Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasining birinchi moddasi - Article One of the United States Constitution - Wikipedia

Ushbu maqola qismidir bir qator ustida
Konstitutsiyasi Qo'shma Shtatlar
Muqaddima va maqolalar
Preambula Men II III IV V VI VII
Konstitutsiyaga kiritilgan o'zgartirishlar
Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi: Men II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Tasdiqlanmagan o'zgartirishlar: Kongress taqsimoti Asilzodalik unvonlari Korvin Bolalar mehnati Teng huquqlar D.C.ning ovoz berish huquqlari
Tarix
Tasdiqlash va tasdiqlash muddatlari Konventsiya Imzo Federalizm Respublikachilik
To'liq matn
Muqaddima va maqolalar I – VII I-X tuzatishlar XI-XXVII tuzatishlar Tasdiqlanmagan o'zgartirishlar
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Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasining birinchi moddasi tashkil etadi qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyat ning federal hukumat, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kongressi. Birinchi moddaga muvofiq Kongress a ikki palatali dan iborat bo'lgan qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyat Vakillar palatasi va Senat. Birinchi maqola Kongressga har xil yordam beradi sanab o'tilgan vakolatlar va qonunlarni qabul qilish qobiliyati "zarur va to'g'ri "Ushbu vakolatlarni amalga oshirish. Birinchi modda shuningdek qonun loyihasini qabul qilish tartibini belgilaydi va Kongress va Kongress vakolatiga turli cheklovlar qo'yadi. davlatlar vakolatlarini suiiste'mol qilishdan.

Birinchi maqola Vesting moddasi Kongressga barcha federal qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyatni beradi va Kongress Vakillar Palatasi va Senatdan iboratligini belgilaydi. Ikkinchi moddaning va Uchinchi moddaning Vest-bandlari bilan birgalikda Birinchi moddaning Vest-bandi hokimiyatni taqsimlash federal hukumatning uchta filiali orasida. Birinchi moddaning 2-bo'limi Vakillar Palatasiga murojaat qilib, palata a'zolari har ikki yilda bir marta saylanib borilishini, kongressdagi o'rindiqlar shtatlarga aholi soniga qarab taqsimlanishini belgilab beradi. 2-bo'lim Vakillar Palatasi uchun turli xil qoidalarni o'z ichiga oladi, shu jumladan, o'z davlatlarining qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyat organlarining eng katta palatasi uchun saylovda ovoz berish huquqiga ega bo'lgan shaxslar Vakillar Palatasi uchun saylovlarda ovoz berish huquqiga ega. 3-bo'lim Senatga murojaat qilib, Senat har bir shtatdan ikkita senatordan iborat bo'lib, har bir senator olti yillik muddatga xizmat qiladi. 3-bo'lim dastlab shtat qonun chiqaruvchi organlaridan Senat a'zolarini saylashni talab qilgan, ammo O'n ettinchi o'zgartirish, 1913 yilda ratifikatsiya qilingan bo'lib, senatorlarning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri saylanishini ta'minlaydi. 3-bo'limda Senat uchun boshqa turli xil qoidalar, shu jumladan ushbu qoidalarni belgilaydigan qoidalar keltirilgan AQSh vitse-prezidenti Senat prezidenti sifatida.

Birinchi moddaning 4-bo'limi davlatlarga kongressga saylov jarayonini tartibga solish vakolatini beradi, ammo kongress ushbu qoidalarni o'zgartirishi yoki o'z qoidalarini tuzishi mumkinligini belgilaydi. Shuningdek, 4-bo'lim Kongressni yiliga kamida bir marta yig'ilishini talab qiladi. 5-bo'lim Kongressning har ikkala palatasi uchun turli xil qoidalarni ishlab chiqadi va Vakillar Palatasi va Senatga o'z saylovlarida hukm chiqarish, o'z a'zolarining malakasini aniqlash va o'z a'zolarini jazolash yoki chiqarib yuborish vakolatlarini beradi. 6-bo'lim Kongress vakolatiga ega bo'lganlarning tovon puli, imtiyozlari va cheklovlarini belgilaydi. 7-bo'limda qonun loyihasini qabul qilish tartibi ko'rsatilgan bo'lib, Kongressning har ikkala palatasidan qonun qabul qilinishi sharti bilan qonun qabul qilinishi kerak. veto huquqi ning Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari prezidenti. 7-bo'limga binoan, prezident qonun loyihasiga veto qo'yishi mumkin, ammo Kongress har ikki palataning uchdan ikki qismi ovozi bilan prezident vetosini bekor qilishi mumkin.

8-bo'limda Kongress vakolatlari berilgan. (Soliqlar shtat aholisi tomonidan taqsimlanadi) Bunga bir nechta sanab o'tilgan vakolatlar, shu jumladan kuchi kiradi "soliqlar, bojlar, soliqlar va aktsizlar" ni yig'ish va yig'ish (agar AQShda umumiy mudofaa va umumiy farovonlikni ta'minlash uchun bojlar, impostlar va aktsizlar AQSh bo'ylab bir xil bo'lsa), davlatlararo va xalqaro savdoni tartibga solish, o'rnatish uchun quvvat fuqarolikka qabul qilish qonunlari, pulni tanga qilish va tartibga solish kuchi, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining kreditiga pul qarz olish kuchi, pochta aloqasi shoxobchalari va pochta yo'llarini tashkil etish kuchi, federal sudlar dan kam Oliy sud, armiya va dengiz flotini ko'tarish va qo'llab-quvvatlash kuchi, militsiyani "Ittifoq qonunlarini bajarish, qo'zg'olonlarni bostirish va bosqinlarni daf etish uchun" chaqirish va militsiyani "uyushtirish, qurollantirish, tarbiyalash .." .va boshqarish "va Kongressga vakolat berish urush e'lon qilish. 8-bo'lim shuningdek Kongressga a tashkil etish huquqini beradi federal okrug milliy poytaxt bo'lib xizmat qiladi va Kongressga ushbu tumanni boshqarish uchun mutlaq vakolat beradi. Har xil sanab o'tilgan vakolatlardan tashqari, 8-bo'lim Kongressga sanab o'tilgan vakolatlarini va unga berilgan boshqa vakolatlarni amalga oshirish uchun zarur va to'g'ri qonunlar qabul qilish vakolatini beradi. 9-bo'lim Kongressning vakolatiga turli cheklovlarni qo'yadi, taqiqlaydi qonun hujjatlari va boshqa amaliyotlar. 10-bo'limda davlatlarga xorijiy davlatlar bilan ittifoq tuzishni taqiqlovchi cheklovlar qo'yilgan, shartnomalarni buzish, import yoki eksportga soliq solish Kongressning roziligisiz tekshirish, armiyani saqlash yoki urushga kirishish uchun zarur bo'lgan minimal darajadan yuqori.

1-bo'lim: Kongressga berilgan qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyat

Ochilishi 112-Kongress Vakillar Palatasi palatasida, 2011 yil 5 yanvar

Bu erda berilgan barcha qonun chiqaruvchi vakolatlar Senat va Vakillar Palatasidan iborat Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kongressiga beriladi.

1-bo'lim a egalik qilish bandi bu federalni beradi qonun chiqaruvchi faqat Kongress vakolatiga ega. Shunga o'xshash bandlar Maqolalarda mavjud II va III. Birinchisi beradi ijro etuvchi faqat prezidentga vakolat, ikkinchisi esa beradi sud hokimiyat faqat federal sud tizimiga. Ushbu uchta maqola a hokimiyatni taqsimlash ning uchta filiali orasida federal hukumat. Ushbu hokimiyat taqsimoti, bu orqali har bir soha faqat o'z konstitutsiyaviy vakolatlarini amalga oshirishi mumkin, boshqalari esa^[1][2] xalqqa hisobot beradigan cheklangan hukumat g'oyasi uchun asosdir.

