1963 yilda COBOL-61 kengaytirilgan spetsifikatsiyalari bilan almashtirildi, bu tartiblash va hisobot yozish vositalarini taqdim etdi.^[72]Qo'shilgan imkoniyatlar Honeywell tomonidan 1959 yil oxirida aniqlangan kamchiliklarni qisqa muddatli qo'mitaga yozgan xatida tuzatdi.^[67]COBOL Edition 1965 texnik xususiyatlarga qo'shimcha tushuntirishlar kiritdi va ishlov berish imkoniyatlarini taqdim etdi ommaviy saqlash fayllar va jadvallar.^[73]

COBOL-68

Versiyalar orasidagi mos kelmaydiganlikni bartaraf etish uchun COBOLni standartlashtirishga qaratilgan harakatlar boshlandi. 1962 yil oxirida ISO ham, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Standartlari Instituti ham (hozir ANSI ) standartlarni yaratish uchun guruhlar tuzdilar. ANSI ishlab chiqarilgan AQSh standart COBOL X3.23 1968 yil avgustda bu keyingi versiyalar uchun asos bo'ldi.^[74] Ushbu versiya American National Standard (ANS) COBOL nomi bilan tanilgan va ISO tomonidan 1972 yilda qabul qilingan.^[75]

COBOL-74

1970 yilga kelib COBOL dunyoda eng ko'p ishlatiladigan dasturlash tiliga aylandi.^[76]

ANSI qo'mitasidan mustaqil ravishda CODASYL dasturlash tili qo'mitasi tilni takomillashtirish ustida ish olib bordi. Ular 1968, 1969, 1970 va 1973 yillardagi yangi versiyalarini, jumladan, dasturlararo yangi aloqa, disk raskadrovka va fayllarni birlashtirish imkoniyatlari, shuningdek, simlar bilan ishlashni yaxshilash va kutubxona kiritish xususiyatlari.^[77]CODASYL ANSI qo'mitasidan mustaqil bo'lishiga qaramay, CODASYL Rivojlanish jurnali ANSI tomonidan amalga oshirishni kafolatlash uchun etarlicha mashhur bo'lgan xususiyatlarni aniqlash uchun ishlatilgan.^[78]Dasturlash tili qo'mitasi bilan ham aloqada bo'lgan ECMA va Yaponiyaning COBOL standart qo'mitasi.^[77]

Ammo dasturlash tili qo'mitasi taniqli emas edi. Vitse-prezident Uilyam Rinehuls COBOL jamoasining uchdan ikki qismi qo'mita mavjudligini bilmasligidan shikoyat qildi. Shuningdek, u kambag'al edi, jamoat hujjatlarini, masalan, yig'ilishlarning bayonotlari va o'zgartirish takliflarini erkin ravishda taqdim etish uchun mablag 'etishmadi.^[79]

1974 yilda ANSI (ANS) COBOLning yangi xususiyatlarini o'z ichiga olgan qayta ishlangan versiyasini nashr etdi fayl tashkilotlari, O'chirish bayonot^[80] va segmentatsiya modul.^[81]O'chirilgan xususiyatlarga quyidagilar kiradi ESLATMA bayonot, IMTIHON bayonot (bu bilan almashtirildi Tekshirish) va dastur tomonidan belgilangan tasodifiy kirish moduli (yangi ketma-ket va nisbiy I / U modullari bilan almashtirilgan). Ular 44 ta o'zgarishlarni amalga oshirdilar, bu esa mavjud bayonotlarni yangi standartga mos kelmasligini ko'rsatdi.^[82]Hisobot yozuvchisi COBOL-dan olib tashlanishi kerak edi, ammo standart nashr etilgunga qadar qayta tiklandi.^[83][84] Keyinchalik ISO 1978 yilda yangilangan standartni qabul qildi.^[75]

COBOL-85

1978 yil iyun oyida COBOL-74ni qayta ishlash ishlari boshlandi. Tavsiya etilgan standart (odatda COBOL-80 deb nomlanadi) oldingisidan sezilarli darajada farq qildi va bu mos kelmaslik va konvertatsiya xarajatlari haqida xavotirga sabab bo'ldi. 1981 yil yanvar oyida Jozef T. Brophy, Travellers sug'urta kompaniyasining katta vitse-prezidenti, standart qo'mitani sudga berish bilan tahdid qildi, chunki bu emas yuqoriga qarab mos keladi COBOL-74 bilan. Janob Brofi ularning 40 millionlik kodli bazasini avvalgi konversiyalarini "samarasiz" va "dasturchilarimiz resurslarini to'liq isrof qilgani" deb ta'riflagan.^[85]Keyinchalik o'sha yili Ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlashni boshqarish assotsiatsiyasi (DPMA) "foydalanuvchiga majbur qilingan" konvertatsiya xarajatlari va yaxshilanishlarini aytib, yangi standartga "qat'iy qarshi" ekanligini aytdi.^[86][87]

Birinchi jamoatchilik ko'rib chiqish davrida qo'mita 2200 ta javob oldi, ulardan 1700 tasi salbiy shakldagi xatlardir.^[88]Boshqa javoblar COBOL-80 tizimlariga ta'sirini batafsil tahlil qilishdi; konversiya xarajatlari kod satri uchun kamida 50 sent bo'lishi taxmin qilingan edi. Javoblarning o'ndan ozi taklif qilingan standartni qo'llab-quvvatladi.^[89]

Tashabbusi bilan 1979 yilda xalqaro COBOL ekspertlar guruhi o'rnatilgan ISO TC97-SC5 Vim Ebbinxuysen. Guruh ko'plab mamlakatlarning, shu jumladan AQShning COBOL mutaxassislaridan iborat edi. Uning maqsadi ANSI va butun dunyo o'rtasida COBOLning yangi xususiyatlariga ehtiyoj bo'yicha o'zaro tushunish va hurmatga erishish edi. Uch yildan so'ng, ISO guruh maqomini rasmiy Ishchi guruhga o'zgartirdi: WG 4 COBOL. Guruh COBOL standartining asosiy egaligi va rivojlanishini o'z zimmasiga oldi, bu erda ANSI takliflarning aksariyatini amalga oshirdi.

1983 yilda DPMA qo'mitaning jamoatchilik muammolariga javob berishiga asoslanib, ushbu standartga qarshi chiqishni to'xtatdi. Xuddi shu yili, Milliy standartlar byurosini o'rganish, taklif qilingan standart ozgina muammolarni keltirib chiqaradi degan xulosaga keldi.^[87][90] Bir yil o'tgach, COBOL-80 kompilyatori chiqarildi DEK VAX COBOL-74 dasturlarini konvertatsiya qilish juda oz muammo tug'dirganligini ta'kidlagan foydalanuvchilar. Yangi BAHOLASH bayonot va qatorda IJRO soddalashtirilganligi tufayli ayniqsa yaxshi qabul qilindi va samaradorlik yaxshilandi oqim oqimi va disk raskadrovka.^[91]

Ikkinchi jamoatchilik tekshiruvida yana 1000 ta (asosan salbiy) javoblar, oxirgi tanlovda esa atigi 25 kishi qatnashdi, shu vaqtgacha ko'plab muammolar hal qilindi.^[87]

1985 yilda ISO 4-ishchi guruhi ANSI taklif qilingan standartning o'sha paytdagi versiyasini qabul qildi, bir nechta o'zgartirishlar kiritdi va uni yangi ISO standarti COBOL 85 sifatida o'rnatdi. 1985 yil oxirida nashr etildi.

