Xitoyda fan va texnika - Science and technology in China

Dongxay ko'prigi

Infratuzilmani qurish so'nggi o'n yilliklar davomida Xitoy muhandisligi uchun asosiy vazifa bo'lib kelgan. Bu 32,5 kilometr (20,2 milya) Dongxay ko'prigi, bog'lovchi materik Shanxay offshorga Yangshan porti - ning bir qismi Shanxay porti, dunyodagi eng gavjum konteyner porti.

Xitoyda fan va texnika 1990 yildan 2010 yilgacha tez rivojlandi. The Xitoy hukumati moliyalashtirish, islohotlar va jamiyatning mavqei ilm-fan va texnologiyalarni mamlakatning ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy rivojlanishining va milliy obro'sining asosiy qismi sifatida ta'kidladi. Xitoy ta'lim, infratuzilma, yuqori texnologiya ishlab chiqarish, akademik nashrlar, patentlar va tijorat dasturlari va hozirda ba'zi sohalarda va ba'zi bir o'lchovlar bo'yicha dunyoda etakchi o'rinni egallaydi. Hozir Xitoy mahalliy aholini tobora ko'proq nishonga olmoqda yangilik qolgan zaif tomonlarini isloh qilishga qaratilgan.

Tarix

Xitoyda fan va texnika tarixi
Kashfiyotlar ro'yxati Ixtirolar ro'yxati To'rt buyuk ixtiro
Mavzuga ko'ra
Qishloq xo'jaligi pillachilik Alkimyo Arxitektura klassik bog'lar ko'priklar Astronomiya Taqvim Kartografiya Seramika Tangalar Geografiya Matematika O'lchov birliklari An'anaviy tibbiyot gerbologiya Metallurgiya Harbiy dengiz floti Bosib chiqarish Ipakchilik sanoati Transport navigatsiya
Asrga ko'ra
Xon Tang Qo'shiq Yuan Xalq Respublikasi qishloq xo'jaligi bo'sh joy

The Dunxuang xaritasi, a yulduz xaritasi Shimoliy qutb mintaqasini ko'rsatmoqda. Taxminan 700. Dunxuang Star xaritasi dunyodagi eng qadimgi saqlanib qolgan yulduz atlasini tuzadi.^[1] Yulduzli xaritalarning butun to'plamida 1300 dan ortiq yulduzlar mavjud.^[2]

Yulduz xaritasi janubiy qutb proektsiyasi Su osmon globusi uchun, Sin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, 1092

Lardan biri yulduzlar jadvallari dan Su Song "s Sin Yi Xiang Fa Yao ga o'xshash silindrsimon proektsiyaga ega bo'lgan 1092 yilda nashr etilgan Merkator proektsiyasi va tuzatilgan pozitsiyasi qutb yulduzi Shen Kuoning astronomik kuzatuvlari tufayli.^[3][4] Su Songning besh yulduzli xaritalardan iborat samoviy atlasi aslida eng qadimiyidir bosilgan shakl.^[5]

Xitoy dastlabki yillarga qadar ilm-fan va texnologiyalar sohasida dunyoda etakchi bo'lgan Min sulolasi. Xitoy kashfiyotlari va Xitoy yangiliklari kabi qog'oz ishlab chiqarish, bosib chiqarish, kompas va porox (the To'rt buyuk ixtiro ) Sharqiy Osiyo, Yaqin Sharq va Evropada iqtisodiy rivojlanishga hissa qo'shdi. XIV asrda Xitoyning ilmiy faoliyati pasayishni boshladi. Evropadan farqli o'laroq, olimlar tabiat kuzatuvlarini matematik qonunlarga kamaytirishga intilmadilar va ular tanqid va ilg'or izlanishlar bilan ilmiy jamoani shakllantirmadilar. Borayotgan kontsentratsiya bor edi adabiyot, san'at va davlat boshqaruvi ilm-fan va texnologiya ahamiyatsiz deb hisoblangan yoki cheklangan amaliy qo'llanmalar bilan cheklangan.^[6] Buning sabablari Katta farq munozaralarni davom ettiring. Bitta omil bu bo'lishi mumkinligi ta'kidlanmoqda imperatorlik tekshiruvi xitoylik ziyolilarga matematikani o'rganish yoki eksperiment o'tkazish uchun imtiyozlarni olib tashlaydigan tizim.^[7] XVII asrga kelib Evropa va G'arbiy dunyo ilmiy va texnologik taraqqiyotda Xitoydan ustun keldi.^[8] Ushbu zamonaviy zamonaviylik sabablari Katta farq hozirgi kunga qadar olimlar tomonidan bahslashishda davom eting.^[9]

Bir necha bor mag'lub bo'lgandan keyin Yaponiya va G'arb davlatlari 19-asrda xitoylik islohotchilar zamonaviy ilm-fan va texnologiyalarni bir qismi sifatida targ'ib qila boshladilar O'z-o'zini mustahkamlash harakati. Kommunistik g'alabadan so'ng 1949 yilda ilmiy-texnikaviy tadqiqotlar modeli asosida tashkil etildi Sovet Ittifoqi. Unga olim bo'lmaganlar boshchiligidagi byurokratik tashkilot, markaziy rejalar maqsadlariga muvofiq tadqiqotlar, tadqiqotlarni ishlab chiqarishdan ajratish, ixtisoslashgan ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlari, amaliy qo'llanmalarga konsentratsiya va axborot oqimlariga cheklovlar xos bo'lgan. Tadqiqotchilar tan olinishga intilayotgan shaxslar sifatida emas, balki jamiyat uchun kollektiv sifatida ishlashlari kerak. Ko'pchilik Sovet Ittifoqida o'qigan, ular ham texnologiyani uzatgan. The Madaniy inqilob, qabul qilinganlarni olib tashlashga intilgan "burjua "ta'sirlar va qarashlar, katta salbiy ta'sirlarni va buzilishlarni keltirib chiqardi. Boshqa choralar qatorida ilmiy hamjamiyat va rasmiy ta'limga hujum qilingan, ziyolilar qo'l mehnati bilan shug'ullanish uchun yuborilgan, universitetlar va akademik jurnallar yopilgan, tadqiqotlarning aksariyati to'xtagan va deyarli o'n yil davomida Xitoy yangi olimlar va muhandislar tayyorlamadi.^[6]

Keyin Mao Szedun vafot etganligi sababli, S&T kompaniyasi biri sifatida tashkil etilgan To'rtta modernizatsiya 1976 yilda. Yangi rahbar Den Syaoping va arxitektori Xitoy iqtisodiy islohoti, S&Tning kuchli targ'ibotchisi bo'lgan va madaniy inqilob siyosatini o'zgartirgan. Sovet ilhomlantirgan tizim keyinchalik asta-sekin isloh qilindi. OAV S&T, ilmiy fikrlash va ilmiy yutuqlarning qadrini targ'ib qila boshladi.^[6] The uchinchi va to'rtinchi avlodlar etakchilar deyarli faqat texnik kelib chiqishi bilan kelgan.

The Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Davlat kengashi 1995 yilda kelgusi o'n yilliklar uchun rejalashtirilgan Fan va Texnologiyalarni rivojlantirishni tavsiflovchi "S&T rivojlanishini tezlashtirish to'g'risida qaror" chiqardi. Unda S&T asosiy ishlab chiqaruvchi kuch sifatida tavsiflanib, iqtisodiy taraqqiyot, ijtimoiy taraqqiyot, milliy kuch va turmush darajasiga ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda. S&T bozor ehtiyojlari bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lishi kerak. Nafaqat sovet uslubidagi institutlar, balki universitetlar va xususiy sanoat sohalarida ham tadqiqot olib borishlari kerak. Davlat muassasalari tuzilishi kerak qo'shma korxonalar xitoy yoki chet el bilan venchur kapitali S&T ishlanmalari sanoatga etib borishi uchun. Shaxsiy S&T kasbiy jihatdan harakatchan bo'lishi kerak, ish haqi iqtisodiy natijalar bilan bog'liq bo'lishi kerak va shaxsiy qarorlar uchun yoshi va ish staji ahamiyatsiz bo'lishi kerak. Intellektual mulk huquqlarga rioya qilish kerak. Axborot almashinuvi yaxshilanishi kerak, loyihalar bo'yicha raqobat va ochiq savdolar bo'lishi kerak. Atrof muhitni muhofaza qilish kerak. Ba'zi muhim sohalarda Xitoyning mahalliy ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlari ayniqsa targ'ib qilinishi kerak. Davlat xizmatchilari S&T haqidagi tushunchalarini yaxshilashi va S&T ni qaror qabul qilishda ishtirok etishi kerak. Jamiyat, shu jumladan, Kommunistik partiya yoshlar tashkilotlari, mehnat jamoalari va ommaviy axborot vositalari, bilim va insoniy iste'dodlarga hurmatni faol ravishda targ'ib qilishi kerak.^[10]

Ning ichki diagrammasi astronomik soat elektr energiyasi ning Kaifeng xususiyatli Su Song 1092 yil yozilgan va nashr etilgan kitobi bosma shaklda 1094 yilga kelib.

XIII asr "uzun ilon" raketa uchuvchisi tasvirlangan. Kadrdagi teshiklar raketalarni 1510 yil nashridan ajratib turish uchun mo'ljallangan Vujing Zongyao.

Cheksiz quvvat uzatuvchi zanjir haydovchisining eng qadimgi tasviri. U soat minorasining asosiy harakatlantiruvchi milini armilyar shar tishli qutisiga ulash uchun ishlatilgan.