Kongressga nisbatan hokimiyatni taqsimlash printsipi ayniqsa diqqatga sazovordir. Konstitutsiya Kongress I moddada "keyinchalik berilgan" qonunchilik vakolatlarini amalga oshirishi mumkinligini e'lon qiladi (keyinchalik cheklangan O'ninchi o'zgartirish ).^[3] Shuningdek, u nazarda tutilgan kengaytma bilan Kongressga qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyatni hokimiyatning boshqa tarmoqlariga topshirilishini taqiqlaydi, bu qoida nolegalite doktrina.^[4] Shu bilan birga, Oliy sud qaroriga binoan, Kongress agentlik tomonidan berilgan tartibga solish vakolatlarini amalga oshirishni boshqaradigan "tushunarli printsip" ni taqdim etgan taqdirda, ijro etuvchi agentliklarga tartibga solish vakolatlarini topshirish kengligi mavjud.^[5] Har bir filialga berilgan kuch ushbu filialda qolishi va faqat shu tarmoq tomonidan ifodalanishi mumkinligi nazariya uchun asosiy ahamiyatga ega.^[6] Nondellegiya doktrinasi, avvalambor, hozirgi paytda Kongress vakolatxonasini tor doirada talqin qilish usuli sifatida ishlatiladi,^[7] sudlar Kongressning taxmin qilishicha, agar u sudlar bunga imkon beradigan narsalarning "suvlarini sinab ko'rish" niyatida ekanligi aniq ko'rsatilmasa, u albatta bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan narsalarni boshqalarga topshirishni maqsad qilgan.^[8]

Konstitutsiyada alohida qayd etilmagan bo'lsa-da, Kongress uzoq vaqtdan beri tergov qilish huquqini va tergov bilan hamkorlik qilishga majbur qilish huquqini tasdiqlab keladi.^[9] Oliy sud ushbu vakolatlarni Kongressning qonun chiqarish vakolatining natijasi sifatida tasdiqladi.^[10] Tergov qilish vakolati Kongressning qonun chiqarish vakolatiga kirganligi sababli, Kongressning qonun chiqarish vakolatlari singari kengdir.^[11] Biroq, bu ham cheklangan "qonun chiqaruvchi funktsiyaga yordam beradigan" so'rovlarga;^[12] Kongress "ta'sir qilish uchun fosh qilmasligi" mumkin.^[13] Kongressning tergov vakolatining tegishli mavzusi federal hukumatning faoliyati ekanligi munozarasizdir, ammo Kongressning prezident yoki uning bo'ysunuvchilaridan hujjatlar yoki ko'rsatuvlarni taqdim etishga majbur qilish qobiliyati ko'pincha muhokama qilinadi va ba'zan munozarali bo'lib turadi (qarang. ijro etuvchi imtiyoz ), tez-tez sudga tortilmasa ham. Amaliy masala sifatida Kongressning faqat tegishli maqsadda tergov qilish imkoniyatini cheklash (uning qonun chiqaruvchi vakolatlari "yordami") Kongressning alohida fuqarolarning shaxsiy ishlarini tekshirish qobiliyati chegarasi sifatida ishlaydi; Kongress tomonidan qonunchilikni talab qiladigan davlat siyosati masalasini qo'zg'atmasdan, boshqa hokimiyat tarmog'ining harakatini talab qiladigan masalalar, hokimiyatni taqsimlash doktrinasi tufayli ushbu filiallarga topshirilishi kerak.^[14] Biroq, sudlar Kongressning tergov vakolatlarini amalga oshirishi uchun juda hurmatlidir. Kongress tartibga solishi mumkin bo'lgan narsalarni tekshirishga qodir.^[11] sudlar Kongressning tartibga solish vakolatlarini shu vaqtdan boshlab keng talqin qildilar Katta depressiya.

2-bo'lim: Vakillar palatasi

1-band: A'zolar tarkibi va saylanishi

Vakillar palatasi har ikki yilda bir necha davlatlar aholisi tomonidan tanlanadigan a'zolardan iborat bo'lib, har bir shtatdagi saylovchilar davlat qonunchiligining eng ko'p sonli bo'linmasi saylovchilari uchun zarur bo'lgan malakaga ega bo'lishadi.

Ikkinchi bo'lim har ikkinchi yilda Vakillar palatasini saylashni nazarda tutadi. Vakillar "xalq tomonidan tanlanishi" kerakligi sababli, shtat Vakillar Palatasidagi delegatsiya tarkibida vakansiyalar paydo bo'lganda, shtat gubernatorlariga vaqtincha o'rinbosarlarni tayinlashga yo'l qo'yilmaydi; o'rniga, davlat hokimi tomonidan talab qilinadi 4-band chiqarish saylov varaqasi vakansiyani to'ldirish uchun maxsus saylovni tayinlash.

Yaratilishida Konstitutsiya fuqarolarga ajralmas ravishda ovoz berish huquqini bermagan.^[15] Shu bilan birga, shtatlarning eng katta qonun chiqaruvchi palatasi uchun saylovlarda ovoz berishga qodir bo'lganlarning Kongress (Vakillar Palatasi) saylovlarida ovoz berishlari mumkinligi to'g'risida shart qo'yib, ramkalar Palataning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri saylanishi kerakligi to'g'risida aniq niyat bildirdi. Beri Fuqarolar urushi, bir nechta konstitutsiyaviy tuzatishlar qabul qilindi, bu shtatlarning saylovchilar malakasi standartlarini belgilash bo'yicha keng vakolatlarini cheklab qo'ydi. Hech qachon bajarilmasa ham, 2-band O'n to'rtinchi o'zgartirish "Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari prezidenti va vitse-prezidenti uchun saylovchilarni tanlash uchun har qanday saylovda ovoz berish huquqi, Kongressdagi vakillar, bir davlatning ijro etuvchi va sud amaldorlari yoki ularning qonun chiqaruvchi organlari a'zolari rad etilganda" yigirma bir yoshga to'lgan va shu kabi shtatdagi har qanday erkak yashovchi erkak yoki isyonda yoki boshqa jinoyatda qatnashishdan tashqari, biron bir tarzda qisqartirilgan bo'lsa, unda vakillik asoslari kamayadi. ushbu erkak fuqarolar sonining ushbu davlatdagi yigirma bir yoshdagi erkak fuqarolarning umumiy soniga to'g'ri keladigan nisbati. " The O'n beshinchi o'zgartirish irqiga, rangiga yoki servitutning oldingi holatiga qarab ovoz berish huquqini rad etishni taqiqlaydi. The O'n to'qqizinchi o'zgartirish jinsga qarab ovoz berish huquqini rad etishni taqiqlaydi. The Yigirma to'rtinchi o'zgartirish a to'lamaganligi sababli ovoz berish huquqlarini bekor qilishni taqiqlaydi ovoz berish solig'i. The Yigirma oltinchi o'zgartirish o'n sakkiz yosh va undan katta bo'lgan AQSh fuqarolarining yoshiga qarab ovoz berish huquqini rad etishni taqiqlaydi.

Bundan tashqari, Oliy sud ovoz berishni asosiy huquq deb tan olganligi sababli,^[16] The Teng himoya qilish moddasi shtatlarning saylovchilar malakasini aniqlash qobiliyatiga juda qattiq cheklovlar qo'yadi (noaniq chegaralar bo'lsa ham); fuqarolik, yashash va yoshdan tashqari malakalar odatda shubhali deb aytish adolatli.^[17]

O'tgan asrning 60-yillarida Oliy sud ovoz berishni asosiy huquq sifatida ko'rib chiqishni boshladi Teng himoya qilish moddasi o'n to'rtinchi tuzatishning.^[18] Olingan 1964 yilgi Oliy sud ishining alohida fikrida mutanosiblik ichida Alabama shtat qonun chiqaruvchisi, Associate Justice Jon Marshall Xarlan II kiritilgan Minor va Xappersett (1875 yilgi holat, bu ayollarga ovoz berish huquqidan mahrum qilishga imkon bergan) ovoz berish va taqsimlash to'g'risidagi ilgari qabul qilinmagan qarorlar ro'yxatida.^[19]

Yilda Oregon va Mitchell (1970), Oliy sud, Malaka moddasi Kongress saylovlarida saylovchilar uchun davlat tomonidan belgilangan minimal yosh cheklovlarini bekor qilishga to'sqinlik qilmasligini ta'kidladi.^[20]

Beri 3-band Vakillar Palatasi a'zolari shtatma-shtat bo'lib taqsimlanishini va har bir shtat kamida bittadan vakilga kafolat berilishini ta'minlaydi, barcha tumanlar o'rtasida aniq aholining tengligi kafolatlanmaydi va aslida hozirgi paytda imkonsizdir, chunki ularning soni Vakillar palatasi 435-da belgilangan, bir nechta shtatlarda 2010 yilgi so'nggi qayta taqsimot paytida milliy aholining 1/435 qismidan kamrog'i bo'lgan. Ammo, Oliy sud birinchi bandni "Vakillar" tomonidan saylanishi to'g'risida " Odamlar "shuni anglatadiki, Vakillar Palatasining bir nechta a'zosi bo'lgan shtatlarda shtat ichidagi har bir Kongress saylov okrugi deyarli bir xil populyatsiyaga ega bo'lishi kerak.^[21]

2-band: A'zolar malakasi

Yigirma besh yoshga to'lmagan va Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining etti yoshga to'lgan fuqarosi bo'lgan va hech kim saylanmagan taqdirda u o'zi tanlanadigan o'sha shtatning fuqarosi bo'lmaydigan vakil bo'lishi mumkin emas. .