Oltmish xususiyat o'zgartirildi yoki bekor qilindi va ko'plari^{[miqdorini aniqlash ]} kabi qo'shildi, masalan:^[92][93]

• Amaliyot terminatorlari (END-IF, Tugatish, Oxir-oqibat, va boshqalar.)
• Ichki ichki dasturlar
• DAVOM ETING, a operatsiya qilinmaganligi to'g'risidagi bayonot
• BAHOLASH, a switch bayonoti
• INITIALIZE, ma'lumotlar guruhlarini standart qiymatlariga o'rnatishi mumkin bo'lgan bayonot
• Mos ravishda IJRO tsikl korpuslari - ilgari tsikl korpuslari alohida protsedurada ko'rsatilishi kerak edi
• Substringlarga kirish imkonini beruvchi mos yozuvlar modifikatsiyasi
• I / U holat kodlari.

Yangi standart barcha milliy standart organlari, shu jumladan ANSI tomonidan qabul qilindi.^[75]

1989 va 1993 yillarda ikkita tuzatish kiritildi, birinchisi ichki funktsiyalarni kiritdi, ikkinchisi esa tuzatishlarni taqdim etdi.^[75]

COBOL 2002 va ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan COBOL

1997 yilda, Gartner guruhi mavjud bo'lgan jami 200 milliard COBOL liniyasi mavjudligini taxmin qildi, bu barcha biznes dasturlarning 80 foizini tashkil qildi.^{[94][yaxshiroq manba kerak ]}

1990-yillarning boshlarida COBOL-ning navbatdagi to'liq qayta ko'rib chiqilishida ob'ektga yo'naltirilganlikni qo'shish bo'yicha ishlar boshlandi. Ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan xususiyatlar olingan C ++ va Kichik munozarasi.^[2][3]Dastlabki tahrirda ushbu tahrir 1997 yilgacha tugatilishi kerak edi va ISO qo'mitasi loyihasi (CD) 1997 yilgacha mavjud edi. Ba'zi sotuvchilar (shu jumladan Mikro fokus, Fujitsu va IBM ) to'liq qayta ko'rib chiqish loyihalari asosida ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan sintaksisni joriy qildi. Oxirgi tasdiqlangan ISO standarti 2002 yil oxirida tasdiqlangan va nashr etilgan.^[95]

Fujitsu / GTSoftware,^[96] Micro Focus va Yomg'ir kodi maqsadiga yo'naltirilgan COBOL kompilyatorlarini taqdim etdi .NET Framework.

Boshqa ko'plab yangi xususiyatlar mavjud edi, ularning aksariyati CODASYL COBOL Rivojlanish jurnali 1978 yildan beri va COBOL-85 tarkibiga qo'shilish imkoniyatini boy bergan edi.^[97] Ushbu boshqa xususiyatlarga quyidagilar kiradi:^[98][99]

• Erkin shakldagi kod
• Foydalanuvchi tomonidan belgilangan funktsiyalar
• Rekursiya
• Mahalliy asoslangan ishlov berish
• Kabi kengaytirilgan belgilar to'plamlarini qo'llab-quvvatlash Unicode
• Suzuvchi nuqta va ikkilik ma'lumotlar turlari (shu vaqtgacha ikkilik ma'lumotlar ularning deklaratsiyalari asosida qisqartirildi tayanch-10 spetsifikatsiya)
• Portativ arifmetik natijalar
• Bit va mantiqiy ma'lumotlar turlari
• Ko'rsatkichlar va saqlash joyini olish va bo'shatish uchun sintaksis
• The EKRAN BO'LIMI uchun matnga asoslangan foydalanuvchi interfeyslari
• The VALIDATE qulaylik
• Boshqa dasturlash tillari bilan o'zaro ishlash yaxshilandi va ramka muhiti kabi .NET va Java.

Uch korrigenda standart uchun nashr etilgan: ikkitasi 2006 yilda va bittasi 2009 yilda.^[100]

COBOL 2014

2003 yildan 2009 yilgacha uchta texnik hisobot tuzilgan ob'ektni yakunlash, XML qayta ishlash va yig'ish darslari COBOL uchun.^[100]

COBOL 2002 zaif qo'llab-quvvatlashdan aziyat chekdi: hech bir kompilyator standartni to'liq qo'llab-quvvatlamadi. Micro Focus buni foydalanuvchilarning yangi funktsiyalarga bo'lgan talabining kamligi va bekor qilinganligi bilan bog'liqligini aniqladi. NIST kompilyatorning muvofiqligini tekshirish uchun ishlatilgan test to'plami. Standartlashtirish jarayoni ham sust va manba bilan ta'minlanganligi aniqlandi.^[101]

COBOL 2014 quyidagi o'zgarishlarni o'z ichiga oladi:^[102]

• Portativ arifmetik natijalar bilan almashtirildi IEEE 754 ma'lumotlar turlari
• Kabi asosiy xususiyatlar ixtiyoriy qilingan VALIDATE ob'ekt, hisobot yozuvchisi va ekranni boshqarish vositasi
• Haddan tashqari yuklash usuli
• Dinamik imkoniyatlar jadvallari (bu xususiyat COBOL 2002 loyihasidan o'chirilgan)^[103]

Meros

COBOL dasturlari global miqyosda hukumatlar va korxonalarda qo'llaniladi va turli xil operatsion tizimlarda ishlaydi z / OS, z / VSE, VME, Unix, OpenVMS va Windows. 1997 yilda, Gartner guruhi Dunyo biznesining 80% COBOL-da ishlaganligi, har yili 200 milliarddan ortiq kod va 5 milliard satr ko'proq yozilganligi haqida xabar berdi.^[104]

20-asrning oxirlarida, 2000 yil muammo (Y2K) COBOL dasturlashning muhim yo'nalishi bo'lib, ba'zida tizimlarni o'nlab yillar oldin ishlab chiqqan dasturchilar tomonidan qo'llanilgan. COBOL kodini tuzatish uchun talab qilinadigan harakatlarning ma'lum darajasi berilgan^{[kim tomonidan? ]} biznesga yo'naltirilgan katta miqdordagi COBOL-ga, chunki ishbilarmonlik dasturlari sanalardan juda ko'p foydalanadi va aniq ma'lumotlar maydonlarida. Y2K uchun ushbu dasturlarni tozalash harakatlaridan so'ng, 2003 yilgi so'rov shuni ko'rsatdiki, ko'pchilik foydalanishda qolmoqda.^[105]Mualliflarning ta'kidlashicha, so'rov natijalariga ko'ra "keyingi yillarda 10 yil ichida Cobol dasturining rivojlanishidagi ahamiyati asta-sekin pasayib bormoqda, agar ... boshqa tillar va texnologiyalar bilan integratsiyani qabul qilish mumkin bo'lmasa".^[106]