So'nggi 30 yil ichida Xitoy asosiy e'tiborni jismoniy qurilishga qaratdi infratuzilma yo'llar va portlar kabi. So'nggi o'n yillikning bir siyosati chet el kompaniyalari Xitoy bozoriga kirishlari uchun texnologiya uzatishni so'rash edi. Hozir Xitoy mahalliy innovatsiyalarni tobora ko'proq nishonga olmoqda.^[11] Ushbu davr mobaynida Xitoy innovatsion infratuzilmani rivojlantirishga muvaffaq bo'ldi, mamlakatning ko'plab hududlarida 100 dan ortiq ilmiy texnika parklarini tashkil etish bilan bir qatorda davlat sektoridan tashqarida tadbirkorlikni rag'batlantirishga muvaffaq bo'ldi. Yip va McKern, xitoylik firmalar uch bosqichda rivojlanib, ularning innovatsion qobiliyatlari pishib yetganligi va 2017 yilga kelib ularning aksariyati jahon standartlariga mos kelishini ta'kidlaydilar. Ular endi Xitoy bozorida va tobora ko'proq tashqi bozorlarda kuchli raqobatchilar bo'lib, u erda mahalliy operatsiyalarni yo'lga qo'yishmoqda.^[12]

Texn-millatchilik

"Texn-millatparvarlik" atamasi dastlab AQShda 1980-yillarda qo'llanilgan bo'lsa, keyinchalik ko'plab mamlakatlarda, xususan Osiyoda millatchilik texnologiyalari siyosatini tavsiflash uchun ishlatilgan.^[13] Xitoy texno-millatchiligi 19-asrda rivojlangan mamlakatlarning qo'lida mamlakatni xo'rlashida yotadi. Darhaqiqat, Xitoy rahbarlari (boshqa davlatlar singari) uzoq vaqtdan beri ilmiy texnika taraqqiyotini iqtisodiy farovonlik, milliy xavfsizlik va milliy obro'ga erishish uchun hayotiy deb hisoblashgan. Mahalliy texnologik etishmasligi intellektual mulk va innovatsiyalar asosiy milliy muammolar sifatida qaraladi. Shunday qilib, XXI asrda Xitoyda "mahalliy innovatsiyalar" va texnologik rivojlanishni rivojlantirishga qaratilgan bir qator markaziy hukumat tashabbuslari ko'rildi. Ilm-fan va texnologiyalarni rivojlantirish bo'yicha milliy o'rta va uzoq muddatli dastur (2006–20), rivojlanayotgan strategik sanoat tashabbusi, Internet plyus tashabbusi va Made in China 2025 dasturi va boshqalar.

Ushbu tashabbuslar orqali Xitoy davlati milliy texnologik taraqqiyotni rivojlantirish va boshqa mamlakatlarga bo'lgan ishonchni kamaytirish uchun iqtisodiyotga turli yo'llar bilan aralashdi. Birinchi o'ringa qo'yilgan sanoat va firmalar himoya qilinadi va boshqariladi. Chet el texnologiyalari va intellektual xususiyatlarini mahalliy texnologiyalar bilan almashtirish bo'yicha tizimli ishlar olib borilmoqda. Chet el kompaniyalariga texnologiyani uzatish va ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlarini Xitoyga ko'chirish uchun ko'plab imtiyozlar beriladi. Shu bilan birga, mahalliy kompaniyalarning texnologik qobiliyatlari har xil tarzda qo'llab-quvvatlanadi. Bunday siyosat Xitoy bilan rivojlangan davlatlar, xususan AQSh o'rtasida katta mojaroni keltirib chiqardi, ammo Xitoy ko'pincha siyosatiga qarshi chiqqanda moslashuvchanligini isbotladi.^[14]

Millatchilik va millatparvarlik yutuqlari rejim uchun asosiy mafkuraviy asos va ijtimoiy yopishtiruvchi omil sifatida qaraldi Marksizm ta'sirini yo'qotadi. Ba'zi ilm-fan va texnologiyalar mega-loyihalari Xitoyning davlat tomonidan nazorat qilinadigan ommaviy axborot vositalari bilan Xitoyning yutuqlari haqidagi xabarlar bilan to'ldirilgan holda tashviqot maqsadida qilingan shubhali kubok loyihalari sifatida qaraldi.^[15][16] 2019 yilda Xitoy hukumati yaqin uch yil ichida davlat idoralarida o'rnatilgan barcha xorijiy kompyuter apparatlari va operatsion tizimlarini almashtirishga buyruq bergani haqida xabarlar paydo bo'ldi.^{[17][18][19][20][21]} Boshqa hisobotlarda Xitoy hukumati texnologik firmalar uchun subsidiyalarni ko'paytirishi aytilgan.^[22]

Ilmiy tadqiqotlar va ishlanmalarga sarflangan yalpi ichki xarajatlar

Unda Ilm-fan va texnologiyalarni rivojlantirishning o'rta va uzoq muddatli rejasi (2006–2020), Xitoy 2020 yilgacha YaIMning 2,5 foizini ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlanmalariga bag'ishlashni o'z oldiga maqsad qilib qo'ydi. 2003-2012 yillarda tadqiqot va ishlanmalarga (GERD) yalpi ichki xarajatlar YaIMning 1,13 foizidan 1,98 foizigacha ko'tarildi. mamlakat o'z maqsadiga erishish yo'lida ekanligi.^[23]

Tadqiqot firmasi Battelle 2023 yilga kelib Xitoyning GERD darajasi AQShnikidan oshib ketishini taxmin qilmoqda.^[24] Biroq, Battelning bashoratining to'g'riligiga bir nechta konvergent omillar shubha tug'dirmoqda: Xitoyning 2014 yildagi iqtisodiy o'sish sur'atlarining pasayishi, 2012 yildan beri sanoat ishlab chiqarishining sezilarli pasayishi va 2015 yil o'rtalarida asosiy fond bozori pasayishi. O'n yil davomida jadal rivojlanib, GERD 2015 yilda YaIMning 2,07% darajasida barqarorlashdi.^[25]

YuNESKO statistika instituti ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, Xitoy 2015 yilda umumiy tadqiqot xarajatlarining 5,1 foizini asosiy tadqiqotlarga ajratdi. So'nggi o'n yil ichida bu o'rtacha 4,8% dan, lekin 2004 yildagiga nisbatan kamroq (6,0%). Eksperimental ishlab chiqishga yo'naltirilgan uzoq muddatli siyosat Xitoyning tadqiqot xarajatlarining to'rtdan uch qismini o'z ichiga olgan korxonalarga olib keldi (2015 yilda ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlariga sarf qilingan xarajatlarning 77%). Korxonalar tajriba-konstruktorlik ishlariga e'tibor qaratmoqdalar, bu 2015 yilga kelib ularning tadqiqotlarga sarflangan umumiy xarajatlarining 97 foizini tashkil etdi.^[25] Ishbilarmon korxonalar 2000 yilda GERDning 60 foizini va 2008 yilda 74 foizini qo'shdilar. 2004 yilda GERDning 74 foizi eksperimental ishlab chiqishga kirishdi.^[26] Xitoy 2020 yilgacha asosiy tadqiqotlarning ulushini tadqiqotlarga sarflanadigan mablag'larning 15 foiziga etkazishni maqsad qilgan.^[11][23]

Institutlar

The Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Davlat kengashi Xitoyning eng yuqori ma'muriy organidir. Darhol uning ostida ilm-fan va texnologiyaning turli jihatlari bilan shug'ullanadigan bir nechta vazirliklar va vazirlik darajasidagi tashkilotlar joylashgan.^[27] Davlat kengashining yirik ilmiy organlar rahbarlaridan tashkil topgan Fan va ta'lim bo'yicha etakchi guruhi milliy siyosatni tartibga solishga harakat qilmoqda. Umumiy muvofiqlashtirishning samaradorligi turli idoralar bilan vazifalar va resurslar uchun raqobatdoshlik bir-biriga o'xshashligi, ba'zan esa isrofgarchilik bilan takrorlanish bilan shug'ullanishi kabi savollar berildi.^[28]

The Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Fan va texnologiyalar vazirligi ilgari Davlat Ilmiy va Texnologiya Komissiyasi asosan fan va texnologiya strategiyasi va siyosati uchun mas'ul bo'lgan organ hisoblanadi. Shuningdek, u milliy tadqiqot dasturlarini, ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlanmalarini rivojlantirish zonalarini va xalqaro hamkorlikni boshqaradi. The Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Ta'lim vazirligi universitetlarda ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlari bilan bir qatorda ta'limni ham nazorat qiladi. Kabi boshqa bir qancha vazirliklar Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Sanoat va axborot texnologiyalari vazirligi, Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Sog'liqni saqlash vazirligi, va Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Qishloq xo'jaligi vazirligi S&T bilan ham shug'ullanishadi.^[27]

Falsafa va ijtimoiy fanlar milliy rejalashtirish idorasi ijtimoiy fanlar va falsafani rejalashtirishga rahbarlik qiladi.

The Xitoy Fanlar akademiyasi (CAS) Xitoyning ilmiy elitasi a'zo bo'lgan Xitoyda eng nufuzli professional ilmiy tashkilotdir. U ko'plab ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlarini, tadqiqot dasturlarini, bitiruvchilarni tayyorlash dasturlarini boshqaradi va ta'sirchan maslahatlar beradi. The Xitoy muhandislik akademiyasi (CAE) muhim maslahatlarni beradi, ammo CASdan farqli o'laroq o'zining ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlari mavjud emas.^[27] The Xitoy ijtimoiy fanlar akademiyasi (CASS) ijtimoiy fanlar va falsafa uchun CASga o'xshash rol o'ynaydi. Kabi ko'plab tor akademiyalar mavjud Xitoy baliqchilik fanlari akademiyasi.