Konstitutsiya Vakillar uchun uchta talabni o'z ichiga oladi: Vakil kamida 25 yoshda bo'lishi, o'zi saylangan davlatning rezidenti bo'lishi va Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari fuqarosi oldingi etti yil davomida. Vakil o'zi vakili bo'lgan okrugda yashashi shart emas; garchi bu odatda bo'lsa ham, vaqti-vaqti bilan istisnolar bo'lgan.^[22]

Oliy sud Kvalifikatsiya bandini an deb talqin qildi eksklyuziv Kongress palatasi tomonidan to'ldirilishi mumkin bo'lmagan malaka ro'yxati 5-bo'lim "o'z a'zolarining ... malakalarini baholash" vakolati^[23] yoki davlat tomonidan uni amalga oshirishda 4-bo'lim "senatorlar va vakillar uchun saylovlarni o'tkazish vaqtini, joylarini va tartibini" belgilash vakolati. Oliy sud, shuningdek boshqa federal sudlar, bir necha bor davlatlarni qo'shimcha cheklovlardan, masalan, joriy etishdan qaytargan muddat cheklovlari Kongress a'zolariga bo'ysunishga imkon beradigan Kongress a'zolari to'g'risida saylovlarni esga olish yoki Vakillar o'zlari vakili bo'lgan kongress okrugida yashashlarini talab qilish.^[24][25] 2002 yil Kongress tadqiqot xizmati Hisobotda, shuningdek, biron bir davlat Vakil sudlanuvchi yoki qamoqqa olinmasligi to'g'risidagi malakani amalga oshira olmasligi aniqlandi.^[26]

Biroq, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi aniq qaror qildi byulletenlarga kirish talabnomalar, masalan, arizalarni rasmiylashtirish va ma'lum miqdordagi amaldagi imzolarni topshirish qo'shimcha malaka darajasiga ega emas va shuning uchun saylov byulletenlariga kirish to'g'risidagi qonunlar qanchalik qattiq bo'lishi mumkinligi to'g'risida ozgina konstitutsiyaviy cheklovlar mavjud.

Va nihoyat, AQSh Konstitutsiyasida hech qanday cheklovlar mavjud emas bir vaqtning o'zida federal idorani egallagan shtat yoki mahalliy idora egalari, bugungi kunda aksariyat shtatlar konstitutsiyalari federal idoralar egalariga davlat va mahalliy idoralarni egallashlarini taqiqlab, bir vaqtning o'zida davlat va mahalliy idoralar egalariga federal lavozimni egallashlarini taqiqlaydi. Boshqa davlat tomonidan belgilangan cheklovlardan farqli o'laroq, bunday taqiqlar konstitutsiyaviy bo'lib, ular faqat davlat darajasida (ya'ni davlat yoki mahalliy idorani olish yoki egallashga intilayotgan faol federal ofis egalariga qarshi) amalga oshiriladi.

3-band: Vakillar va soliqlarni taqsimlash

Vakillar va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri soliqlar ushbu Ittifoq tarkibiga kirishi mumkin bo'lgan bir nechta davlatlar o'rtasida, ularning raqamlariga muvofiq taqsimlanadi, ular bepul shaxslarning butun soniga qo'shilishi bilan belgilanadi, shu jumladan yillar davomida xizmatga bog'langanlar, va soliqqa tortilmaydigan hindular bundan mustasno, qolgan barcha shaxslarning uchdan uch qismi. Haqiqiy Hisoblash Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kongressining birinchi yig'ilishidan keyin uch yil ichida va har o'n yillik har keyingi davrda qonunda ko'rsatilgan tartibda amalga oshiriladi. Vakillar soni har o'ttiz mingdan bittadan oshmasligi kerak, lekin har bir davlat kamida bittadan vakilga ega bo'lishi kerak; va bunday sanab chiqilgunga qadar Nyu-Gempshir shtati chuse huquqiga ega [sic ] uchta, Massachusets shtatida sakkizta, Rod-Aylend va Providens plantatsiyalarida bitta, Konnektikutda beshta, Nyu-Yorkda oltita, Nyu-Jersida to'rtta, Pensilvaniyada sakkizta, Delaverda, Merilendda oltita, Virjiniyada o'nta, Shimoliy Karolinada beshta, Janubiy Karolinada beshta va Jorjiyada uchta.

Ko'p munozaralardan so'ng, Konstitutsiya asoschilari aholini Vakillar Palatasidagi joylarni va shtatlar o'rtasida soliq majburiyatini taqsimlashning asosiga aylantirishga qaror qilishdi. Bunga ko'maklashish uchun Konstitutsiya a ro'yxatga olish har o'n yilda bir marta har bir shtat va butun millat aholisini aniqlash uchun o'tkaziladi va kimlar hisoblanishi yoki hisobdan chiqarilishi qoidasini belgilaydi. Boshqaruvning yangi shakli milliy ro'yxatga olish yakunlanguniga qadar amalda bo'lganligi sababli, Konstitutsiya o'rinlarni vaqtincha taqsimlashni ham nazarda tutadi.

Dastlab, har bir shtat va umuman millat aholisi butun erkin odamlarning soniga, qolgan barcha shaxslarning beshdan uch qismiga (ya'ni, uchdan biriga) qo'shilishi bilan aniqlandi. qullar ), ammo soliqqa tortilmaydiganlar bundan mustasno Mahalliy amerikaliklar. Nomi bilan tanilgan ushbu konstitutsiyaviy qoida beshdan uch qismi murosaga keladi, Janubiy va Shimoliy davlatlar o'rtasida qullar aholisining beshdan uch qismi hisoblanadigan kelishuv edi sanab chiqish maqsadlar va Vakillar Palatasidagi o'rinlarni taqsimlash va shtatlar o'rtasida soliqlar. Bu ko'ra edi Oliy sud adolat Jozef hikoyasi (yozish 1833 ), "murosaga kelish va murosaga kelish masalasi, o'z faoliyatida tengsizligini tan oldi, ammo manfaatlar xilma-xilligi va jismoniy holati va siyosiy institutlari xilma-xilligi bo'lgan davlatlar ittifoqi uchun ajralmas bo'lgan bu yarashish ruhiga kerakli qurbonlik".^[27] 2-bo'lim O'n to'rtinchi o'zgartirish (1868) keyinchalik 1-moddaning 2-qismining 3-bandini almashtirdi va kelishuvni aniq bekor qildi.

Har bir aholini ro'yxatga olish tugagandan so'ng, Kongress barcha shtatlarda jami aholidan (aholini aniqlash uchun amaldagi Konstitutsiyaviy qoidalarga muvofiq) har bir shtatning butun aholi soniga nisbatan nisbiy sonini aniqlash uchun foydalanish huquqiga ega va uyning tegishli hajmini o'rnatish uchun hisob-kitoblar^[28] va har bir shtat uchun milliy aholining ulushiga qarab ma'lum miqdordagi vakillarni ajratish.