2006 va 2012 yillarda, Computerworld So'rovlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, tashkilotlarning 60% dan ortig'i COBOL dan foydalangan (ko'proq C ++ va Visual Basic .NET ) va ularning yarmi uchun COBOL ularning ichki dasturiy ta'minotining ko'p qismida ishlatilgan.^[9][107] Menejerlarning 36% COBOL-dan ko'chib o'tishni rejalashtirganliklarini va 25% arzonroq bo'lishini xohlashlarini aytdilar. Buning o'rniga, ba'zi korxonalar o'zlarining COBOL dasturlarini saqlab, o'zlarining tizimlarini qimmat meynfreymlardan arzonroq va zamonaviy tizimlarga ko'chirishdi.^[9]

Oldin guvohlik berish Vakillar palatasi 2016 yilda COBOL ko'plab federal idoralar tomonidan ishlatilayotganligini ko'rsatdi.^[108] Reuters 2017 yilda bank tizimlarining 43% COBOL-dan 200 million satrdan ko'proq COBOL kodi ishlatilganligi haqida xabar berishdi.^[109]

2019 yilga kelib, COBOL dasturchilarining soni nafaqaga chiqqanligi sababli tez qisqarib bordi va bu katta hajmdagi tranzaktsiyalarni qayta ishlash uchun hanuzgacha asosiy tizimlardan foydalanadigan biznes va davlat tashkilotlarida yaqinlashib kelayotgan malakaviy bo'shliqqa olib keldi. Tizimlarni yangi tillarda qayta yozish bo'yicha harakatlar qimmat va muammoli ekanligi isbotlandi, shuningdek kodlarni texnik xizmat ko'rsatish bo'yicha autsorsing orqali amalga oshirildi, shuning uchun ko'proq odamlarni COBOLga o'qitish takliflari ilgari surildi.^[110]

Davomida Covid-19 pandemiyasi va undan keyin ishsizlikning ko'payishi, AQShning bir nechta shtatlari ishsizlik nafaqalarini boshqarish uchun ishlatiladigan eski tizimlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun malakali COBOL dasturchilarining etishmasligi haqida xabar berishdi. Ushbu tizimlarning aksariyati pandemiya oldidan zamonaviyroq dasturlash tillariga o'tish jarayonida bo'lgan, ammo jarayon to'xtatilishi kerak edi.^[111] Xuddi shunday, AQSh Ichki daromad xizmati COBOL-ga asoslangan yamoqqa o'ralgan Shaxsiy master fayl tomonidan belgilangan o'n millionlab to'lovlarni amalga oshirish uchun Koronavirusga yordam, yordam va iqtisodiy xavfsizlik to'g'risidagi qonun.^[112]

Xususiyatlari

Sintaksis

COBOL dasturidagi deyarli hamma narsani tavsiflash uchun ishlatiladigan ingliz tiliga o'xshash sintaksisga ega. Masalan, shartni quyidagicha ifodalash mumkinx IS ZO'R O'ZIDAN y yoki qisqachax ZO'R y yokix > y. Keyinchalik murakkab shartlarni takrorlanadigan shartlar va o'zgaruvchilarni olib tashlash orqali "qisqartirish" mumkin. Masalan,a > b VA a > v Yoki a = d ga qisqartirilishi mumkin a > b VA v Yoki = d. Ushbu ingliz tiliga o'xshash sintaksisni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun COBOL-da 300 dan ortiq mavjud kalit so'zlar.^[113][c] Ba'zi bir kalit so'zlar bir xil so'zning oddiy muqobil yoki plyuralizatsiyalangan imlolari bo'lib, u ingliz tiliga o'xshash bayonotlar va bandlarni ko'proq ta'minlaydi; masalan, IN va OF iloji boricha kalit so'zlarni bir-birining o'rnida ishlatish mumkin IS va YO'Qva Qiymat va QIYMATLAR.

Har bir COBOL dasturi to'rtta asosiy dasturdan iborat leksik moddalar: so'zlar, harflar, rasm belgilar qatori (qarang) § RASMLAR bandi ) va ajratuvchilar. So'zlarga ajratilgan so'zlar va foydalanuvchi tomonidan aniqlangan identifikatorlar kiradi. Ularning uzunligi 31 belgidan iborat bo'lib, ular harflar, raqamlar, tire va pastki chiziqlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Literallarga raqamlar kiradi (masalan, 12) va simlar (masalan, 'Salom!').^[115] Ajratuvchilarga oraliq belgisi va vergul va yarim nuqta, so'ngra bo'sh joy kiradi.^[116]

COBOL dasturi to'rt bo'limga bo'linadi: identifikatsiya bo'limi, atrof-muhit bo'limi, ma'lumotlar bo'limi va protsedura bo'limi. Identifikatsiya bo'limi manba elementining nomi va turini belgilaydi va bu erda sinflar va interfeyslar ko'rsatilgan. Atrof muhit bo'limi, uni boshqaradigan tizimga bog'liq bo'lgan har qanday dastur xususiyatlarini belgilaydi, masalan fayllar va belgilar to'plamlari. Ma'lumotlar bo'limi e'lon qilish uchun ishlatiladi o'zgaruvchilar va parametrlar. Protsedura bo'limi dasturni o'z ichiga oladi bayonotlar. Har bir bo'linma paragraflardan tashkil topgan bo'limlarga bo'linadi.

Metall tili

COBOL sintaksisi odatda o'ziga xos tarzda tavsiflanadi metall tili qavslar, qavslar, chiziqlar yordamida va pastki chiziq bilan chizish. Metalletaj COBOLning asl texnik xususiyatlari uchun ishlab chiqilgan. Garchi Backus-Naur shakli o'sha paytda mavjud edi, qo'mita bu haqda eshitmagan edi.^[117]

Misol tariqasida, quyidagi ta'rifini ko'rib chiqing QO'ShIMChA bayonot:

${displaystyle {egin {array} {l} {underline {ext {ADD}}}, {egin {Bmatrix} {ext {identifier-1}} {ext {literal-1}} end {Bmatrix}} nuqtalari; { {ext {TO}}} chizig'i, chapga {{ext {identifier-2}}, chapga [, {ostiga chizilgan {ext {ROUNDED}}}, ight] ight} nuqta to'rtga chapga [chapga | {egin {qatorga] { l} {ext {ON}}, {underline {ext {SIZE}}}, {underline {ext {ERROR}}}, {ext {imperative-statement-1}} {underline {ext {NOT}}}, {ext {ON}}, {underline {ext {SIZE}}}, {underline {ext {ERROR}}}, {ext {imperative-statement-2}} end {array}} ight | ight] quad chap [, {pastki chiziq {ext {END-ADD}}}, ight] end {qator}}}$

Ushbu tavsif quyidagi variantlarga ruxsat beradi:

QO'ShIMChA 1 TO xQO'ShIMChA 1, a, b TO x DUVARLANGAN, y, z DUVARLANGANQO'ShIMChA a, b TO v    YOQDI OLcham XATO Displey "Xato"QO'ShISHQO'ShIMChA a TO b    YO'Q OLcham XATO Displey "Xato yo'q"    YOQDI OLcham XATO Displey "Xato"

Kod formati

COBOL ikki formatda yozilishi mumkin: belgilangan (standart) yoki bepul. Belgilangan formatda kod ma'lum joylarga mos kelishi uchun hizalanishi kerak (perforatorlarni ishlatmaslik). COBOL 2002 yilgacha quyidagilar:

COBOL 2002-yilda A va B maydonlari birlashtirilib, dastur-matn maydonini hosil qildi, endi u dastur tomonidan belgilangan ustunda tugaydi.^[118]

COBOL 2002 bepul formatdagi kodni ham taqdim etdi. Erkin formatdagi kodni yangi dasturlash tillaridagi kabi faylning istalgan ustuniga joylashtirish mumkin. Sharhlar yordamida aniqlanadi *>, har qanday joyda joylashtirilishi mumkin va sobit formatdagi manba kodida ham ishlatilishi mumkin. Davom etish satrlari mavjud emas va >> SAHIFA direktivasi o'rnini bosadi / ko'rsatkich.^[118]

Identifikatsiya bo'limi

Identifikatsiya bo'limi quyidagi kod mavjudligini aniqlaydi va sinf yoki interfeys ta'rifini o'z ichiga oladi.

Ob'ektga yo'naltirilgan dasturlash

Sinflar va interfeyslar COBOL-da 2002 yildan beri mavjud. Sinflar sinfni o'z ichiga olgan zavod ob'ektlariga ega usullari misol usullari va o'zgaruvchilarni o'z ichiga olgan o'zgaruvchilar va misol ob'ektlari.^[119] Meros va interfeyslarni ta'minlaydi polimorfizm. Qo'llab-quvvatlash umumiy dasturlash har qanday sinf yoki interfeysdan foydalanishga asoslanadigan parametrlangan sinflar orqali ta'minlanadi. Ob'ektlar ma'lum bir turda cheklanishi mumkin bo'lgan ma'lumotnomalar sifatida saqlanadi. Usulni chaqirishning ikki usuli mavjud: the INVOKE ga o'xshash harakat qiladigan bayonot Qo'ng'iroq qilingyoki funktsiyalarni ishlatishga o'xshash ichki usul chaqiruvi orqali.^[120]

*> Bular tengdir.INVOKE mening sinfim "foo" QAYTISH varHARAKAT mening sinfim::"foo" TO var *> Inline usulini chaqirish

COBOL bunga yo'l bermaydi yashirish usullari. Sinf ma'lumotlarini yashirish mumkin, ammo ularni a MULK moddasi, bu foydalanuvchini unga kirish uchun hech qanday imkoniyat qoldirmaydi.^[121] Haddan tashqari yuklash usuli COBOL 2014-da qo'shilgan.^[122]

Atrof muhit bo'limi

Atrof-muhit bo'limi konfiguratsiya bo'limi va kirish-chiqarish qismini o'z ichiga oladi. Konfiguratsiya bo'limi valyuta belgilari, joylar va belgilar to'plami kabi o'zgaruvchan xususiyatlarni ko'rsatish uchun ishlatiladi. Kirish-chiqarish qismida faylga oid ma'lumotlar mavjud.

Fayllar

COBOL uchta fayl formatini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi yoki tashkilotlar: ketma-ket, indekslangan va nisbiy. Ketma-ketlikdagi fayllarda yozuvlar bir-biriga yaqin va ularni bosib o'tish kerak ketma-ket, a ga o'xshash bog'langan ro'yxat. Indekslangan fayllar yozuvlar bo'lishiga imkon beradigan bir yoki bir nechta indekslarga ega tasodifiy kirish va ular bo'yicha saralash mumkin. Har bir yozuvda a bo'lishi kerak noyob kalit, lekin boshqa, muqobil, yozuv kalitlari noyob bo'lmasligi kerak. Indekslangan fayllarning bajarilishi sotuvchilar o'rtasida farq qiladi, ammo shunga o'xshash keng tarqalgan dasturlar C ‑ ISAM va VSAM, IBM-larga asoslangan ISAM. Nisbiy fayllar, xuddi indekslangan fayllar singari, noyob yozuvlar kalitiga ega, ammo ularning muqobil kalitlari mavjud emas. A relative record's key is its ordinal position; for example, the 10th record has a key of 10. This means that creating a record with a key of 5 may require the creation of (empty) preceding records. Relative files also allow for both sequential and random access.^[123]

A common non-standard extension is the line sequential organization, used to process text files. Records in a file are terminated by a newline and may be of varying length.^[124]

Data division

The data division is split into six sections which declare different items: the file section, for file records; the working-storage section, for statik o'zgaruvchilar; the local-storage section, for avtomatik o'zgaruvchilar; the linkage section, for parameters and the return value; the report section and the screen section, for matnga asoslangan foydalanuvchi interfeyslari.

Aggregated data

Data items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level-numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another. An item with a higher level-number is subordinate to an item with a lower one. Top-level data items, with a level-number of 1, are called yozuvlar. Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called group items; those that do not are called elementary items. Level-numbers used to describe standard data items are between 1 and 49.^[125][126]

 01  some-record.                   *> Aggregate group record item     05  num            PIC 9(10).  *> Elementary item     05  the-date.                  *> Aggregate (sub)group record item         10  the-year   PIC 9(4).   *> Elementary item         10  the-month  PIC 99.     *> Elementary item         10  the-day    PIC 99.     *> Elementary item

In the above example, elementary item num and group item the-date are subordinate to the record some-record, while elementary items the-year, the-monthva the-day are part of the group item the-date.

Subordinate items can be disambiguated with the IN (yoki OF) keyword. For example, consider the example code above along with the following example:

 01  sale-date.     05  the-year       PIC 9(4).     05  the-month      PIC 99.     05  the-day        PIC 99.

Ismlar the-year, the-monthva the-day are ambiguous by themselves, since more than one data item is defined with those names. To specify a particular data item, for instance one of the items contained within the sale-date group, the programmer would use the-year IN sale-date (or the equivalent the-year OF sale-date). (This syntax is similar to the "dot notation" supported by most contemporary languages.)

Other data levels

A level-number of 66 is used to declare a re-grouping of previously defined items, irrespective of how those items are structured. This data level, also referred to by the associated RENAMES band, is rarely used^[127] and, circa 1988, was usually found in old programs. Its ability to ignore the hierarchical and logical structure data meant its use was not recommended and many installations forbade its use.^[128]

 01  customer-record.     05  cust-key            PIC X(10).     05  cust-name.         10  cust-first-name PIC X(30).         10  cust-last-name  PIC X(30).     05  cust-dob            PIC 9(8).     05  cust-balance        PIC 9(7)V99.      66  cust-personal-details   RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-dob. 66  cust-all-details        RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-balance.