The Xitoy Milliy Tabiatshunoslik Jamg'armasi (NSFC) keyinchalik alohida tadqiqotchilarga grantlar beradi taqriz.^[28]

The Xalq ozodlik armiyasining umumiy qurollanish boshqarmasi harbiy ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlarini boshqaradi.

Ga tegishli bo'lgan milliy ilmiy va akademik tashkilotlar Xitoyning fan va texnologiyalar assotsiatsiyasi ilmiy va texnologik tadqiqotlarda ham muhim kuchlardir.

Xitoy Ilmiy Jurnalistika Jamiyati Xitoy Texnik Aloqa Jamiyatiga rahbarlik qiladi, Xitoyning birinchi hukumati tomonidan tasdiqlangan texnik aloqa uyushmasi. 2002 yildan beri guruh har yili konferentsiyalar o'tkazib kelmoqda.^[29]

Tadqiqotlar davlat ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlari, oliy o'quv yurtlari va xususiy korxonalar tomonidan amalga oshiriladi.^[28]

Mahalliy o'zini o'zi boshqarish organlari ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlarini moliyalashtirishda tobora muhim ahamiyat kasb etmoqda va endi davlat xarajatlarining yarmigacha o'z hissasini qo'shishi mumkin. Ilmiy tadqiqotlar va yuqori texnologiyali sanoat uchun kuchli raqobat ba'zan isrofgarchilikni keltirib chiqaradigan ortiqcha quvvatni yaratishi, bir necha joylarda yaxshiroq markazlashtirilgan sa'y-harakatlarning tarqalishi va tez orada eskirgan texnologiyalarni yomon baholangan byurokratik subsidiyalashni keltirib chiqaradi.^[28][30]

Milliy dasturlar

2010 yildan boshlab Xitoyning milliy ilmiy-tadqiqot dasturlari quyidagilarni o'z ichiga olgan:^[28]

• Asosiy texnologiyalar dasturi (2006 yilda "zhicheng" yoki "Support" deb o'zgartirilgan)
• Milliy yuqori texnologiyalar dasturi (863 Dastur )
• Milliy asosiy tadqiqot dasturi (973 Dastur )
• Uchqun dasturi - Qishloq texnologiyasi
• Torch dasturi - maxsus yuqori texnologik zonalar va inkubatorlar yaratish orqali yangi texnologiyalarni tijoratlashtirish
• Asosiy laboratoriyalar dasturi
• Muhandislik tadqiqotlari markazlari
• Davlat kaliti va yangi mahsulot dasturi
• Kichik va o'rta korxonalar uchun innovatsion fond
• Ilmiy-tadqiqot institutlari uchun maxsus texnologiyalarni rivojlantirish loyihasi
• Ilm-fan va texnologiyalar bo'yicha savdoni rivojlantirish bo'yicha tadbirlar rejasi
• Milliy yangi mahsulotlar dasturi
• Qishloq xo'jaligi texnikasini o'tkazish fondi

2010 yilda yirik milliy dasturlar davlat tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlarining 15-20 foizini tashkil qildi. Ular belgilangan tanlov tanlovi tartibidan so'ng universitetlarda, institutlarda va korxonalarda tadqiqotlarni moliyalashtirdilar. Muhim loyiha bir nechta dasturlardan mablag 'olishi mumkin. Dasturlar, shubhasiz, kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatdi, shuningdek, janjal, korruptsiya va firibgarlikda ishtirok etdi. Ularni, asosan, innovatsiyalarni rivojlantirishga emas, balki lotin asarlarini ishlab chiqarishda ayblashdi va ular foydasiga loyihalarni tanlashda xizmatlarni e'tiborsiz qoldirishdi. kronizm. Xitoy o'zlarining samaradorligini ko'proq baholash va baholash kabi choralar yordamida yaxshilashga harakat qilmoqda.^[28]

Iqtisodiy va texnologik rivojlanish zonalari

Tyantszin iqtisodiy-texnologik rivojlanish zonasi.

Ning muvaffaqiyatiga asoslanib Xitoy Xalq Respublikasining maxsus iqtisodiy zonalari, Xitoy yaratdi Iqtisodiy va texnologik rivojlanish zonalari. Ularning maqsadi yuqori texnologiyalarni rivojlantirish, xorijiy investitsiyalarni jalb qilish, eksport hajmini oshirish va mintaqa iqtisodiyotini yaxshilashdir. Ular juda muvaffaqiyatli bo'lgan va dastlabki o'n to'rtdan ellik to'rtgacha kengaytirilgan deb hisoblanadi.^[31]

Ta'lim va ilmiy-tadqiqot ishchilari

Xalqaro talabalarni baholash dasturi
2009 yilgi eng yaxshi 10 mamlakat uchun natijalar^[32]

Rank	Matematika		Fanlar		O'qish
1.	Shanxay, Xitoy	600	Shanxay, Xitoy	575	Shanxay, Xitoy	556
2.	Singapur	562	Finlyandiya	554	Janubiy Koreya	539
3.	Gonkong, Xitoy	555	Gonkong, Xitoy	549	Finlyandiya	536
4.	Janubiy Koreya	546	Singapur	542	Gonkong, Xitoy	533
5.	Tayvan	543	Yaponiya	539	Singapur	526
6.	Finlyandiya	541	Janubiy Koreya	538	Kanada	524
7.	Lixtenshteyn	536	Yangi Zelandiya	532	Yangi Zelandiya	521
8.	Shveytsariya	534	Kanada	529	Yaponiya	520
9.	Yaponiya	529	Estoniya	528	Avstraliya	515
10.	Kanada	527	Avstraliya	527	Gollandiya	508

Xitoylik talabaning xalqaro talabalarni baholash testidagi birinchi ishtirokida, 2009 yil Xalqaro talabalarni baholash dasturi, Dan 15 yoshli talabalar Shanxay barcha uchta toifadagi birinchi o'rinni egalladi: matematika, fan va o'qish. Xitoylik talabalar matematikadan boshqa xalqlar bilan taqqoslaganda ayniqsa yaxshi natijalarga erishdilar. Xitoylik natijalarni tushuntirishlaridan biri ta'lim va raqobatbardosh imtihonlarga urg'u beradigan madaniyat va sport kabi ishlarda kam qatnashgani uchun qisman o'qishga ko'proq vaqt ajratish bo'lishi mumkin. O'qituvchilik oliy maqom kasbiga aylandi. Shuningdek, muhim ta'lim islohotlarini amalga oshirgan sanoatlashgan Shanxay butun Xitoy uchun vakili bo'lmasligi mumkin. Sinov paytida aldash yoki texnik muammolarga oid hech qanday dalil bo'lmasa-da, Xitoyning qolgan qismidan ko'plab muhojirlarni jalb qiladigan Shanxay, ayniqsa, yaxshi talabalarga shaharda o'qishga ruxsat bergan bo'lishi mumkin va talabalarga bu sinov Xitoyning imidji uchun muhim bo'lganligi aytilgan bo'lishi mumkin . The OECD test direktori, Andreas Shleyxer, natijalar hayratga solishi kutilganligini va OECD Shanxay ballarini olgandan keyin xalqaro ekspertlar tomonidan aniqligi tekshirilganligini aytdi. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, natijalar "Xitoyda faqat uzoqdan o'rganishni keltirib chiqaradi degan keng tarqalgan farazni rad etadi" va "bu talabalarning katta fraktsiyalari o'zlarining bilganlaridan ekstrapolyatsiya qilish qobiliyatini namoyish etadi va yangi vaziyatlarda o'z bilimlarini juda ijodiy qo'llaydi".^[33] Uning fikricha, Xitoy yoddan o'qish bilan o'rganishdan uzoqlashdi.^[34] Shleyxerning so'zlariga ko'ra, Rossiya piksellar sonini baholashda yaxshi natijalarga erishmoqda, ammo PISAda emas, Xitoy ham yodgorliklarga asoslangan, ham kengroq baholarda yaxshi natijalarga erishmoqda.^[35] 2018 yilda to'rtta yirik mintaqalar (Pekin, Shanxay, Tszansu va Chjetszyan ) Xitoyda o'qish, matematika va tabiatshunoslik bo'yicha reytingda birinchi o'rinni egalladi^[36] va Xitoyning maktab o'quvchilari endi dunyodagi eng aqlli.^[37] Xitoy o'rta maktab o'quvchilari bir necha marotaba g'olib bo'lishdi oltin medallar har yili doimiy ravishda ko'pchilikda Xalqaro fan olimpiadalari musobaqalari kabi Xalqaro biologiya olimpiadasi,^[38] The Astronomiya va astrofizika bo'yicha xalqaro olimpiada,^[39] The Informatika bo'yicha xalqaro olimpiada,^[40] The Xalqaro Yer fanlari olimpiadasi,^[41] The Xalqaro matematik olimpiada,^[42] The Xalqaro fizika olimpiadasi^[43] va Xalqaro kimyo olimpiadasi.^[44]

Xitoy ilmiy-tadqiqot va tajriba-konstruktorlik ishchilari uchun dunyodagi eng katta manbalardan biriga aylandi. 2000-2008 yillarda muhandislar va olimlar soni ikki baravar ko'paydi va 1,59 million kishiga etdi. Aholining soniga nisbatan bu AQSh va Yaponiya kabi yirik rivojlangan davlatlar bilan taqqoslaganda hali ham past, ammo bu farq tezda yo'q bo'lib bormoqda.^[26] Ilm-fan va muhandislik bo'yicha doktorlik mukofotlari soni 90-yillarning boshlaridan beri o'n baravar oshdi.^[45] 1998-2007 yillarda umuman universitetlarda talabalar soni 1 milliondan 5,4 milliongacha o'sdi.^[11] 2009 yilning o'zida Xitoy 10000 dan ortiq mahsulot ishlab chiqardi Ph.D. muhandislik bitiruvchilari va 500 mingga yaqin BSc muhandislik, matematika, axborot texnologiyalari va kompyuter fanlari bitiruvchilari - boshqa mamlakatlarga qaraganda ko'proq.^[46]

The C9 ligasi, Xitoynikiga o'xshash Ivy League, bu yuqori miqdordagi milliy tadqiqot mablag'larini oladigan va milliy tadqiqot natijalarining katta qismini ishlab chiqaradigan Xitoyning to'qqizta elita universitetlarining ittifoqidir.