Qabul qilinganidan beri 1929 yildagi qayta taqsimlash to'g'risidagi qonun Har bir aholini ro'yxatga olish natijalariga ko'ra shtatlarda doimiy ravishda 435 ta uy o'rni ajratilgan va uyning hajmini belgilash hozirda taqsimlash jarayoniga kirmaydi. Birgina istisnolardan tashqari, 1842 yildagi taqsimot, Vakillar Palatasi 1788 yildagi oltmish besh a'zodan 1913 yilgacha 435 kishiga qadar turli darajalarda kengaytirilgandir. Hajmni belgilash milliy aholi soniga qarab amalga oshirildi. Uyning a'zolari mamlakat umumiy aholisining har 30 ming kishiga 1 kishidan oshmagan^[29] shuningdek, biron bir shtat delegatsiyasining soni ushbu shtat aholisining har 30,000 uchun 1dan oshmaydi.^[30] Uyning kattaligi 435 ga teng bo'lib, hozirgi koeffitsient 2010 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish, 700000 kishiga 1 vakili to'g'ri keladi.^[31]

Ammo, keyin 1920 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish, Kongress uyni taqsimlay olmadi, uyning ajratmalaridan foydalangan holda 1911 yildagi taqsimot to'g'risidagi qonun 1932 yilgi saylovlardan so'ng, bu Kongress tomonidan o'tgan va prezident tomonidan qabul qilingan sana bo'lgan sana edi 1929 yildagi qayta taqsimlash to'g'risidagi qonun. Buning natijasida uy ichidagi vakolatxona yigirma yil davomida muzlab qoldi.^[32] Vakillar palatasining mutanosibligi konstitutsiyani ratifikatsiya qilinganidan boshlab 1941 yilgacha, ya'ni o'z-o'zini ijro etuvchi nizom qabul qilingan paytgacha, Kongressdan qonun loyihasini qabul qilishini va prezidentdan uyni qayta mutanosib qilish to'g'risidagi aktni imzolashini talab qildi, bu esa mutanosiblikni avtomatik ravishda amalga oshirdi. jarayon.^[33]

Garchi ushbu banddagi birinchi jumla dastlab bir nechta shtatlar o'rtasida ikkala palatadagi o'rindiqlarni va soliqlarni taqsimlash bilan bog'liq bo'lsa-da, 1868 yilda uning o'rnini bosgan o'n to'rtinchi tuzatish hukmida faqat uylarning o'rindiqlari taqsimlangan. Shunga qaramay, Kongressning soliqqa tortish vakolatiga qo'yilgan cheklov saqlanib qoldi, chunki cheklov 1-moddaning 9-bo'limining 4-bandida takrorlangan. to'g'ridan-to'g'ri soliqlar federal hukumat tomonidan har qanday shtatdagi odamlardan to'planishi mumkin bo'lgan narsalar to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ushbu davlatning milliy aholining ulushiga bog'liq edi.

Ushbu cheklov tufayli daromad solig'i ko'chmas mulkdan olinadigan daromadlarga va xususan, aktsiyalar kabi shaxsiy mulkka egalik qilishdan olinadigan dividendlar ko'rinishidagi daromadlarga, bu davlatlar o'rtasida taqsimlanmaganligi sababli konstitutsiyaga zid deb topilgan;^[34] Ya'ni, mamlakat aholisining 10 foizi bo'lgan davlat yig'ilgan daromad solig'ining 10 foizini to'laganiga kafolat yo'q edi, chunki Kongress yig'ilishi kerak bo'lgan mablag'ni belgilamagan va ularni o'zlariga ko'ra Shtatlar o'rtasida taqsimlagan. milliy aholining ulushlari. Bunday daromad solig'ini olishga ruxsat berish uchun Kongress taklif qildi va shtatlar uni tasdiqladi O'n oltinchi o'zgartirish bu cheklovni olib tashladi, xususan Kongress shtatlar o'rtasida taqsimlanmasdan yoki boshqa yo'l bilan milliy aholining ulushiga asoslanmasdan "har qanday manbadan" daromad solig'ini undirishi mumkin.

4-band: Bo'sh ish o'rinlari

Har qanday davlat vakolatxonasida bo'sh ish o'rinlari bo'lgan taqdirda, uning ijroiya hokimiyati ushbu bo'sh ish o'rinlarini to'ldirish uchun saylov varaqalarini beradi.

Ikkinchi bo'lim, to'rtinchi band, Vakillar Palatasida bo'sh ish o'rinlari paydo bo'lganda, uning o'rnini almashtirishni Vakillar Palatasi emas, balki bo'sh o'rindig'i to'ldirish uchun mo'ljallangan davlatning ishi deb belgilaydi. Bundan tashqari, shtat gubernatori vaqtincha o'rniga tayinlashi mumkin emas, aksincha vakansiyani to'ldirish uchun maxsus saylovni tashkil qilishi kerak. Ushbu saylovni o'tkazish uchun dastlabki malakalar va tartiblar hanuzgacha amal qiladi.

5-band: ma'ruzachi va boshqa zobitlar; Impichment

Vakillar palatasi chus [sic ] ularning ma'ruzachilari va boshqa amaldorlari; va impichmentning yagona kuchiga ega bo'lishi kerak.

Ikkinchi bo'limda Vakillar Palatasi o'z spikeri va uning boshqa mansabdorlarini tanlashi mumkinligi nazarda tutilgan. Garchi Konstitutsiya buni buyurmasa ham, har bir spiker Vakillar Palatasining a'zosi bo'lgan.^[35] Spiker kamdan-kam hollarda odatdagi uy sessiyalariga rahbarlik qiladi, uning o'rniga kichik bir a'zoni vazifani bajarish uchun deputat qilib tayinlaydi.

Nihoyat, Ikkinchi bo'lim Vakillar Palatasiga impichmentning yagona kuchini taqdim etadi. Oliy sudda ushbu aniq qoidani sharhlash uchun fursat bo'lmagan bo'lsa-da, Sud "House of the House" ga taqdim etishni taklif qildi. "Soley"impichment kuchi Uyni impichment qilinadigan jinoyat tarkibiga kiradigan narsalarning eksklyuziv tarjimoniga aylantiradi.^[36]

A. Tomonidan jinoiy ayblovlarni ilgari surishga o'xshash bo'lgan bu kuch katta hakamlar hay'ati, kamdan-kam hollarda ishlatilgan.^[37] 1789 yildan beri palata impichment jarayonini 62 marta boshlagan va natijada rasmiy ravishda yigirma federal amaldor impichmentga uchragan, shu jumladan: uchta prezident (Endryu Jonson, Bill Klinton va Donald Tramp ), bitta Kabinet kotib (Uilyam V. Belknap ), bitta senator (Uilyam Blount ), bitta Oliy sud adolatni bog'lash (Shomuil Cheyz ) va o'n to'rt federal sudyalar. Bundan tashqari, ayniqsa, impichment jarayoni Prezidentning iste'fosini majbur qildi Richard Nikson.

Konstitutsiyada qanday qilib impichment bo'yicha ish qo'zg'atilishi belgilanmagan. 20-asrning boshlariga qadar Vakillar palatasi a'zosi ko'tarilib, impichment e'lon qilishi mumkin edi, keyin sud qo'mitasining rasmiy qarori bilan tergov uchun qo'mitaga topshiriladi. Ayni paytda, bu Vakillar palatasining Adliya qo'mitasi jarayonni boshlaydi va keyin da'volarni o'rganib chiqib, butun palataning ko'rib chiqishi uchun tavsiyalar tayyorlaydi. Agar palata impichment to'g'risidagi qarorni qabul qilishga ovoz bersa, Adliya qo'mitasi raisi palata keyinchalik qaror bilan tasdiqlaydigan "menejerlar" ning ro'yxatini tavsiya qiladi. Keyinchalik ushbu vakillar Senatdagi impichment bo'yicha sud jarayonida prokuratura guruhiga aylanishadi (quyida 3-bo'lim, 6-bandga qarang).^[37]

3-bo'lim: Senat

1-band: Tarkibi; Senatorlarni saylash

Oltin oltin monopoliyalar endi AQSh Senatini (chapda) shtatlarning qonun chiqaruvchi organlarini buzgan holda (o'ngda) boshqara olmaydi.

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Senati har bir shtatdan olti yilga qonun chiqaruvchi tomonidan tanlangan ikkita senatordan iborat bo'ladi; va har bir senator bitta ovozga ega.