A 77 level-number indicates the item is stand-alone, and in such situations is equivalent to the level-number 01. For example, the following code declares two 77-level data items, property-name va sales-region, which are non-group data items that are independent of (not subordinate to) any other data items:

 77  property-name      PIC X(80). 77  sales-region       PIC 9(5).

An 88 level-number declares a condition name (a so-called 88-level) which is true when its parent data item contains one of the values specified in its Qiymat band.^[129] For example, the following code defines two 88-level condition-name items that are true or false depending on the current character data value of the wage-type data item. When the data item contains a value of 'H', the condition-name wage-is-hourly is true, whereas when it contains a value of "S" yoki 'Y', the condition-name wage-is-yearly haqiqat. If the data item contains some other value, both of the condition-names are false.

 01  wage-type          PIC X.     88  wage-is-hourly Qiymat "H".     88  wage-is-yearly Qiymat "S", "Y".

Ma'lumot turlari

Standard COBOL provides the following data types:^[130]

Type safety is variable in COBOL. Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string, including numeric and group data.^[131] In contrast, object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type.^[132]

PICTURE clause

A SURAT (yoki PIC) clause is a string of characters, each of which represents a portion of the data item and what it may contain. Some picture characters specify the type of the item and how many characters or digits it occupies in memory. Masalan, a 9 indicates a decimal digit, and an S indicates that the item is imzolangan. Other picture characters (called kiritish va tahrirlash characters) specify how an item should be formatted. For example, a series of + characters define character positions as well as how a leading sign character is to be positioned within the final character data; the rightmost non-numeric character will contain the item's sign, while other character positions corresponding to a + to the left of this position will contain a space. Repeated characters can be specified more concisely by specifying a number in parentheses after a picture character; masalan, 9(7) ga teng 9999999. Picture specifications containing only digit (9) and sign (S) characters define purely raqamli data items, while picture specifications containing alphabetic (A) or alphanumeric (X) characters define alfanumerik data items. The presence of other formatting characters define edited numeric yoki edited alphanumeric data items.^[133]

USAGE clause

The USAGE clause declares the format data is stored in. Depending on the data type, it can either complement or be used instead of a SURAT band. While it can be used to declare pointers and object references, it is mostly geared towards specifying numeric types. These numeric formats are:^[134]

• Binary, where a minimum size is either specified by the SURAT clause or by a USAGE clause such as BINARY-LONG.
• USAGE COMPUTATIONAL, where data may be stored in whatever format the implementation provides; often equivalent to USAGE Ikkilik
• USAGE Displey, the default format, where data is stored as a string
• Floating-point, in either an implementation-dependent format or according to IEEE 754.
• USAGE MILLIY, where data is stored as a string using an extended character set
• USAGE O'RATILGAN-DEKIMALIK, where data is stored in the smallest possible decimal format (typically packed binary-coded decimal )

Report writer

The report writer is a declarative facility for creating reports. The programmer need only specify the report layout and the data required to produce it, freeing them from having to write code to handle things like page breaks, data formatting, and headings and footings.^[135]

Reports are associated with report files, which are files which may only be written to through report writer statements.

 FD  report-out HISOBAT sales-report.

Each report is defined in the report section of the data division. A report is split into report groups which define the report's headings, footings and details. Reports work around hierarchical control breaks. Control breaks occur when a key variable changes it value; for example, when creating a report detailing customers' orders, a control break could occur when the program reaches a different customer's orders. Here is an example report description for a report which gives a salesperson's sales and which warns of any invalid records:

 RD  sales-report     Sahifa LIMITS 60 LINES BIRINChI MA'LUMOT 3CONTROLS seller-name. 01  TURI Sahifa Boshliq.     03  COL 1                    Qiymat "Sotuvlar to'g'risida hisobot".     03  COL 74                   Qiymat "Sahifa".     03  COL 79                   PIC Z9 MANBA PAGE-COUNTER. 01  sales-on-day TURI MA'LUMOT, LINE + 1.     03  COL 3                    Qiymat "Sales on".     03  COL 12                   PIC 99/99/9999 MANBA sales-date.     03  COL 21                   Qiymat "were".     03  COL 26                   PIC $$$$9.99 MANBA sales-amount. 01  invalid-sales TURI MA'LUMOT, LINE + 1.     03  COL 3                    Qiymat "INVALID RECORD:".     03  COL 19                   PIC X(34) MANBA sales-record. 01  TURI BOSHQARUV Boshliq seller-name, LINE + 2.     03  COL 1                    Qiymat "Seller:".     03  COL 9                    PIC X(30) MANBA seller-name.

The above report description describes the following layout:

Sales Report                                                             Page  1Seller: Howard Bromberg  Sales on 10/12/2008 were $1000.00  Sales on 12/12/2008 were    $0.00  Sales on 13/12/2008 were   $31.47  INVALID RECORD: Howard Bromberg             XXXXYYSeller: Howard Discount...Sales Report                                                            Page 12  Sales on 08/05/2014 were  $543.98  INVALID RECORD: William Selden      12O52014FOOFOO  Sales on 30/05/2014 were    $0.00

Four statements control the report writer: TOSHQARISH, which prepares the report writer for printing; BOSHLASH, which prints a report group; SUPPRESS, which suppresses the printing of a report group; va TUZATING, which terminates report processing. For the above sales report example, the procedure division might look like this:

     OCHIQ KIRITISH sotish, OUTPUT report-out     TOSHQARISH sales-report      PERFORM UNTIL 1 <> 1O'QING sotish             DA OXIRI CHIQISH PERFORM END-READ VALIDATE sales-record         IF valid-record             BOSHLASH sales-on-day         BOShQA BOSHLASH invalid-sales         END-IF END-PERFORM TUZATING sales-report     CLOSE sotish, report-out     .

Use of the Report Writer facility tended to vary considerably; some organizations used it extensively and some not at all.^[136] In addition, implementations of Report Writer ranged in quality, with those at the lower end sometimes using excessive amounts of memory at runtime.^[136]

Procedure division

Jarayonlar

The sections and paragraphs in the procedure division (collectively called procedures) can be used as yorliqlar and as simple subroutines. Unlike in other divisions, paragraphs do not need to be in sections.^[137]Execution goes down through the procedures of a program until it is terminated.^[138]To use procedures as subroutines, the PERFORM verb is used.

A PERFORM statement somewhat resembles a procedure call in a modern language in the sense that execution returns to the code following the PERFORM statement at the end of the called code; however, it does not provide any mechanism for parameter passing or for returning a result value. If a subroutine is invoked using a simple statement like PERFORM subroutine, then control returns at the end of the called procedure. Biroq, PERFORM is unusual in that it may be used to call a range spanning a sequence of several adjacent procedures. Bu bilan amalga oshiriladi PERFORM sub-1 THRU sub-n qurish:

PROCEDURE so-and-so.    PERFORM ALPHA    PERFORM ALPHA THRU GAMMA    TO'XTA Yugurish.ALPHA.    Displey "A".BETA.    Displey "B".GAMMA.    Displey "C".