Xitoy universitetlari patentlarning g'ayrioddiy ulushiga ega. Universitetlar ilmiy korxonalar tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan va ishlab chiqilgan pullarning yarmiga yaqini xususiy korxonalardan olinadi.^[11]

To'qqiz a'zodan sakkiztasi Siyosiy byuroning doimiy qo'mitasi ning Xitoy Kommunistik partiyasi (CCP) muhandislik darajalariga ega, shu jumladan CCP bosh kotibi Xu Tszintao.^[11]

1978 yildan buyon 2,25 million talaba chet elda tahsil oldi. 2011 yilda 340 ming kishi chet elda tahsil oldi, bu o'tgan yilga nisbatan 20 foizga oshdi. Xususan, so'nggi yillarda sodir bo'lgan 818,400 kishi Xitoyga qaytib keldi. 2011 yilda 186,200 kishi Xitoyga qaytib keldi, bu o'tgan yilga nisbatan 38 foizga o'sdi. Xitoyga qaytib kelgan yuqori darajadagi chet ellik o'qimishli xitoyliklar uchun bir nechta imtiyozlar mavjud. Talabalar endi qaytmoqdalar, chunki ilgari ko'pchilik chet elda qolgandan ko'ra, ish joylari ko'payganligi sababli, Xitoyda ish yo'qligi sababli.^[47] 2009 yilgi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, xitoylik talabalarning atigi 10% viza cheklovlari, ish topish imkoniyatining etishmasligidan qo'rqish va AQShning o'sishi o'rtacha dunyo o'sish sur'atlaridan orqada qolishiga ishonish sababli AQShda qolishni rejalashtirmoqda. 52% eng yaxshi ish imkoniyatlari avvalgi tadqiqotlardan farqli o'laroq Xitoyda ekanligiga ishonishgan. 74% Xitoy iqtisodiyotining eng yaxshi kunlari kelayotganini his qilishdi. 68% biznesni boshlashga mo'ljallangan.^[48] Qaytib kelgach, chet ellik o'qimishli talabalar tez-tez ilmiy tadqiqotlar va ishlab chiqarish uchun hal qiluvchi fan va texnologiya bilimlari, boshqaruv qobiliyatlari va innovatsion qobiliyatlarini taqdim etadilar. Yuqori texnologiyali kompaniyalarning yuqori menejmenti ko'pincha chet el ma'lumotli.^[49]

Xitoy diasporasi

Chet elda Xitoy, boshqalari uchun bo'lgani kabi diasporalar va ularning vatan, Xitoyning rivojlanishiga katta hissa qo'shdi. Ular tijorat faoliyati va jamoat notijorat hamkorligi orqali Xitoyga savdo, sarmoya va zamonaviy texnologiyalarni olib kelish uchun muhim kanal sifatida qaraldi.^[50] Chet eldagi yuqori ma'lumotli xitoyliklarni ishlashga qaytish uchun Xitoyga jalb qilish uchun "Brain Gain" dan foydalangan holda, Xitoy o'zining innovatsion ekotizimida sezilarli yaxshilanishlarni amalga oshirdi, ammo ushbu texnikaning qanchalik barqaror bo'lishi uchun ba'zi cheklovlar mavjud.

Sanoat josusligi

Maqsadlaridan biri Chet elda Xitoy razvedka faoliyati deb taxmin qilinmoqda sanoat josusligi shuningdek yutish harbiy texnologiyalar. Shuningdek, xususiy kompaniyalar josuslikda ayblanmoqda. Razvedka idoralari minglab G'arb kompaniyalari Xitoyda kuzatilishi mumkin bo'lgan ma'lumotlarning buzilishidan ta'sirlangan bo'lishi mumkin deb taxmin qilishmoqda.^[51]

Xalqaro hamkorlik

The Xitoy Internet-axborot markazi 2005 yilgi maqolada Xitoy 96 davlat bilan hukumatlararo kooperativ S&T shartnomalari, 152 davlatlar va mintaqalar bilan kooperativ S&T dasturlari va 1000 dan ortiq xalqaro S&T kooperativ tashkilotlarida ishtirok etganligini ta'kidladi. NNTlarning xalqaro almashinuvi va kooperativ faoliyati ko'paygan. The Xitoyning fan va texnologiyalar assotsiatsiyasi va tegishli tashkilotlar, shuningdek Xitoy Milliy Tabiatshunoslik Jamg'armasi ko'plab kooperativ xalqaro tashkilotlarda qatnashgan. Xitoylik tadqiqotchilar xalqaro tashkilotlarning ekspert qo'mitalarida 281 ta rahbar lavozimda ishladilar va 293 ta ijrochi a'zo-direktor va undan yuqori darajadagi lavozimlarda ishladilar.^[52]

Transmilliy korporatsiyalar tomonidan texnologiyalarni uzatish va ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlari

1980-yillarning boshlarida xorijiy kompaniyalar litsenziyalash shartnomalari va uskunalarni sotish orqali texnologiyani uzatishni boshladilar. Keyinchalik 1980-yillarda ko'pchilik transmilliy korporatsiyalar kirib texnologiyani uzatishni boshladi qo'shma korxonalar Xitoyda kengaytirish maqsadida xitoylik kompaniyalar bilan. 1990-yillarda Xitoy tobora takomillashib borayotgan qoidalarni joriy qildi chet el investitsiyalari texnologiya uzatish uchun Xitoy bozoriga kirish savdolari amalga oshirildi. Xitoyning kirishi Jahon savdo tashkiloti 2001 yilda ushbu amaliyot to'xtatilishini talab qildi, ammo tanqidchilar buni davom ettirishini ta'kidlamoqdalar. Xitoylik tanqidchilarning ta'kidlashicha, bunday texnologiya uzatish quvib o'tish uchun foydali bo'lishi mumkin, ammo yangi, zamonaviy texnologiyalarni yaratmaydi.^[28]

Xitoy transmilliy korporatsiyalarni Xitoyda ilmiy-tadqiqot markazlarini yaratishga tobora ko'proq rag'batlantirmoqda. Xitoylik tanqidchilarning ta'kidlashicha, chet elga tegishli AR-GE asosan chet el kompaniyalariga foyda keltiradi va ko'plab iste'dodli xitoylik tadqiqotchilarni mahalliy kompaniyalar va muassasalardan chetlashtiradi. Xitoylik tarafdorlar ta'kidlashlaricha, chet el ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlari mahalliy kompaniyalar uchun namuna va dalda bo'lib xizmat qiladi va malakali jamoalarni yaratadi, ulardan mehnat va bilimlar mahalliy kompaniyalarga osonlikcha kirib boradi. 2010 yilda 1200 ta bunday ilmiy-tadqiqot markazlari va 400 ta markaz mavjud edi Fortune 500 korporatsiyalar bunday ilmiy-tadqiqot markazlarini yaratgan edi. Korporatsiyalar bu mahsulotni Xitoy bozorining mahalliy talablariga moslashtirish uchun zarurat, shuningdek, mavjud bo'lgan ko'plab xitoylik muhandislar va olimlardan foydalanish uchun global raqobatbardoshlikni saqlash uchun juda zarur deb ta'kidladilar. Hozirda ko'p millatli korporatsiyalardan kelajakda ilmiy-tadqiqot markazlari qaysi mamlakatda joylashganligi ehtimoli yuqori bo'lganligi to'g'risida so'ralganda, Xitoy birinchi o'rinda turadi.^[28]

Innovatsiya

2005 yilgi hisobotda Xitoyning milliy innovatsion tizimidagi jiddiy kamchiliklar aniqlandi. S&T ishini natijaga aylantirishga yordam beradigan xizmatlar bilan bog'liq muammolar mavjud edi va S&T-ni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun milliy mablag'larni ajratish maqbul darajada emas edi. Ba'zida tadqiqotchilar bozorga juda yaqinlashsalar, uzoqni ko'ra olmaydilar. Yana bir jiddiy muammo shundaki, jiddiy raqobatga duch kelayotgan kompaniyalar birinchi navbatda Xitoyda texnologiya va texnologiyalarni rivojlantirish salohiyatini rivojlantirishga sarmoya kiritishdan ko'ra, xorijiy texnologiyalarni sotib olishga intilishdi. Patentga arizalarning ko'pi o'rta korxonalardan kelib tushgan (70%), chunki kichik korxonalar tadqiqotga ozgina mablag 'sarflaydilar.^[53] Xitoyda hokimiyat juda hurmat qilinadigan va undan qo'rqadigan ierarxik, yuqoridan pastga yo'naltirilgan jamiyat ijodiy munozaralarni to'xtatishi mumkin.^[54]