Uchinchi bo'limning birinchi bandida har bir shtat o'zlari saylaydigan ikkita senatorga ega bo'lish huquqini beradi davlat qonun chiqaruvchi organi (endi har bir shtat aholisi tomonidan) olti yillik muddat davomida xizmat qiladi va bittadan ovozga ega bo'ladi. Ushbu qoidalar bilan Konstitutsiya asoschilari davlat sifatida davlatlarning manfaatlarini himoya qilishni ko'zda tutdilar.^[38] Ushbu band o'rnini bosdi O'n ettinchi o'zgartirish, 1913 yilda tasdiqlangan, bu qisman beradi o'zgartirilgan, bu

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Senati har bir shtatdan olti yilga saylanadigan ikkita senatordan iborat; va har bir senator bitta ovozga ega.^[39]

Beshinchi modda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasiga qanday o'zgartirish kiritilishi mumkinligini belgilaydi. Bu vaqtincha tugaydi himoya qilish I moddaning uchta bandiga o'zgartirish kiritilmaydi. Ushbu band ularning orasida. (Boshqalar 9-bo'limning birinchi va to'rtinchi bandlari.) Beshinchi moddada "hech bir davlat, uning roziligisiz, Senatda teng huquqlardan mahrum qilinmaydi". Shunday qilib, biron bir davlat Senatda uning shaxsiy vakolatxonasini uning roziligisiz tuzatishi mumkin emas. Ya'ni, ushbu bandni barcha shtatlarga faqat bitta senator (yoki uchta senator yoki boshqa biron bir nomer) olish huquqini beradigan o'zgartirilgan tuzatish, agar shtatlarning to'rtdan uch qismi tomonidan tasdiqlangan bo'lsa, Konstitutsiyaning bir qismi sifatida kuchga kirishi mumkin; ammo, qat'iy raqamli tenglikdan tashqari (masalan, aholi, boylik yoki er maydoni) boshqa vakillik asoslarini nazarda tutgan biri uchun barcha davlatlarning bir ovozdan roziligi kerak.

Shtatlarning federal hukumatdagi qo'shma sheriklar sifatida o'zlarining maqsadlarini rad etish, ularni bekor qilish tenglik Senatga ko'ra, bo'lardi Bosh sudya Salmon P. Chase (ichida.) Texas va Oqqa qarshi ), Ittifoqning asosini yo'q qilish. Ushbu V-modda ushbu konstitutsiyaga kiritilgan o'zgartishlarga qarshi chiquvchilar tomonidan qo'llaniladi Kolumbiya okrugi Kongressda davlatchilik huquqini bermasdan to'liq vakolat. Ularning dalillari shundan iboratki, nodavlat okrugiga ikkita senatorga ega bo'lishiga imkon beradigan tuzatish shtatlarni Senatdagi teng saylov huquqidan mahrum qiladi va shu sababli barcha shtatlar tomonidan bir ovozdan tasdiqlashni talab qiladi.^[40] Tuzatish tarafdorlari, davlatlar shunchaki bir-birlari o'rtasida teng saylov huquqiga ega va federal okrug Senatiga vakillik berish bu huquqni buzmaydi, deb ta'kidlashdi. Bunday tuzatish uchun 50 ta davlatning bir ovozdan roziligi kerak bo'ladimi tezkor bo'lish javobsiz siyosiy savol bo'lib qolmoqda.

2-band: Senatorlarning tasnifi; Bo'sh ish o'rinlari

Ular birinchi saylov natijalari bo'yicha yig'ilgandan so'ng darhol uchta sinfga bo'linishi mumkin bo'lgan teng darajada bo'linadi. Birinchi sinf senatorlarining o'rindiqlari ikkinchi yil, ikkinchi sinf to'rtinchi yil tugashi bilan va uchinchi sinf oltinchi yil tugaganda bo'shatiladi, shunda uchdan bir qismi har ikkinchi yilda tanlaning; va agar vakansiyalar iste'foga chiqish yo'li bilan yoki boshqa yo'l bilan har qanday davlat Qonunchilik palatasi ta'tilida bo'lgan taqdirda sodir bo'lsa, uning Ijro etuvchisi Qonunchilik palatasining keyingi yig'ilishigacha vaqtincha tayinlashi mumkin, keyin esa ushbu vakansiyalarni to'ldiradi.

Senatorlarning birinchi guruhi saylangandan so'ng Birinchi Kongress (1789–1791), senatorlarga bo'lingan uchta "sinf" ushbu bo'lim talab qilganidek, imkon qadar kattaroq teng. Bu 1789 yil may oyida amalga oshirildi qur'a orqali. Shuningdek, har bir shtat senatorlari ikki xil sinfga ajratilishi to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi. Birinchi sinfda guruhlangan senatorlarning muddati faqat ikki yildan so'ng tugagan; ikkinchi sinfdagi senatorlarning vakolat muddati olti emas, atigi to'rt yildan so'ng tugagan. Shundan so'ng, ushbu shtatlarning barcha senatorlari olti yillik muddatga saylandilar va ittifoqqa yangi shtatlar qo'shilganligi sababli, ularning senatdagi o'rni uchta sinfning ikkitasiga berildi va har bir guruhni iloji boricha teng darajada ushlab turdi. Shu tarzda saylovlar bosqichma-bosqich amalga oshiriladi; Senatning taxminan uchdan bir qismi har ikki yilda qayta saylanishga tayyor, ammo butun organ hech qachon o'sha yili qayta saylanmaydi (Palatadan farqli o'laroq, uning butun a'zoligi har yili qayta saylanishi kerak. 2 yil).

Dastlab tashkil etilganidek, senatorlar Senatda ular vakili bo'lgan shtat qonun chiqaruvchi organi tomonidan saylangan. Agar senator vafot etsa, iste'foga chiqsa yoki chiqarib yuborilsa, shtat qonun chiqaruvchisi senatorning qolgan muddatini o'tash uchun uning o'rnini tayinlaydi. Agar shtat qonun chiqaruvchi organi sessiyada bo'lmaganida, uning hokimi qonun chiqaruvchi doimiy o'rinbosarni tanlamaguncha vaqtincha almashtirishni tayinlashi mumkin edi. Bu bilan almashtirildi O'n ettinchi o'zgartirish shtat qonunchilik organi tomonidan tayinlanishi o'rniga, senatorlarning ommaviy saylovlarini ta'minladi. Senatning kamroq populistik tabiatiga ishora qilib, tuzatish Vakillar palatasidagi vakansiyalar tartibini, hokimdan vakansiyani to'ldirish uchun maxsus saylovni tayinlashni talab qilishini talab qiladi, ammo (Palatadan farqli o'laroq) u shtat qonun chiqaruvchisiga tegishli. maxsus saylov o'tkazilgunga qadar hokimga vaqtincha almashtirishni tayinlashga ruxsat berish vakolati. Shunga qaramay, asl Konstitutsiyaga binoan, shtatlar gubernatorlariga Konstitutsiya tomonidan vaqtincha tayinlanishiga aniq ruxsat berilganligiga e'tibor bering. Amaldagi tizim, o'n ettinchi tuzatishga binoan, hokimlarga ularning shtat qonun chiqaruvchisi ilgari hokimga ruxsat berishga qaror qilgan taqdirdagina, uning o'rnini bosuvchini tayinlashi mumkin; aks holda, uydagi bo'sh o'rinda bo'lgani kabi, joyni to'ldirish uchun maxsus saylov o'tkazilgunga qadar o'rindiq bo'sh turishi kerak.

3-band: Senatorlarning malakasi

Hech kim o'ttiz yoshga to'lmagan va to'qqiz yoshda Qo'shma Shtatlarning fuqarosi bo'lgan senator bo'la olmaydi va u saylanganda o'zi tanlanadigan o'sha shtatda yashovchi bo'lmaydi.