The output of this program will be: "A A B C".

PERFORM also differs from conventional procedure calls in that there is, at least traditionally, no notion of a call stack. As a consequence, nested invocations are possible (a sequence of code being PERFORM'ed may execute a PERFORM statement itself), but require extra care if parts of the same code are executed by both invocations. The problem arises when the code in the inner invocation reaches the exit point of the outer invocation. More formally, if control passes through the exit point of a PERFORM invocation that was called earlier but has not completed yet, the COBOL 2002 standard officially stipulates that the behaviour is aniqlanmagan.

The reason is that COBOL, rather than a "return address", operates with what may be called a continuation address. When control flow reaches the end of any procedure, the continuation address is looked up and control is transferred to that address. Before the program runs, the continuation address for every procedure is initialised to the start address of the procedure that comes next in the program text so that, if no PERFORM statements happen, control flows from top to bottom through the program. Ammo qachon PERFORM statement executes, it modifies the continuation address of the called procedure (or the last procedure of the called range, if PERFORM THRU was used), so that control will return to the call site at the end. The original value is saved and is restored afterwards, but there is only one storage position. If two nested invocations operate on overlapping code, they may interfere which each other's management of the continuation address in several ways.^[139][140]

The following example (taken from Veerman & Verhoeven 2006 ) illustrates the problem:

LABEL1.    Displey '1'    PERFORM LABEL2 THRU LABEL3    TO'XTA Yugurish.LABEL2.    Displey '2'    PERFORM LABEL3 THRU LABEL4.LABEL3.    Displey '3'.LABEL4.    Displey '4'.

One might expect that the output of this program would be "1 2 3 4 3": After displaying "2", the second PERFORM causes "3" and "4" to be displayed, and then the first invocation continues on with "3". In traditional COBOL implementations, this is not the case. Rather, the first PERFORM statement sets the continuation address at the end of LABEL3 so that it will jump back to the call site inside LABEL1. Ikkinchisi PERFORM statement sets the return at the end of LABEL4 but does not modify the continuation address of LABEL3, expecting it to be the default continuation. Thus, when the inner invocation arrives at the end of LABEL3, it jumps back to the outer PERFORM statement, and the program stops having printed just "1 2 3". On the other hand, in some COBOL implementations like the open-source TinyCOBOL compiler, the two PERFORM statements do not interfere with each other and the output is indeed "1 2 3 4 3". Therefore, the behaviour in such cases is not only (perhaps) surprising, it is also not portable.^[140]

A special consequence of this limitation is that PERFORM cannot be used to write recursive code. Another simple example to illustrate this (slightly simplified from Veerman & Verhoeven 2006 ):

    MOVE 1 TO A    PERFORM Yorliq TO'XTA Yugurish.Yorliq.    Displey A    IF A < 3QO'ShIMChA 1 TO A        PERFORM Yorliq END-IF Displey 'END'.

One might expect that the output is "1 2 3 END END END", and in fact that is what some COBOL compilers will produce. But some compilers, like IBM COBOL, will produce code that prints "1 2 3 END END END END ..." and so on, printing "END" over and over in an endless loop. Since there is limited space to store backup continuation addresses, the backups get overwritten in the course of recursive invocations, and all that can be restored is the jump back to DISPLAY 'END'.^[140]

Bayonotlar

COBOL 2014 has 47 statements (also called fe'llar),^[141] which can be grouped into the following broad categories: control flow, I/O, data manipulation and the report writer. The report writer statements are covered in the report writer section.

Boshqarish oqimi

COBOL's shartli gaplar bor IF va BAHOLASH. BAHOLASH a switch-like statement with the added capability of evaluating multiple values and conditions. This can be used to implement qarorlar jadvallari. For example, the following might be used to control a CNC lathe:

BAHOLASH Rost SHUNINGDEK desired-speed SHUNINGDEK current-speed    QACHON lid-closed SHUNINGDEK min-speed THRU max-speed SHUNINGDEK KAMROQ O'ZIDAN desired-speed        PERFORM speed-up-machine    QACHON lid-closed SHUNINGDEK min-speed THRU max-speed SHUNINGDEK GREATER O'ZIDAN desired-speed        PERFORM slow-down-machine    QACHON lid-open SHUNINGDEK HAMMA SHUNINGDEK YO'Q NOL PERFORM emergency-stop    QACHON BOShQA DAVOM ETINGEND-EVALUATE

The PERFORM statement is used to define loops which are executed qadar a condition is true (not esa true, which is more common in other languages). It is also used to call procedures or ranges of procedures (see the procedures section batafsil ma'lumot uchun). CALL va INVOKE call subprograms and methods, respectively. The name of the subprogram/method is contained in a string which may be a literal or a data item.^[142] Parameters can be passed ma'lumotnoma orqali, by content (where a copy is passed by reference) or qiymati bo'yicha (but only if a prototip is available).^[143]Bekor qilish unloads subprograms from memory. BORISH causes the program to jump to a specified procedure.

The GOBACK bayonot a qaytarish bayonoti va TO'XTA statement stops the program. The CHIQISH statement has six different formats: it can be used as a return statement, a break statement, a continue statement, an end marker or to leave a procedure.^[144]

Istisnolar are raised by a OSHIRISH statement and caught with a handler, or declarative, defined in the DECLARATIVES portion of the procedure division. Declaratives are sections beginning with a USE statement which specify the errors to handle. Exceptions can be names or objects. RESUME is used in a declarative to jump to the statement after the one that raised the exception or to a procedure outside the DECLARATIVES. Unlike other languages, uncaught exceptions may not terminate the program and the program can proceed unaffected.

I / O

File I/O is handled by the self-describing OCHIQ, CLOSE, O'QINGva YOZING statements along with a further three: Qayta yozing, which updates a record; BOSHLASH, which selects subsequent records to access by finding a record with a certain key; va UNLOCK, qaysi chiqaradi a qulflash on the last record accessed.

User interaction is done using QABUL QILING va Displey.

Ma'lumotlarni manipulyatsiya qilish

The following verbs manipulate data:

• INITIALIZE, which sets data items to their default values.
• MOVE, qaysi tayinlaydi values to data items ; Javob berishni harakatga keltiring assigns corresponding like-named dalalar.
• O'rnatish, which has 15 formats: it can modify indices, assign object references and alter table capacities, among other functions.^[145]
• QO'ShIMChA, SUBTRACT, MULTIPLY, DIVIDEva COMPUTE, which handle arithmetic (with COMPUTE assigning the result of a formula to a variable).
• ALLOCATE va FREE, which handle dynamic memory.
• VALIDATE, which validates and distributes data as specified in an item's description in the data division.
• STRING va UNSTRING, qaysi birlashtirish va bo'linish torlar navbati bilan.
• INSPECT, which tallies or replaces instances of specified pastki chiziqlar within a string.
• QIDIRMOQ, which searches a table for the first entry satisfying a condition.

Files and tables are sorted using TARTIB va MERGE verb merges and sorts files. The Chiqarish verb provides records to sort and QAYTISH retrieves sorted records in order.