Xitoy 2006 yilgi hisobotida innovatsiyalarni takomillashtirish siyosatini bayon qildi. Ular nanotexnologiyalar, yuqori darajadagi umumiy mikrochiplar, samolyotlar, biotexnologiyalar va yangi dorilar kabi 20 ta yirik megaproyektlarni o'z ichiga oladi. Bu a-da pastdan yuqoriga qarab yondashish bilan birlashtirilgan Silikon vodiysi kichik start-uplardan iborat model, venchur kapitali va sanoat va universitetlar o'rtasidagi hamkorlik.^[55]

Shuningdek, Xitoy mavjud dizaynlarni kichik, innovatsion takomillashtirish bo'yicha dunyoda etakchi ekanligi ta'kidlandi. Masalan, dizaynini doimiy ravishda takomillashtirish quvvat manbalari ularni asta-sekin kichikroq, arzonroq va energiyani tejashga imkon beradi. Bu butunlay yangi mahsulotlarni yaratmasligi yoki sarlavhalarni yaratmasligi mumkin, ammo ish bilan ta'minlash uchun muhimroq bo'lishi mumkin.^[56][57]

2016 yil NBER qog'oz Xitoy iqtisodiyoti tobora innovatsion bo'lib kelayotganligini aniqladi.^[58] Tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, Xitoyda ishchi kuchi narxining oshishi va "jahon iqtisodiyotidagi bozor imkoniyatlarining kengayishi" innovatsiyalarni harakatga keltiruvchi asosiy omil bo'lgan.^[58] Tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, davlat kompaniyalari juda katta miqdordagi subsidiyalar olgan bo'lishiga qaramay, davlat kompaniyalari xususiy firmalarga qaraganda kamroq innovatsion ish olib borishgan.^[58]

Xarid qilish

Yuqori texnologiyali mahsulotlarning yirik xaridorlari bo'lgan Xitoyning markaziy hukumati 2009 yilda unga sotadigan kompaniyalardan xitoylik innovatsiyalarni targ'ib qilishni va sotilayotgan mahsulotlarning chet el intellektual mulkidan xoli bo'lishini talab qilib, ziddiyatli siyosatni taklif qildi.^[55] Keyinchalik eng munozarali qismlar qaytarib olindi, ammo mahalliy Xitoy hukumatlari mahalliy innovatsiyalarni rag'batlantirish uchun xaridlardan foydalanishda davom etmoqda.^[28]

Intellektual mulk

Ushbu maqola bo'lishi kerak yangilangan. Sabab berilgan: bu erdagi manbalarning aksariyati 2011 yilga tegishli va shu vaqtdan beri ko'plab voqealar sodir bo'ldi. Iltimos, ushbu voqeani so'nggi voqealarni yoki yangi mavjud ma'lumotlarni aks ettirish uchun yangilang. (2018 yil dekabr)

Samarali himoya qilish intellektual mulk zaif deb ko'rilgan. Bu mahalliy innovatsiyalarni susaytirishi va tizimni kuchaytirishga qaratilgan sa'y-harakatlar amalga oshirilganligi tobora ortib bormoqda.^[28]

Xitoy chet el intellektual mulkini himoya qilmaslikda va bunday texnologiyalarni nusxalashga va xitoylik intellektual mulk deb da'vo qilishga jimgina ruxsat berishda ayblanmoqda,^[55][59] va hatto xorijiy texnologik intellektual mulkni korporatsiyalardan Xitoy kompaniyalariga o'tkazishni bevosita osonlashtirish.^[60] Kompaniyalar Xitoy hukumatiga ko'plab texnologiyalarning ichki ishlarini nomidan oshkor qilishlari shart milliy xavfsizlik va Xitoy xavfsizlik kuchlarini ushbu texnologiyani noqonuniy ravishda fuqarolik ishlab chiqarishlari bilan bo'lishishda ayblashdi.^[61]

Patentlar

2011 yilda Xitoy eng ko'p ariza topshirgan davlatga aylandi Patent ilovalar. Biroq, bu qisman hukumat kompaniyalarga patent berish to'g'risidagi arizalarni topshirish uchun imtiyozlar berishini oxir-oqibat berilganidan qat'i nazar aks ettiradi. Xitoy kompaniyalari tomonidan berilgan patent talabnomalarining ulushi 2006 yildagi 52 foizdan kam bo'lgan 2010 yildan 73 foizgacha ko'tarildi. Jahon intellektual mulk tashkiloti Ma'lumotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, xitoylik kompaniyalar chet elda joylashgan patentlarga nisbatan xitoylik kompaniyalar hozirda ikki va to'rtta alohida kompaniyalar tomonidan berilgan patent talabnomalari bo'yicha to'rtinchi o'rinni egallashgan. Xitoy iqtisodiyotni "Xitoyda ishlab chiqarilgan" dan "Xitoyda ishlab chiqilgan" ga va shartnomaviy ishlab chiqarishdan to mavjudlikka o'zgartirishni maqsad qilgan brendning nomi natijada foyda darajasi yaxshilangan kompaniyalar.^[62]

Yaqinda olingan ma'lumotlarga ko'ra Intellektual mulkning jahon ko'rsatkichlari, Xitoyning patent idorasi 2018 yilda 1,54 million patent talabnomalarini qabul qildi, bu dunyo bo'ylab patent talablarining deyarli yarmini tashkil etadi, bu AQShdan ikki baravar ko'pdir.^[63][64] Jenevada joylashgan xalqaro rasmga yoki patentga qaradi Jahon intellektual mulk tashkiloti (BIMT) ballari, 2019 yilda Xitoy BIMTga berilgan xalqaro patent talabnomalarining asosiy manbai sifatida AQShni ortda qoldirdi. Xitoylik abituriyentlar 58990 ta patentga talabnoma topshirdilar, so'ngra AQShdan 57840 ta talabnoma.^[65]

Bundan tashqari, Xitoy tez sur'atlar bilan rivojlanayotgan bo'lsa-da, chet elda berilgan patentlar soni bo'yicha AQSh, Yaponiya va Evropa Ittifoqini ta'qib qilmoqda. Jahon intellektual mulk tashkilotining ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, AQShda 2018 yilda chet elda berilgan 230,085 ekvivalent patent talabnomalari, undan keyin Yaponiya (206,739), Germaniya (106,753), Koreya Respublikasi (69,459) va Xitoy (66,429).^[66] Patent talabnomalarini aholi soniga moslashtirish bo'yicha Xitoy Janubiy Koreya, Yaponiya va Shveytsariyadan ortda qolmoqda. Janubiy Koreya har million aholiga 3148 ta ekvivalent patent talabnomalari bilan etakchilikni davom ettirmoqda, Yaponiya (2000), Shveytsariya (1081) va Xitoy (1001).^[67]

Standartlar

Innovatsiyalarni rag'batlantirish va chet el intellektual mulkidan qochish uchun Xitoy mahalliy aholini rivojlantirmoqda texnik standartlar. Bir misol TD-SCDMA 3G standart. Tanqidchilar buni qimmatga tushgan va 3G joriy etishni kechiktirgan deb hisoblashdi, tarafdorlar esa bu texnik qobiliyat va tajribani oshirdi, bu esa Xitoyning raqobatbardoshligini oshirdi, deb ta'kidlamoqda. 4G.^[28] Uzoq muddatli evolyutsiya vaqtini ajratuvchi dupleks Xitoyning mahalliy 4G standarti sifatida amalga oshirilmoqda.

Akademik nashr

The Qirollik jamiyati haqida 2011 yilgi hisobotda akademik nashr ingliz ilmiy tadqiqotlari ulushida birinchi bo'lib AQSh, keyin Xitoy, Buyuk Britaniya, Germaniya, Yaponiya, Frantsiya va Kanadani egallaganligini ta'kidladi. Hisobotda Xitoy 2020 yilgacha, ehtimol 2013 yildayoq Qo'shma Shtatlarni ortda qoldirishi bashorat qilingan edi. Science-Metrix, kanadalik ma'lumotlar tahlili kompaniyasi, 2010 yilda Xitoy shuncha tabiiy va muhandislik fanlarini nashr etishini bashorat qilgan ekspertlar tomonidan ko'rib chiqilgan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari kabi hujjatlar. 2015 yilda Xitoy barcha sohalar bo'yicha AQSh kabi ko'plab maqolalarni nashr etishi kutilmoqda. 2030 yilda Xitoy hayot va ijtimoiy fanlar bo'yicha AQShdan oshib ketishi taxmin qilinmoqda.^[68] 2017 yilda Xitoy eng ko'p ilmiy nashrlari bilan AQShni ortda qoldirmoqda.^[69]

Tahlil ISI veb-ma'lumotlari Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, Xitoy eng ko'p keltirilgan ilmiy maqolalar ulushini 2001 yildagi 1,85 foizdan 2011 yilda 11,3 foizga oshirgan. 2019 yilga kelib, Xitoy «juda keltirilgan tadqiqotchilar» jadvalida Buyuk Britaniyani ortda qoldirib, AQShdan keyin ikkinchi o'rinni egallab turibdi. Yillik ro'yxatni nashr etadigan fan.^[70] Xuddi shu hisobotga ko'ra, Xitoyning materialshunoslik, kimyo va muhandislik texnologiyalari sohasidagi tadqiqot ishlari so'nggi o'n yil ichida dunyoda eng ko'p keltirilgan.^[71] O'sha o'n yil ichida Qo'shma Shtatlarning ulushi 64,3% dan 50,7% gacha kamaydi.^[72]