Senator kamida 30 yoshda bo'lishi, saylanishidan oldin kamida to'qqiz yil Qo'shma Shtatlar fuqarosi bo'lishi va saylov paytida ular vakili bo'lgan shtatda istiqomat qilishi shart. Oliy sud Malaka bandini kongresslar palatasi tomonidan to'ldirilishi mumkin bo'lmagan maxsus malaka ro'yxati sifatida talqin qildi. Bo'lim. 5. "Sudya ... o'z a'zolarining malakasi" vakolatiga ega,^[23] yoki davlat tomonidan uni amalga oshirishda Bo'lim. 4. "Senatorlar va vakillar uchun saylovlarni o'tkazish vaqtlari, joylari va uslubi, ..." ni tayinlash vakolati.^[25]

4-modda: Senat prezidenti sifatida vitse-prezident

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining vitse-prezidenti Senatning raisi hisoblanadi, ammo ular teng bo'linmasa, ovoz berishga hojat yo'q.

Uchinchi bo'lim quyidagilarni ta'minlaydi vitse prezident bo'ladi Senat prezidenti. Prezident uchun saylovchilarning ovozlarini olish vazifasidan tashqari, bu konstitutsiya tomonidan vitse-prezident lavozimiga yuklatilgan yagona doimiy mas'uliyatdir. Ushbu lavozimda ishlashda Senat a'zosi bo'lmagan vitse-prezident ishtirok etishi mumkin ovozlarni tenglashtirish. Millat tarixining boshlarida vitse-prezidentlar tez-tez rahbarlik qilgan Senat ustidan. Zamonaviy vaqtlarda vitse-prezident buni faqat tantanali kunlarda yoki ovoz berishda tenglik kutilganda amalga oshiradi. 2018 yil 21 dekabr holatiga ko'ra^[yangilash], teng ovoz bilan ovoz berildi 268 marta.^[41]

5-band: Prezident tempore va boshqa zobitlar

Senat ish olib boradi [sic ] vitse-prezident yo'qligida yoki u Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti lavozimini bajarishi paytida boshqa ofitserlar, shuningdek tempore prezidenti.

Beshinchi bandda a Senat tempore prezidenti Senat tomonidan ushbu lavozimga saylangan, vitse-prezident yo'q bo'lganda yoki uning vakolatlarini amalga oshirayotganda organga rahbarlik qilish. prezidentning vakolatlari va vazifalari.

Although the Constitutional text seems to suggest to the contrary, the Senate's current practice is to elect a full-time president pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the vice president's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position.^[42] As is true of the speaker of the House,^[35] the Constitution does not require that the president pro tempore be a senator, but by convention, a senator is always chosen.

Clause 6: Trial of Impeachment

Senat barcha impichmentlarni ko'rib chiqish huquqiga ega. Shu maqsadda o'tirganda, ular Qasamyod yoki tasdiqlashda bo'lishlari kerak. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Clause Six grants to the Senate the sole power to try impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to mean that the Senate has exclusive and unreviewable authority to determine what constitutes an adequate impeachment trial.^[43] Of the nineteen federal officials formally impeached by the House of Representatives, three resigned (meaning proceedings were dismissed), seven were acquitted, and eight (all judges) were convicted by the Senate. On one occasion (in the case of Senator Uilyam Blount in 1797) the Senate declined to hold a trial, asserting that the House had no jurisdiction over members of the Senate; in any case, Blount had already been expelled from the Senate.^[44]

The impeachment trial of President Clinton 1999 yilda, bilan Bosh sudya Uilyam Renxist raislik qilish

The constitution's framers vested the Senate with this power for several reasons. First, they believed senators would be better educated, more virtuous, and more high-minded than members of the House of Representatives and thus uniquely able to decide responsibly the most difficult of political questions. Second, they believed that the Senate, being a numerous body, would be well suited to handle the procedural demands of an impeachment trial, in which it, unlike judges and the judiciary system, would "never be tied down by such strict rules, either in the delineation of the offense by the prosecutor, or in the construction of it by judges, as in the common cases serve to limit the discretion of courts in favor of personal security." (Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 65).^[45]

There are three Constitutionally mandated requirements for impeachment trials. The provision that senators must sit on oath or affirmation was designed to impress upon them the extreme seriousness of the occasion. The stipulation that the Bosh sudya is to preside over presidential impeachment trials underscores the solemnity of the occasion and aims to avoid the conflict of interest of a vice president's presiding over the proceeding for the removal of the one official standing between them and the presidency. The latter consideration was regarded to be quite important in the eighteenth century - political parties had not yet formed when the Constitution was adopted, and with the original method of electing the president and vice president it was presumed that the two people elected to those offices would frequently be political rivals. The specification that a two-thirds super-majority vote of those senators present in order to convict was also thought necessary to facilitate serious deliberation and to make removal possible only through a consensus that cuts across factional divisions.^[45]

Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office, and may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, but the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges.^[46]

Section 4: Congressional elections

Clause 1: Time, place, and manner of holding

The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing [sic ] Senators.

The purpose of this clause is twofold. First, it makes clear the division of responsibility with respect to the conduct of the election of federal senators and representatives. That responsibility lies primarily with the states and secondarily with Congress. Second, the clause lodges the power to regulate elections in the respective legislative branches of the states and the federal government.^[47] As authorized by this clause, Congress has set a uniform date for federal elections: the Tuesday following the first Monday in November.^[48]

Presently, as there are no on-point federal regulations, the states retain the authority to regulate the dates on which other aspects of the election process are held (registration, primary elections, etc.) and where elections will be held. As for regulating the "manner" of elections, the Supreme Court has interpreted this to mean "matters like notices, registration, supervision of voting, protection of voters, prevention of fraud and corrupt practices, counting of votes, duties of inspectors and canvassers, and making and publication of election returns."^[49] The Supreme Court has held that States may emas exercise their power to determine the "manner" of holding elections to impose term limits on their congressional delegation.^[25]

One of the most significant ways that each state regulates the "manner" of elections is through their power to draw electoral districts. Although in theory Congress could draw the district map for each State,^[50] it has not exercised this level of oversight. Congress has, however, required the States to conform to certain practices when drawing districts. States are currently required to use a single-member district scheme, whereby the State is divided into as many election districts for Representatives in the House of Representatives as the size of its representation in that body (that is to say, Representatives cannot be elected at-large from the whole State unless the State has only one Representative in the House, nor can districts elect more than 1 Representative).^[51] The Supreme Court has interpreted "by the Legislature thereof" to include voters using the initiative process, in those states whose constitutions provide it, to create an independent qayta taqsimlash komissiyasi.^[52]

Congress first exercised its power to regulate elections nation-wide in 1842, when the 27-kongress passed a law requiring the election of Representatives by districts.^[53] In subsequent years, Congress expanded on the requirements, successively adding contiguity, compactness, and substantial equality of population to the districting requirements. These standards were all later deleted in the 1929 yildagi qayta taqsimlash to'g'risidagi qonun.^[54] Congress subsequently reinstated the requirement that districts be composed of contiguous territory, be "compact," and have equal populations within each State.^[55] Congress has allowed those requirements to lapse,^[56] but the Supreme Court has re-imposed the population requirement on the States under the Equal Protection Clause^[21] and is suspicious of districts that do not meet the other "traditional" districting criteria of compactness and contiguity.^[57]

In 1865, Congress legislated a remedy for a situation under which deadlocks in state legislatures over the election of senators were creating vacancies in the office. The act required the two houses of each legislature to meet in joint session on a specified day and to meet every day thereafter until a senator was selected. The first comprehensive federal statute dealing with elections was adopted in 1870 as a means of enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment’s guarantee against racial discrimination in granting suffrage rights. Ostida 1870 yildagi ijro to'g'risidagi qonun, and subsequent laws, false registration, bribery, voting without legal right, making false returns of votes cast, interference in any manner with officers of election, and the neglect by any such officer of any duty required by state or federal law were made federal offenses. Provision was made for the appointment by federal judges of persons to attend at places of registration and at elections with authority to challenge any person proposing to register or vote unlawfully, to witness the counting of votes, and to identify by their signatures the registration of voters and election tally sheets.^[54]

Bilan boshlanadi 1907 yilgi Tillman qonuni, Congress has imposed a growing number of restrictions on elections and campaign financing. The most significant piece of legislation has been the 1971 Federal saylov kampaniyasi to'g'risidagi qonun. It was this legislation that was at issue in the Supreme Court's seminal decision, Buckley va Valeo (1976), which, in the face of a First Amendment challenge, set the ground rules for campaign finance legislation, generally disallowing restrictions on expenditures by candidates, but permitting restrictions on contributions by individuals and corporations.^[58]

In addition to statutory constraints, Congress and the States have altered the electoral process through amending the Constitution (first in the above mentioned Fifteenth Amendment). The Seventeenth Amendment altered the manner of conducting the elections of senators; establishing that they are to be elected by the people of the states. Shuningdek, O'n to'qqizinchi o'zgartirish prohibits any U.S. citizen from being denied the ovoz berish huquqi on the basis of sex; The Yigirma to'rtinchi o'zgartirish prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a ovoz berish solig'i or other types of tax; va Yigirma oltinchi o'zgartirish prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to U.S. citizens who are at least eighteen years old.