Scope termination

Some statements, such as IF va O'QING, may themselves contain statements. Such statements may be terminated in two ways: by a period ( implicit termination), which terminates barchasi unterminated statements contained, or by a scope terminator, which terminates the nearest matching open statement.

*> Terminator period ("implicit termination")IF invalid-record    IF no-more-records        KEYINGISI HUKM BOShQA O'QING record-file            DA OXIRI O'rnatish no-more-records TO Rost.*> Scope terminators ("explicit termination")IF invalid-record    IF no-more-records        DAVOM ETING BOShQA O'QING record-file            DA OXIRI O'rnatish no-more-records TO Rost END-READ END-IFEND-IF

Nested statements terminated with a period are a common source of bugs.^[146][147] For example, examine the following code:

IF x    Displey y.    Displey z.

Here, the intent is to display y va z if condition x haqiqat. Biroq, z will be displayed whatever the value of x chunki IF statement is terminated by an erroneous period after Displey y.

Another bug is a result of the dangling else problem, qachon ikkita IF statements can associate with an BOShQA.

IF x    IF y        Displey aBOShQA Displey b.

In the above fragment, the BOShQA bilan bog'laydiIF y statement instead of the IF x statement, causing a bug. Prior to the introduction of explicit scope terminators, preventing it would require BOShQA KEYINGISI HUKM to be placed after the inner IF.^[147]

O'z-o'zini o'zgartiradigan kod

The original (1959) COBOL specification supported the infamous ALTER X TO ISHLAB CHIQARILADI TO Y statement, for which many compilers generated o'z-o'zini o'zgartiradigan kod. X va Y are procedure labels, and the single GO TO statement in procedure X executed after such an ALTER statement means GO TO Y o'rniga. Many compilers still support it,^[148]but it was deemed eskirgan in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002.^[149]

The ALTER statement was poorly regarded because it undermined "locality of context" and made a program's overall logic difficult to comprehend.^[150] As textbook author Daniel D. Makkracken wrote in 1976, when "someone who has never seen the program before must become familiar with it as quickly as possible, sometimes under critical time pressure because the program has failed ... the sight of a GO TO statement in a paragraph by itself, signaling as it does the existence of an unknown number of ALTER statements at unknown locations throughout the program, strikes fear in the heart of the bravest programmer."^[150]

Salom Dunyo

A "Salom Dunyo " program in COBOL:

 IDENTIFICATION BO'LIM. PROGRAM-ID. Salom Dunyo. PROCEDURE BO'LIM.     Displey "Salom Dunyo!"     .

When the – now famous – "Salom Dunyo!" dastur example in C dasturlash tili was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL, very likely using a punch card reader, and 80 column punch cards. The listing below, with an empty DATA DIVISION, was tested using GNU/Linux and the System/370 Gerkules emulyatori yugurish MVS 3.8J. The JCL, written in July 2015, is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley.^[151] In keeping with COBOL programming of that era, HELLO, WORLD is displayed in all capital letters.

//COBUCLG  ISH (001),'COBOL BASE TEST',                                 00010000//             SINF=A,MSGCLASS=A,MSGLEVEL=(1,1)                        00020000//BASETEST EXEC COBUCLG                                                 00030000//COB.SYSIN DD *                                                        00040000 00000* VALIDATION OF BAZ COBOL O'RNATISH                                00050000 01000 IDENTIFICATION BO'LIM.                                         00060000 01100 PROGRAM-ID. 'HELLO'.                                             00070000 02000 ENVIRONMENT BO'LIM.                                            00080000 02100 Konfiguratsiya BO'LIM.                                           00090000 02110 SOURCE-COMPUTER.  GNULINUX.                                      00100000 02120 OBJECT-COMPUTER.  HERKULLAR.                                      00110000 02200 SPECIAL-NAMES.                                                   00120000 02210     CONSOLE IS CONSL.                                            00130000 03000 MA'LUMOT BO'LIM.                                                   00140000 04000 PROCEDURE BO'LIM.                                              00150000 04100 00-MAIN.                                                         00160000 04110     Displey 'HELLO, WORLD' UPON CONSL.                           00170000 04900     TO'XTA Yugurish.                                                    00180000//LKED.SYSLIB DD DSNAME=SYS1.COBLIB,DISP=SHR                            00190000//            DD DSNAME=SYS1.LINKLIB,DISP=SHR                           00200000//GO.SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A                                               00210000//                                                                      00220000

After submitting the JCL, the MVS console displayed:

    19.52.48 JOB    3  $HASP100 COBUCLG  ON READER1     COBOL BASE TEST    19.52.48 JOB    3  IEF677I WARNING MESSAGE(S) FOR JOB COBUCLG  ISSUED    19.52.48 JOB    3  $HASP373 COBUCLG  STARTED - INIT 1 - CLASS A - SYS BSP1    19.52.48 JOB    3  IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING    19.52.48 JOB    3  IEC130I SYSLIB   DD STATEMENT MISSING    19.52.48 JOB    3  IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING    19.52.48 JOB    3  IEFACTRT - Stepname  Procstep  Program   Retcode    19.52.48 JOB    3  COBUCLG    BASETEST  COB       IKFCBL00  RC= 0000    19.52.48 JOB    3  COBUCLG    BASETEST  LKED      IEWL      RC= 0000    19.52.48 JOB    3  +HELLO, WORLD    19.52.48 JOB    3  COBUCLG    BASETEST  GO        PGM=*.DD  RC= 0000    19.52.48 JOB    3  $HASP395 COBUCLG  ENDED

Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect, the highlighting is not part of the actual console output.

The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information, for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL.

Tanqid va mudofaa

Lack of structure

In the 1970s, adoption of the structured programming paradigm was becoming increasingly widespread. Edsger Dijkstra, a preeminent computer scientist, wrote a muharrirga xat ning ACM aloqalari, published 1975 entitled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", in which he was critical of COBOL and several other contemporary languages; remarking that "the use of COBOL cripples the mind".^[152]In a published dissent to Dijkstra's remarks, the computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins claimed that unstructured COBOL tended to be "written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well", arguing that the issue was primarily one of training.^[153]

One cause of spagetti kodi edi BORISH bayonot. Attempts to remove BORISHs from COBOL code, however, resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality.^[154] BORISHs were largely replaced by the PERFORM statement and procedures, which promoted modulli dasturlash^[154] and gave easy access to powerful looping facilities. Biroq, PERFORM could only be used with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used, making programs harder to understand.^[155]

COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization.^[156]COBOL code could only be modularized through procedures, which were found to be inadequate for large systems. It was impossible to restrict access to data, meaning a procedure could access and modify har qanday data item. Furthermore, there was no way to pass parametrlar to a procedure, an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee's biggest mistake.^[157]Another complication stemmed from the ability to PERFORM THRU a specified sequence of procedures. This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure, creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single-entry single-exit qoida^[158]

This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features. COBOL-74 added subprograms, giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access. COBOL-85 then added nested subprograms, allowing programmers to hide subprograms.^[159] Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object-oriented programming, user-defined functions and user-defined data types were included.