2009 yilda Xitoy ijtimoiy fanlarini o'rganish Ijtimoiy fanlar bo'yicha ma'lumotlarning ko'rsatkichlari 1999 yilgacha sekin o'sishni topdi. 1999-2007 yillarda juda tez o'sish kuzatildi. Biroq, 2007 yilda Xitoy tadqiqotlarning faqat 1,39 foiziga o'z hissasini qo'shgan va Xitoy materikasi 2006 yilda faqatgina Gonkongdan o'zib ketgan. Iqtisodiyot va biznes ijtimoiy, siyosiy va kommunikatsion fan va psixologiyaga qaraganda ko'proq ulushga ega edi. Tabiatshunoslik bilan taqqoslaganda ijtimoiy fanlarning ulushi pastligi bu Osiyo xalqlarida odatiy hol, Xitoylik ijtimoiy olimlarning indeksga kiritilmagan milliy jurnallarda nashr etishi va xalqaro jurnallarda nashr etilishi bilan bog'liq martaba undaydiganligi va davlat mafkurasi ekanligini aks ettirishi mumkin. va tabiatshunoslikdan ko'ra, ijtimoiy fanlar uchun nazorat muhimroqdir. Xitoyda tabiiy fanlar tomonidan boshqariladi Fan va texnologiyalar vazirligi ijtimoiy fanlarni falsafa va ijtimoiy fanlar milliy rejalashtirish idorasi boshqaradi, bu esa intizomlararo hamkorlikka xalaqit berishi mumkin.^[73] 1999–2018 yillar davomida Xalqaro Xitoyda nashr etilgan Ijtimoiy Ilmiy Ko'rsatkichlar (SSCI) maqolalarining ulushi vaqt o'tishi bilan o'sib borayotgan bo'lsa-da, 2018 yilda Sharqiy Evropa (25 foiz atrofida) va G'arbiy Evropaga nisbatan bu dunyoning faqat 14 foizini tashkil etdi. (50 foiz atrofida).^[74]

Xitoyda nashr etilgan maqolalar, asosiy medial fan va klinik tadqiqotlar bilan bog'liq va indekslangan PubMed 2000-2009 yillarda har yili o'rtacha 31,2% va 22% ga o'sdi. Tasodifiy klinik sinov klinik tadqiqot maqolalarining 1/3 qismi edi. Biroq, 2009 yilda bu hali ham dunyo miqyosidagi klinik tadqiqot maqolalarining atigi 1,5 foizini va butun dunyo bo'ylab randomizatsiyalangan klinik sinovlarning 1,7 foizini tashkil etdi. Tibbiyot fakulteti talabalari uchun klinik tadqiqotlar va klinik tadqiqotlar bo'yicha tibbiyot shifokorlarini jalb qilish va qo'llab-quvvatlash muhiti kamchiliklarga ega.^[75]

8000 ta jurnal va 4600 tasi ilmiy sohalarda mavjud. Xitoyning deyarli barcha ilmiy tashkilotlari o'zlarining jurnallarini nashr etadilar. Hukumat ko'p sonli jurnallarga egalik qiladi yoki ularni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi, faqat oz sonli qismi xususiy mulkka tegishli. "nashr etish yoki yo'q qilish "tizim juda kam sifatli jurnallar va maqolalarga o'z hissasini qo'shishi mumkinligi haqida bahs yuritilgan plagiat va firibgarlik. Xitoy hukumati qat'iyroq qoidalarni joriy etdi, ayrim jurnallarni jazoladi yoki tugatdi va jurnallarning sifat nazorati va o'zaro baholash darajasini oshirishni hamda beshdan o'ngacha yirik nashriyot guruhlarini yaratishni maqsad qildi.^[76] Islohotlar doirasida 2012 yilda Xitoyning fan va texnologiyalar assotsiatsiyasi, which oversees 1,050 journals, in a declaration listed various forms of misconduct, plagiarism, and fraud and as well, the penalties for perpetrating them such as written warnings, blacklisting, contacting the researcher's home institution or funding agencies, or public disclosure. It has also been seen as important by increasing pressure on other journals and by informing editors who may not know that some actions such as favoring researchers based on personal relations are unacceptable. China also plans to give substantial financial incentives to top journals based on factors such as their Chinese and international ta'sir qiluvchi omil. It has been questioned if this will have an effect on the many poor quality journals who in return for money help researchers fill their institutional requirements for published papers.^[77]

Davlat korxonalari

Xitoy davlat korxonalari are owned by a variety of actors such as local governments and governmental agencies. They may benefit from advantages not available for smaller, more innovative firms which have been seen as problematic. In 2010 state owned enterprises won many biddings for renewable energy projects since they did not have worry about paying off investments for several decades and could ignore risks and costs. The owners may attempt to protect their enterprises from competition by regulations or otherwise use their influence in an unfair manner which may stifle more innovative, private competitors. Private enterprises surpassed stated owned enterprises during the 2002-2007 period regarding rapidity of increase of research spending, patent applications, and R&D laboratories. The number of research scientists and engineers increased rapidly in private enterprises while they declined in state owned enterprises.^[28]

Korruptsiya

Concerned about corruption in Chinese science,^[78] some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming (刘明) of Chjetszyan universiteti uning 2005 yilgi kitobida Critique of the Academic Evaluation System (学术评价制度批判), argue that interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes taqriz far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science.^[79] A 2008 investigation into a certification for high-tech enterprises allowing large tax breaks and other advantages found that more than 70% of the enterprises had gained this under questionable circumstances and an investigation of a sample found that 73% did not pass the requirements.^[28]

Mukofotlar

The Davlat fan va texnika mukofotlari shu jumladan Ilmiy va texnologik davlat mukofoti, are the highest honor in People's Republic of China in science and technology, in order to recognize citizens and organizations who have made remarkable contributions to scientific and technological progress, and to promote the development of science and technology.

Specific areas of R&D

Qiymat dollar ning yuqori texnologiya exports by country in 2009. The value of Chinese high-tech exports was more than twice that of any other nation.

The 13th Five-Year Plan for the National Economy and Social Development (2016–2020) will initiate the key Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project in the following key areas: aero-engines and gas turbines; a deep sea station; quantum communication and quantum computers; brain sciences and brain research. The project also encompasses nine other sub-projects, including an innovative

seed industry, smart grid, space-terrestrial information network, intelligent manufacturing and robots.^[80]

Qishloq xo'jaligi

There is a lack of arable land and water which means only new technology can increase the output of Xitoy qishloq xo'jaligi. Xitoy Kommunistik partiyasi former general secretary Tszyan Tsemin has therefore called for a "new revolution in agricultural science and technology."^[81] Restrictions and regulations concerning genetik jihatdan modifikatsiyalangan ovqatlar have been introduced or proposed after widespread public concern.^[82] China has been buying millions of foreign breeder animal as well as large amount of foreign semen and livestock embryos in order to rapidly improve the genetics of Chinese livestock.^[83] More advanced agricultural methods such as increasing use of pestitsidlar has contributed to concerns regarding the Xitoyda oziq-ovqat xavfsizligi.

Suv mahsulotlari yetishtirish va baliq ovlash

The oddiy karp (Cyprinus carpio).

2008 yilda fishing industry in China accounted for 34% of the global output. Xitoyda baliqchilik had more than twice the output of capture fishing and contributed 62.3% of the global aquaculture output.^[84] The rapid growth of aquaculture is in part due to Chinese research such as regarding the artificial breeding of karplar.^[85][86]

Chemistry, materials science and nanotechnology

A 2012 study found that China's share of academic papers in the field of nanotexnologiya had increased from less than 10% in 2000 to nearly a quarter in 2009 and had overtaken the United States for first position. However, China was less influential in the top three journals and regarding citations, suggesting a lesser quality.^[87] In terms of the density of publication, however, the United States remained ahead, with 68.76 articles on nanotechnology per million inhabitants, compared to 25.44 per million for China in 2014.^[23] China was in second place for the number of patents granted. A number of bodies have been created to establish national standards and ensure oversight.^[87]

According to the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, which is affiliated with the Ministry of Science and Technology, China contributed about one-quarter of all academic articles published around the world in materials science and chemistry and 17% of those published in physics between 2004 and 2014 but just 8.7% of those in molecular biology and genetics. This nevertheless represents a steep rise from just 1.4% of the world share of publications in molecular biology and genetics over 1999–2003.^[23][25]

Jinling oil refinery in Nankin.

KPMG in 2010 predicted that the Chinese kimyo sanoati will become world's largest producer by 2015. The Chinese government aims to make China self-sufficient regarding neft-kimyo va plastmassalar with the exception of the raw feedstock of oil and gas. The Chinese industry is increasing R&D in order to create higher value products using more advanced technology.^[88]

Deep sea exploration

China is developing its deep sea exploration capabilities, such as by the Jiaolong suv osti, with an eye to future applications such as chuqur dengiz qazib olish.^[89]

Electronics and information technology

In 2009 China manufactured 48.3% of the world's televisions, 49.9% of mobile phones, 60.9% of personal computers and 75% of LCD monitors. Indigenously made electronic components have become an important source of recent growth.