Clause 2: Sessions of Congress

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution empowers Congress to meet, whether or not the president called it into session. Article II, Section 3 does grant the president limited authority to convene and adjourn both Houses (or either of them) and mandates that it will meet at least once in a year to enact legislation on behalf of the people. Some delegates to the 1787 constitutional convention believed yearly meetings were not necessary, for there would not be enough legislative business for Congress to deal with annually. Nataniel Gorxem ning Massachusets shtati argued that the time should be fixed to prevent disputes from arising within the legislature, and to allow the states to adjust their elections to correspond with the fixed date. A fixed date also corresponded to the tradition in the states of having annual meetings. Finally, Gorham concluded that the legislative branch should be required to meet at least once a year to act as a check upon the executive department.^[59]

Although this clause provides that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December, the government established by the 1787 Constitution did not begin operations until March 4, 1789. As the 1-kongress held its initial meeting on March 4, that became the date on which new representatives and senators took office in subsequent years.^[60] Therefore, every other year, although a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "oqsoq o'rdak " session convening in the interim. This practice was altered in 1933 following ratification of the Yigirmanchi o'zgartirish, which states (in Section 2) that, "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day". This change virtually eliminated the necessity of there being a lame duck session of Congress.

Section 5: Procedure

Clause 1: Qualifications of Members

Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a Minority Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a kvorum tijorat bilan shug'ullanmoq; a smaller number may tanaffus the House or majburlash the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a kvorum chaqiruvi, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.

Sometimes, unqualified individuals have been admitted to Congress. For instance, the Senate once admitted Jon Genri Eaton, a twenty-eight-year-old, in 1818 (the admission was inadvertent, as Eaton's birth date was unclear at the time). In 1934, a twenty-nine-year-old, Shoshiling Xolt, was elected to the Senate; he agreed to wait six months, until his thirtieth birthday, to take the oath. The Senate ruled in that case that the age requirement applied as of the date of the taking of the oath, not the date of election.

Clause 2: Rules

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.

Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two-thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.

Clause 3: Record of proceedings

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal.

Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The proceedings of the House are recorded in the Journal; if one-fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.

Clause 4: Adjournment

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold pro forma sessiyalar every three days; such sessions are merely held to fulfill the constitutional requirement, and not to conduct business. Furthermore, neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (Kapitoliy ), without the consent of the other House.

Section 6: Compensation, privileges, and restrictions on holding civil office

Clause 1: Compensation and legal protection

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

Senators and representatives set their own compensation. Ostida Yigirma ettinchi o'zgartirish, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election. Paying senators and representatives out of the federal treasury was a departure from the practice under the Konfederatsiya moddalari, where they were paid by the state in which they were elected.^[61]

Members of both houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either house are privileged from arrest, except for xiyonat, jinoyat yoki breach of the peace. One may not sue a senator or representative for slander occurring during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution. The latter was affirmed when Mayk Gravel published over 4,000 pages of the Pentagon hujjatlari ichida Kongress yozuvlari, which might have otherwise been a criminal offense. This clause has also been interpreted in Gravel Qo'shma Shtatlarga qarshi, 408 U.S. 606 (1972) to provide protection to aides and staff of sitting members of Congress, so long as their activities relate to legislative matters.

Clause 2: Independence from the executive

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Senators and representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using homiylik to buy votes in Congress.^[61] It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.

Furthermore, senators and representatives cannot resign to take newly created or higher-paying political positions; rather, they must wait until the conclusion of the term for which they were elected. If Congress increases the salary of a particular officer, it may later reduce that salary to permit an individual to resign from Congress and take that position (known as the Saxbe tuzatish ). The effects of the clause were discussed in 1937, when Senator Ugo Blek tayinlandi Oliy sudning odil sudlovi with some time left in his Senate term. Just prior to the appointment, Congress had increased the pension available to Justices retiring at the age of seventy. It was therefore suggested by some that the office's emolument had been increased during Black's senatorial term, and that therefore Black could not take office as a justice. The response, however, was that Black was fifty-one years old, and would not receive the increased pension until at least 19 years later, long after his Senate term had expired.

Section 7: Bills

Clause 1: Bills of revenue

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

This establishes the method for making Kongress aktlari that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Senate sometimes circumvents this requirement by substituting the text of a revenue bill previously passed by the House with a substitute text.^[62][63] Either House may amend any bill, including revenue and appropriation bills.

This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their birinchi o'qish ichida Jamiyat palatasi. This practice was intended to ensure that the sumkaning kuchi is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills. The clause was part of the Ajoyib murosaga kelish between small and large states; the large states were unhappy with the lopsided power of small states in the Senate, and so the clause theoretically offsets the unrepresentative nature of the Senate, and compensates the large states for allowing equal voting rights to senators from small states.^[64]

Clause 2: From bill to law

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. Agar bunday qayta ko'rib chiqilgandan keyin ushbu palataning uchdan ikki qismi qonun loyihasini qabul qilishga rozi bo'lsa, u e'tirozlar bilan birga boshqa uyga yuboriladi, u shu tarzda qayta ko'rib chiqiladi va agar ushbu palataning uchdan ikki qismi tomonidan ma'qullansa. qonun bo'ladi. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

This clause is known as the Taqdimot moddasi. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the president, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the president signs the bill, it becomes law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two-thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the president, as prescribed in V modda. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two-thirds votes, override the veto. Vetoni bekor qilishda ikkala palataning ovozlari ha va nay tomonidan amalga oshirilishi kerak va qonun loyihasiga qarshi va qarshi ovoz bergan shaxslarning ismlari yozilishi kerak. If the president neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten-day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the president from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the president, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "cho'ntak veto ", which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the president allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment."^[65]

What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In Pocket Veto Case (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an 'adjournment' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that 'prevents' the president from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed." Since neither House of Congress was in session, the president could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. Yilda Rayt AQShga qarshi (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.

Some presidents have made very extensive use of the veto, while others have not used it at all. Grover Klivlend, for instance, vetoed over four hundred bills during his first term in office; Congress overrode only two of those vetoes. Meanwhile, seven presidents have never used the veto power. There have been 2,560 vetoes, including pocket vetoes.^[66]

1996 yilda Kongress Veto qonuni, which permitted the president, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The president could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two-thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. Bunday holda Klinton Nyu-York shahriga qarshi, the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the president, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve [the bill] he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it." Thus, the president may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.

Clause 3: Resolutions

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; Xuddi shu narsa kuchga kirguniga qadar, u tomonidan ma'qullanadi yoki unga ma'qul kelmaydi, qonun loyihasida belgilangan qoidalar va cheklovlarga muvofiq Senat va Vakillar Palatasining uchdan ikki qismi tomonidan qaytarib olinadi.

Every order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must also be presented to the president before taking effect, just as with bills that become law.

Section 8: Powers of Congress

Sanab o'tilgan vakolatlar

Newly naturalized citizen, Albert Eynshteyn received his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Fillip Forman.