Nevertheless, much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code, which has become unmaintainable. It can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways.^[160]

Compatibility issues

COBOL was intended to be a highly portable, "common" language. However, by 2001, around 300 dialects had been created.^[161] One source of dialects was the standard itself: the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven functional modules, each containing two or three levels of support. This permitted 104,976 official variants.^[162]

COBOL-85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, and its development was controversial. Joseph T. Brophy, the CIO ning Sayohatchilarni sug'urtalash, spearheaded an effort to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard.^[163] As a result, the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes. On the other hand, conversion to COBOL-85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs.^[164]

Verbose syntax

COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity. Proponents say that this was intended to make the code o'z-o'zini hujjatlashtirish, easing program maintenance.^[166] COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use,^[167] while still being readable to non-technical staff such as managers.^{[168][169][170][171]}The desire for readability led to the use of English-like syntax and structural elements, such as nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions. Yet by 1984, maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with "incomprehensible" code^[170] and the main changes in COBOL-85 were there to help ease maintenance.^[88]

Jean Sammet, a short-range committee member, noted that "little attempt was made to cater to the professional programmer, in fact people whose main interest is programming tend to be very unhappy with COBOL" which she attributed to COBOL's verbose syntax.^[172]

Isolation from the computer science community

The COBOL community has always been isolated from the computer science community. No academic computer scientists participated in the design of COBOL: all of those on the committee came from commerce or government. Computer scientists at the time were more interested in fields like numerical analysis, physics and system programming than the commercial file-processing problems which COBOL development tackled.^[173] Jean Sammet attributed COBOL's unpopularity to an initial "snob reaction" due to its inelegance, the lack of influential computer scientists participating in the design process and a disdain for business data processing.^[174] The COBOL specification used a unique "notation", or metall tili, to define its syntax rather than the new Backus-Naur shakli which the committee did not know of. This resulted in "severe" criticism.^{[175][176][66]}

Later, COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear (with Richard D. Irwin 1966 yilda COBOL bo'yicha kollej darsligini nashr etdi).^[177] 1985 yilga kelib Fortranga oid kitoblar COBOL-ga qaraganda ikki baravar ko'p va BASIC bo'yicha to'rt baravar ko'p edi Kongress kutubxonasi.^[117] Universitet professor-o'qituvchilari "savdo maktabi" xarakteriga ega bo'lgan COBOL o'rniga zamonaviyroq, zamonaviy tillar va texnikalarni o'rgatishdi.^[178] CODASYL COBOL qo'mitasi raisi Donald Nelson 1984 yilda "akademiklar ... COBOLdan nafratlanishadi" va kompyuter fanlari bitiruvchilari "ularga" nafrat COBOL "singdirgan".^[179] 2013 yilgi so'rovnoma Mikro fokus universitet akademiklarining 20% ​​COBOL eskirgan yoki o'lik deb o'ylaganligini va 55% ularning talabalari COBOL eskirgan yoki o'lik deb o'ylashadi deb hisoblashgan. Xuddi shu so'rovnoma shuni ko'rsatdiki, akademiklarning atigi 25 foizida COBOL dasturlari o'quv dasturiga kiritilgan, ammo 60 foizi biz ularga dars beramiz deb o'ylashgan.^[180]Aksincha, 2003 yilda COBOL 80% tarkibiga kirgan axborot tizimlari Qo'shma Shtatlardagi o'quv dasturlari, xuddi shu nisbat C ++ va Java.^[181]

Ishbilarmon doiralarda, masalan, boshqa tillardan foydalanuvchilar tomonidan COBOL-ga nisbatan sezilarli pasayish kuzatildi FORTRAN yoki montajchi, COBOL faqat qiyin bo'lmagan muammolar uchun ishlatilishi mumkinligini anglatadi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Loyihalash jarayoni bilan bog'liq tashvishlar

Standartlar qo'mitasining vakolatiga shubha tug'dirdi. Qisqa muddatli qo'mita a'zosi Xovard Bromberg rivojlanish jarayoni ustidan "ozgina nazorat" mavjudligini va bu "xodimlarning to'xtab qolishi va ... iste'dod etishmasligi bilan qiynalganini" aytdi.^[76] Jan Sammet va Jerom Garfunkel, shuningdek, standartni qayta ko'rib chiqishda kiritilgan o'zgarishlar, keyingi navbatda qaytarilishini ta'kidladilar, chunki standart qo'mitada kim bo'lganligi ob'ektiv dalillarga bog'liq edi.^[182]

COBOL standartlari bir necha bor kechikishlardan aziyat chekmoqda: COBOL-85 umid qilinganidan besh yil o'tib keldi,^[183]COBOL 2002 besh yilga kechikdi,^[2]va COBOL 2014 olti yilga kech edi.^[95][184]Kechikishlar bilan kurashish uchun standart qo'mita qo'shimcha standartlarni yaratishga imkon berdi, bu esa keyingi standart tahrirni kutishdan ko'ra tezroq xususiyatlarni qo'shadi. Shu bilan birga, ayrim qo'mita a'zolari standartlarning tez-tez o'zgartirilishi va amalga oshirilishi o'rtasidagi mos kelmaslik to'g'risida tashvish bildirdilar.^[185]

Boshqa tillarga ta'siri

COBOL ma'lumotlar tuzilmalari keyingi dasturlash tillariga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Uning yozuvlari va fayl tuzilishi ta'sir ko'rsatdi PL / I va Paskal, va TA'FIRLASH band Paskalning variant yozuvlari uchun o'tmishdosh edi. Fayl tuzilishining aniq ta'riflari ishlab chiqilishidan oldin ma'lumotlar bazasini boshqarish tizimlari va yig'ilgan ma'lumotlar Fortran massivlari bo'yicha sezilarli o'sish edi.^[117]SURAT ma'lumotlar deklaratsiyalari kichik o'zgarishlar bilan PL / I-ga kiritilgan.

COBOL Nusxalash "ibtidoiy" deb hisoblansa ham,^[186] rivojlanishiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi direktivalarni o'z ichiga oladi.^[117]

Portativlik va standartlashtirishga e'tibor, COBOL-da yozilgan dasturlarning portativ bo'lishi va tilning turli xil apparat platformalari va operatsion tizimlariga tarqalishini osonlashtirishi kerak edi.^[187] Bundan tashqari, aniq belgilangan bo'linma tuzilishi atrof-muhit bo'linmasiga tashqi havolalar ta'rifini cheklaydi, bu ayniqsa platformadagi o'zgarishlarni soddalashtiradi.^[188]

Shuningdek qarang

• Dasturlash tillarining alifbo tartibida ro'yxati
• BLIS / COBOL
• COBOL manbasi
• KODASIL
• Dasturlash tillarini taqqoslash
• Dasturlash tillarining avlodlar ro'yxati § COBOL asosida
• Tuzuvchilar ro'yxati § COBOL kompilyatorlari

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Iqtiboslar

Manbalar

Tashqi havolalar

• COBOL da Curlie