Sun'iy intellekt

On 8 July 2017, the Chinese State Council announced plans to turn China into the world leader in sun'iy intellekt (AI) by 2030, seeking to make the industry worth 1 trillion yuan.^[90] The State Council published a three-step yo'l xaritasi to that effect in which it outlined how it expects AI to be developed and deployed across a wide number of industries and sectors, such as in areas from the military to city planning.^[90] According to the road map, China plans to catch up to current AI world leaders' technological abilities by 2020, make major breakthroughs by 2025 and be the world leader in 2030.^[91][92]

Drones and robotics

China is the leader in dron technology, it is the first country in the world to create large scale transport drones, as well as the first to produce an amphibious drone. Chinese drone companies such as DJI va Ehang (Beijing Yi-Hang Creation Science & Technology) conquered majority of the civilian drone industry, with DJI alone dominating 85% of the global market share. Ehang also created the world's first flying taxi drone, Ehang 184, an ekologik toza low altitude autonomous aerial vehicle capable of providing transportation and medium distance communication.^{[93][94][95][96][97]}

Ba'zi mintaqalarda, masalan Pearl River deltasi, manufacturers have problems with labor shortages, raising wages, and higher expectations regarding work from more highly educated young people. This has increased the demand for sanoat robotlari. As of 2017, China is the largest user and producer of robototexnika technology, as well as the first country in the world to perform an avtomatlashtirilgan tish implantatsiyasi. It is the largest and fastest-growing robotics market in the world, and plans to manufacture at least 100,000 industrial robots annually by 2020.^{[98][99][100]}

Dasturiy ta'minot sanoati

The Chinese software industry in 2010 had a higher than 15% share of the world's software and information service market and had been growing by an average 36% each year during the previous decade. Chinese IT companies have been moving away from narrow downstream services and products to having a full range. China, with the active support of the Chinese government, is a leading pioneer in Internet narsalar texnologiya.^[101]

Ga ko'ra Xitoy Internet tarmog'i ma'lumot markazi there were 751 million Internet users as of 2017, with 53.2% of the population being internet users. The number of mobile internet users reached 724 million, with high penetration rates for mobil telefonlar va keng polosali internet.^[102][103] By 2017, China has the largest elektron tijorat market in the world, worth US$1.132 trillion, with a significant lead on other markets and almost tripling US market, the second largest.^[104]

In 2017, there were more than 1.36 billion mobile subscribers in China, with the number of fixed line subscriptions hitting 310 million. Soni 4G users increased significantly, hitting 932 million by August 2017.^{[105][106][107]} By 2020, China plans to adopt 5G network nationwide. Davlat mulki China Telecom has already deployed 5G-oriented C-RAN fronthaul network, unveiling that it will be conducting commercial trials of 5G technology in 2019 and carry out network field trials in six Chinese cities in the latest sign of China's determination to lead the global deployment of the next-generation mobile technology.^{[108][109][110]}

Mikroprotsessorlar

China has its own versions of microprocessors, manufactured and developed domestically, which are also used to build the world's most powerful supercomputers.

Superkompyuter

Xitoyda superkompyuter has expanded rapidly. Superkompyuter affects the possibility to do cutting-edge research in many areas such as design of farmatsevtika, kriptanaliz, tabiiy resurs razvedka, iqlim modellari va harbiy texnologiyalar. As of 2017, China had 202 of the 500 greatest superkompyuterlar in the world, far exceeding any other country (including the US which has 143), in addition to possessing the top 2 most powerful supercomputers.^[111][112] China is developing the capacity to manufacture the components domestically and plans to be the first to build an exascale supercomputer. China may also be planning to create much more powerful large-scale distributed supercomputing by connecting its supercomputer centers together.^[113] Tyanxe-1 was for a period in 2010-2011 the world's fastest supercomputer.^[114] 2013 yil iyun oyida, Tyanxe-2, the successor to Tianhe-1, took the crown from its predecessor. In 2016, China's new supercomputer, Sunway TaihuLight became the world's most powerful supercomputer, significantly surpassing Tianhe-2's capabilities by three folds, while using Chinese-made chips. This signals China's success not only in the supercomputing industry, but also its domestic chip-making technology.^[115][116]

Yarimo'tkazgichlar

Xitoy yarimo'tkazgich sanoati has despite extensive governmental support had many problems in areas such as innovative new designs. This may be due to factors such as poorly guided state and local government support for soon outdated technologies and geographically scattered efforts, lacking engineering education, and poor protection of intellectual property. This may change by factors such a new emphasis on market mechanisms rather than direct support, concentration of efforts, return of Chinese who have studied abroad, increased pressure on foreign companies to transfer technology, indigenous Chinese technological standards, and increased demands for indigenous technology in the local market.^{[30][117][118]}

The country has rapidly progressed in the semiconductor industry, while backing its largest chip maker and developer, Tsinghua Unigroup, with a US$150 billion funding to secure China's dominance in the semiconductor technology, and build a world-class semiconductor industry over the next 5 years.^{[119][120][121]}

Energiya

As China rapidly industrializes, power consumption and power generation are also increasing as well as research on these issues.

Power generation and transmission

Ko'mir is predicted to remain the most important power source in the near future and China has been seen as the world leader in toza ko'mir texnologiyasi.^{[122][123][124]} In 2009 China, become the world's largest investor in qayta tiklanadigan energiya texnologiyalar.^[125] Atom energiyasi is planned to be rapidly expanded with China wanting to maximize self-reliance in nuclear reactor technology manufacturing and design although international cooperation and technology transfer are also encouraged. Ilg'or bosimli suv reaktorlari kabi CPR-1000 va AP1000 are the mainstream technology for the near future. Keyinchalik very high temperature reactors, kabi pebble bed reactors, are a priority. By mid-century tez neytronli reaktorlar are seen as being the main technology.^[126]

China in 2012 intended to spend $100 billion on aqlli tarmoq technology during the next five years, to install 300 million aqlli hisoblagichlar before 2016, and to become the world leader in elektr energiyasini uzatish.^[127] Xitoyda ultra yuqori voltli elektr energiyasini uzatish is being introduced order to reduce uzatish yo'qotishlari.

is increasing focus on environmental concerns and renewable energy technology.^[128]

Ko'ngil ochish

The Xitoy animatsiyasi industry and access to the latest technology, such as 3D kompyuter tomonidan yaratilgan tasvirlar technology, is actively supported by the Chinese government and included in the latest national planning. In part, this may be because of a desire to increase Chinese yumshoq kuch. The same technology as in Hollywood is available and much keyingi ishlab chiqarish is outsourced to China. Successful indigenous artistic creativity is seen as a problem and may be restricted by factors such as production being aimed at getting government patronage rather than public approval, censorship, and some storylines based on Chinese culture not appealing to foreign audiences.^[129] DreamWorks animatsiyasi, in a joint venture with Chinese companies, will set up a studio in Shanghai that may eventually get bigger than DreamWorks HQ, in part to avoid to quota restrictions on foreign films with China within a decade having been predicted to become the world's biggest cinema and entertainment market.^[130][131] Disney has also entered into a partnership in order to help develop the Chinese animation industry.^[132]

The China Research Institute of Film Science & Technology and the China Film Group korporatsiyasi developed and in 2012 put into commercial use the DMAX kinofilm film formati as well as associated technologies. Bu raqobatdosh sifatida tasvirlangan IMAX and as laying the foundation for Chinese film projection technology using indigenous Chinese technology and intellectual property.^[133]

Environment-friendly technologies

Rapid industrialization has been accompanied by many ekologik muammolar va ko'tarilish pollution in China. One part of the Chinese response involves advanced technology such as the world's largest high-speed rail network and high fuel efficiency requirements for vehicles.^[134] China is rapidly expanding its chiqindi suv treatment systems and power plant emission reduction systems.^[135][136] Tufayli Xitoy suv inqirozi, as well as for future exports, China is building up its tuzsizlantirish technological abilities and plans to create an indigenous industry. Some cities have introduced extensive suvni tejash and recycling programmes and technologies.^[137]

Sog'liqni saqlash

Biotechnology and genetics

Monitor guruhi in a 2010 report predicted that China within a decade will become the world leader in discovery and innovation in hayot fanlari. Some research is seen as less controversial in China than elsewhere such as research regarding the genetic causes of intelligence. BGI, formerly Beijing Genomics Institute, has been described as having the world's largest DNKning ketma-ketligi inshootlar.^[113]

Ildiz hujayrasi tadqiqot va stem cell treatments are less controversial in Chinese culture which have supported Chinese research as well tibbiy turizm to China in order to receive experimental and often unproven therapies. In 2012 a regulatory crackdown was instituted which may increase the ability of the Chinese industry to get approval for sales of future therapies to other nations.^[138][139] More generally, China aims and has made progress towards becoming a world leader in regenerativ tibbiyot which also includes areas such as to'qima muhandisligi va gen terapiyasi.^[140]

China in 2011 stated that biotexnologiya (shu jumladan biopharmacy, biologik muhandislik, bio-agriculture and biomanufacturing) was a major priority for science and technology spending. Biotechnology will be used to enhance economic development as well as for improving Chinese environmental protection, nutrition, healthcare, and medicine. The Chinese governments expects biotechnology to add 1 million jobs during the 2011-2015 period.^[141]

Miya tadqiqotlari

On 22 March 2018, an agreement was signed establishing the Chinese Institute for Brain Science, Beijing.^[142] The launch of this institute may represent a significant departure from the current policy focus on applied research and development.^[25]

Once completed, the new brain institute will serve as a core facility for the country's planned project to study the human brain. The institute will not be part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Rather, it will collaborate with the academy, along with Beijing's other leading biomedical institutions, including Tsinghua University, Peking University and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences.^[25]

The new institute will probably receive funding both from the National Natural Science Foundation and from the mega-science programmes within the Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project. In March 2018, the government announced plans to place the National Natural Science Foundation under the Ministry of Science and Technology but the implications of this latest reorganization of science are unclear, as the two agencies have different missions in support of basic research.^[25]

Pharmaceuticals and medical technology

The bezgak dori artemisinin was developed by Chinese scientists from traditional Xitoy gerbologiyasi qaysi qismi an'anaviy xitoy tibbiyoti.

Merrill Linch predicted in 2011 that China would become the world's second largest pharmaceutical market in 2013 and the largest in 2020.^[143] Ijroiya boshlig'i Hoffmann-La Roche in 2012 stated a few years ago many Chinese life sciences scientists had to leave China but that many were now returning to conditions often better than in the West regarding laboratories, funding, and political support for the industry.^[144] Soxta dorilar have caused a number of scandals as well as being a problem for drug development and authorities have increased regulations and enforcement.^[145][146]

A 2011 report by PwC stated that a decade earlier China barely had any presence in the tibbiyot texnologiyasi industry but its abilities had been rapidly growing. China could well become more important than Europe by 2020.^[147]

Mashina asboblari

Development of advanced dastgoh asboblari, kabi kompyuter raqamli boshqarish machine tools, are seen as a priority and supported by the Chinese government. China is the world's leading producer and consumer of machine tools.^[148] A 2010 US government report stated that US export controls of advanced five axis machine tools were ineffectual due to the technical capabilities of Chinese and Tayvanliklar ishlab chiqaruvchilar.^[149]

Harbiy texnologiyalar

One example of new Chinese military technology is the DF-21D kemaga qarshi ballistik raketa which reportedly has contributed to a quick and major change in US naval strategy.^[150] China is developing sun'iy yo'ldoshga qarshi qurol and plans to make the navigational Beidou system global by 2020.^[151] Other new technologies include Chinese anti ballistic missile developments, the Chengdu J-20 beshinchi avlod reaktiv qiruvchisi va, ehtimol elektromagnit impuls qurol.^[152][153] Xitoy razvedka sun'iy yo'ldoshlari are, according to a 2011 report, almost equal to those of the United States in some areas in which China had almost no capability a decade earlier.^[154] Despite increased defense spending, China's share of the world's import of arms is rapidly falling, in part reflecting the increased abilities of the indigenous military production.^[155] China is also developing quvvat proektsiyasi military capabilities such as through the Xitoy samolyot tashuvchisi dasturi va 071 turdagi amfibik transport dok.

15-28% of governmental R&D expenditures may go to military research according to some unofficial estimates. The Chinese defense sector remains almost completely state-owned but military equipment production has been reorganized into corporate bodies allowing limited competition and the defense patent system has been reformed to allow greater rewards to innovative enterprises and individuals. The organizational structure has shed civilian applications while at the same time cooperation with the civilian sector has increased and state supported civilian research sometimes have ikki tomonlama foydalanish ilovalar.^[28] Xitoy reaktiv dvigatellar remains a problematic area that has caused concern at the highest levels with China still being largely dependent on imports from foreign manufacturers. One possible explanation is a continued Soviet style fragmentation of the research and production line into many isolated units having little contact with one another causing problems with overall standardization, integration, and quality control. More problems from this may be duplication of efforts, dispersal of efforts, and unproductive competition over patronage causing problems such as dishonest reporting of problems. High precision jet engines may be particularly sensitive to accumulated quality problems.^[156]

History of China's hydrogen bomb

China successfully tested a vodorod bombasi on June 17, 1967 at Lop Nur Nuclear Weapon Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang (also known as "Test No. 6"). China became the fourth country to have successfully developed a termoyadro quroli keyin Qo'shma Shtatlar, Sovet Ittifoqi va Birlashgan Qirollik. The device was dropped from a Hong-6 (Chinese manufactured Tu-16 ) and was parachute-retarded for an airburst at 2960 meters. The bomb was a three-stage device with a boosted U-235 asosiy va U-238 pusher. The Yo'l bering was 3.3 megatonlar.

It was a fully functional, full-scale, three-stage vodorod bombasi, tested 32 months after China had made its first fission device. China thus produced the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history. China had received extensive technical help from the Soviet Union to jump-start their nuclear program, but by 1960, the rift between the Soviet Union and China had become so great that the Soviet Union ceased all assistance to China.^[1] Thus, the Number 6 test was indeed an independent endeavor, after the induced military and economic sanctions enacted by the superpowers at the time, the United States and the Soviet Union.

China's H-bomb was different from the traditional Teller-Ulam configuration. As an advantage, it was completed without the calculations needed from supercomputers, which would consume a lot of time. To shrink the size of the weapon, the reflectors were made parabolic with the solid fusion fuel located at the foci. It is also known as Yu Min Design (or Yu-Deng Design) as Yu Min made major contributions included the solutions to a series of fundamental and critical theoretical problems of nuclear weapons, which led to breakthrough of the unique hydrogen bomb.

The goal of China was to produce a thermonuclear device of at least a megaton in yield that could be dropped by an aircraft or carried by a ballistic missile. Several explosions to test thermonuclear weapon designs, characteristics and yield boosting preceded the thermonuclear test.^[1]

Mining and rare earth industry

Ko'mir qazib olish yilda Ichki Mo'g'uliston.

Advisory firm The Beijing Axis director Lilian Luca in 2010 stated that China was becoming a world leader in mining technology. Technological solutions were initially concentrated on achieving massive low-cost production but increasing emphasis has been placed on environmental and safety issues in part reflecting greater concern in China with environmental issues. China was already a world leader in certain areas such as noyob tuproq elementlari.^[157] China has imposed export quotas on rare earth elements, 95% of which are mined in China, citing environmental issues, but has been accused of wanting to force high-tech industry using rare earth elements to move to China.

Finding rare earth elements is only the first and some argue the easiest step. Other steps towards manufacturing such as tozalash is controlled by China and Japan with the previously dominant United States having lost all of its producers and much of its fundamental technological ability with the number of scientists and engineers in the area declining dramatically.^[158]

Polar tadqiqotlar

The Xitoyning Arktika va Antarktida ma'muriyati (CAA) organizes China's scientific programme for both the Arktika va Antarktika. Polar research by China, in particular in Antarktida, has been growing rapidly. China now has three Antarctic research stations and one in the Arktika on the Norwegian island of Svalbard.^[159][160]

Kosmik fan

Rassomning Xitoy kosmik stantsiyasi, v. 2005 yil.^[161]

The Xitoy kosmik dasturi is a major source of national pride.^[162] In 1970 the first Chinese satellite, Dong Fang Xong I, ishga tushirildi. In 2003 China become the third country to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenchjou 5. In 2008 China conducted a kosmik yo'l bilan Shenchjou 7 missiya. 2011 yilda Tiangong-1 was launched which was the first step towards a Xitoy kosmik stantsiyasi around 2020. The active Xitoyning Oyni qidirish dasturi o'z ichiga oladi lunar rover in 2013 and possibly a manned oyga qo'nish 2020-yillarda. Experience gained from the lunar program will be used for future programs such as Marsni o'rganish va Venera.^[163][164]

China plans to launch 5 commercial satellites for foreign customers in 2012 and aims to capture 15% of the commercial launch market and 10% of the satellite export market by 2015. In 2011 China launched a total of 19 rockets, which was the second most after Russia.^[165]

The Besh yuz metrli diafragma sferik teleskop, completed in 2016, is the world's largest radio teleskop.^[166][167]

To'qimachilik

China in 2012 produced more than one-third of the developed world's apparel import but the share has been decreasing in recent years as low-technology and labor-intensive production has been moving to regions like Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe.^[168][169]

Transport

Transportation infrastructure continues to be rapidly developed. The Milliy magistral magistral tizim was in 2011 estimated to surpass the US interstate system uzunligi bo'yicha.^[170] Many Chinese cities have or are planning to build metros or other forms of rapid transit.

Tijorat samolyotlari

The state owned Komak aerokosmik ishlab chiqaruvchi aims to reduce Chinese dependency on foreign companies for large passenger aircraft.^[171] Kelajak C919 aims to be completely made in China.^[172]

Avtotransport vositalari

The Xitoyda avtomobilsozlik is the world's largest producer of avtotransport vositalari.^[173] However, China's indigenous car companies have had difficulties on the global market and the growing elektr transport vositasi market has been seen as way to remedy this. China in 2010 proposed controversial legislation requiring foreign electric vehicle producers to form minority qo'shma korxonalar and share technologies with Chinese carmakers in order to get market access.^[174] A 2011 report financed by the Jahon banki stated that China was becoming the world leader on electric vehicles.^[175]

Kema qurish

In 2009-2010 China become the world's largest kema quruvchi lekin Janubiy Koreya regained the top position in 2011 in part due to more advanced technology. China is developing its technological abilities and competition is expected to increase.^[176][177]

Poezdlar

Chinese designed CRH380A.

The BBC wrote in a 2011 article on high-speed rail in China that China in 2005 had no tezyurar temir yo'llar. In 2010 it had more than Europe and in 2012 China was expected to have more than the rest of the world combined. China demanded that foreign companies wanting to participate had to share their technology. Some 10,000 Chinese engineers and academics then in three years produced a faster Chinese high-speed train that China is now exporting it to other nations.^[54]

Shuningdek qarang

• CERNET
• Xitoy Fanlar akademiyasi
• Xitoy muhandislik akademiyasi
• Xitoy ijtimoiy fanlar akademiyasi
• China–United States trade war (2018–present)
• CSTNET
• Xitoy Xalq Respublikasida fan va texnika tarixi
• Xitoy ixtirolari ro'yxati
• Xitoyda ishlab chiqarilgan 2025 yil
• Yangi sanoatlashgan mamlakatlarda fan
• Xitoyda ilmiy nashr

Adabiyotlar

Iqtiboslar

Manbalar

Tashqi havolalar

• Fan va texnologiyalar vazirligi
• Xitoyning fan va texnologiyalar assotsiatsiyasi (CAST)
• Ilmiy va texnologik aloqalar
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