Congress's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight. Its 18 clauses are, in order:

The Congress shall have power

• Kimga lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common defence^{[eslatma 1]} and general Welfare Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
• Kimga borrow Money on the credit of the United States;
• Kimga regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;
• A tashkil etish uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankrotlik AQSh bo'ylab;
• Kimga coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;
• To provide for the Punishment of qalbakilashtirish the Securities and current coin of the United States;
• Kimga o'rnatmoq Pochta idoralari va post Roads;
• Kimga promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;
• Tuzish Tribunals inferior uchun Oliy sud;
• To define and punish Qaroqchilar va Jinoyatlar committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against the Millatlar qonuni;
• Kimga Urush e'lon qiling, grant Mark va qasos xatlari va qiling Quruqlikda va suvda qo'lga olish qoidalari;
• To raise and support Qo'shinlar, lekin yoq Ajratish of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;
• To provide and maintain a Dengiz kuchlari;
• To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;
• To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;
• To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
• To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such Tuman (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Qal'alar, Jurnallar, "Arsenal", dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;—And
• To make all Laws which shall be zarur va to'g'ri for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Congress's "power of the purse" authorizes taxing citizens, spending money, issuing notes and minting coins.

Many powers of Congress have been granted under a broad interpretation of Article 1, section 8. Most notably, Clauses 1 (the General Welfare or Taxing and Spending clause), 3 (the Commerce clause), and 18 (The Necessary and Proper clause) have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress. These three clauses have been interpreted so broadly that the federal government of the United States exercises many powers that are not expressly delegated to it by the states under the Constitution. Some point to the various social programs of the American ijtimoiy davlat as a prime example, and not all agree with this broad interpretation. Jeyms Medison, who wrote much of the Constitution, asserted that Congress could not exercise powers unless they were expressly granted in the Constitution. While he was president of the United States, Madison veto qo'ydi the Federal Public Works Bill of 1817, calling it unconstitutional, since in his view the federal government did not have the authority to build infrastructure.^[67][68][69]

Clause 1: the General Welfare Clause

This clause is also referred to as the Spending Clause and the Taxing and Spending Clause.^[70] It states that Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving the siyosiy savol Kongressga. Yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Butler (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of the Soliqqa tortish va sarflash moddalari; masalan, ijtimoiy Havfsizlik program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.

Clause 2: Borrowing Power

Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding Noks va Li, the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of suveren immunitet prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges on its commitment.^[71]

Clause 3: Commerce Clause

Bosh sudya Jon Marshall established a broad interpretation of the Commerce Clause.

The Congress shall have Power [...] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the tijorat moddasi for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was Gibbonlar va Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Tomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson daryosi, ikkinchisi esa Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Bosh sudya Jon Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution".

The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a laissez-faire attitude dominated the Court. Yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari - E. C. Knight Company (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman antitrestlik qonuni, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it."

The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled Yangi bitim programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. Yilda Schechter Poultry Corp. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlariga qarshi, (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." Bosh sudya sifatida Charlz Evans Xyuz put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.

In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez-faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, bu Milliy mehnat munosabatlari to'g'risidagi qonun of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny prevented employers from engaging in "adolatsiz mehnat amaliyotlari " such as firing workers for joining kasaba uyushmalari. In sustaining this act, the Court signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.

This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In Vikard va Filbern, the Court ruled that production quotas under the 1938 yildagi qishloq xo'jaligini tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonun were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home-grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court's total deference to Congress' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Lopes (1995) oltmish yil ichida federal nizomni tijorat bandiga binoan Kongress vakolatidan oshib ketganligi sababli bekor qilish to'g'risidagi birinchi qaror edi. Sud, Kongressning Tijorat moddasiga binoan keng qonun chiqaruvchi vakolatiga ega bo'lsa-da, hokimiyat cheklangan va "savdo" dan tortib to olib o'tishni tartibga solishga ruxsat bermagan. qurol, ayniqsa, ularni olib borish iqtisodiyotga katta miqyosda ta'sir qilganligi to'g'risida hech qanday dalil bo'lmaganida. Keyinchalik, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Morrison (2000), odil sudlovlar, agar umumiy ta'sir ko'rsatadigan dalillar mavjud bo'lsa ham, Kongress bunday qonunlarni qabul qila olmaydi.

Ushbu qarorlardan farqli o'laroq, Oliy sud ham belgilangan pretsedentga amal qilishni davom ettirmoqda Vikard va Filbern. Yilda Gonsales va Raich Savdo bandi Kongressga uy sharoitida etishtirish va undan foydalanishni jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish vakolatini berdi nasha davlatlar undan foydalanishni ma'qullagan joyda ham tibbiy maqsadlar. Sud, avvalgi holatdagi qishloq xo'jaligi mahsulotlarida bo'lgani kabi, uyda etishtirilgan nasha federal tartibga solishning qonuniy mavzusi, chunki u davlatlararo tijoratda harakatlanadigan marixuana bilan raqobatlashadi.

Kongressning boshqa vakolatlari

Kongress mudofaani sotib olish kabi xarajatlarni tasdiqlaydi USS Bon Homme Richard.

Kongress tegishli yagona qonunlarni belgilashi mumkin fuqarolikka qabul qilish va bankrotlik. Shuningdek, u pullarni tanga qilishi, amerika yoki chet el valyutasining qiymatini tartibga solishi va qalbakilashtirilganlarni jazolashi mumkin. Kongress og'irlik va o'lchovlar standartlarini tuzatishi mumkin. Bundan tashqari, Kongress tashkil qilishi mumkin pochta bo'limlari va pochta yo'llari (ammo yo'llar faqat pochta jo'natmasi uchun kerak emas). Kongress taqdim etish orqali ilm-fan va foydali san'at rivojiga yordam berishi mumkin mualliflik huquqlari va patentlar cheklangan muddat. Sakkizinchi qism, birinchi moddaning sakkizinchi bandi, nomi bilan tanilgan Mualliflik huquqi moddasi, asl konstitutsiyada ishlatilgan "huquq" so'zining yagona nusxasi (garchi bu so'z bir nechta O'zgartirishlarda mavjud bo'lsa ham).^[72] Mualliflik huquqi va patentning doimiy saqlanishi taqiqlangan bo'lsa ham, Oliy sud qaror chiqardi Eldred va Ashkroft (2003) mualliflik huquqining amal qilish muddatining takroriy kengaytirilishi abadiy mualliflik huquqini anglatmaydi; Shuni ham ta'kidlash kerakki, bu belgilangan maqsadni amalga oshirish uchun vositalar maxsus taqdim etilgan joyda berilgan yagona kuchdir. Oliy suddan past bo'lgan sudlar Kongress tomonidan tuzilishi mumkin.

Kongress urush va qurolli kuchlar bilan bog'liq bir nechta vakolatlarga ega. Ostida Urush vakolatlari to'g'risidagi maqola, faqat Kongress urush e'lon qilishi mumkin, ammo bir necha hollarda u urush e'lon qilmasdan, prezidentga harbiy mojarolarda qatnashish vakolatini bergan. Qo'shma Shtatlar tarixida beshta urush e'lon qilingan: 1812 yilgi urush, Meksika-Amerika urushi, Ispaniya-Amerika urushi, Birinchi jahon urushi va Ikkinchi jahon urushi. Ba'zi tarixchilar, qarshi operatsiyalar davomida qabul qilingan huquqiy doktrinalar va qonunchilikni ta'kidlaydilar Pancho Villa oltinchi urush e'lonini tashkil etadi. Kongress berishi mumkin marque harflari va jazo. Kongress qurolli kuchlarni tuzishi va qo'llab-quvvatlashi mumkin, ammo armiyani qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun ajratilgan mablag 'ikki yildan ortiq vaqt davomida ishlatilishi mumkin emas. Ushbu qoida ramkalar tinchlik davrida fuqarolik nazorati ostidan doimiy armiya tuzilishidan qo'rqishgani uchun kiritilgan. Kongress shtat militsiyasini tartibga solishi yoki chaqirishi mumkin, ammo shtatlar ofitserlarni tayinlash va xodimlarni tayyorlash vakolatlarini saqlab qoladi. Kongress shuningdek, quruqlik va dengiz kuchlarini tartibga soluvchi qoidalar va qoidalarni qabul qilish bo'yicha maxsus kuchga ega. Garchi ijro etuvchi hokimiyat va Pentagon ushbu jarayonga tobora ko'payib borayotganligini ta'kidlagan bo'lsa-da, AQSh Oliy sudi tez-tez Kongressning ushbu hokimiyatdagi eksklyuziv mavqeini tasdiqladi (masalan, Bernsga qarshi Uilson, 346 AQSh 137 (1953)). Kongress Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan ko'p o'tmay, ushbu qonunni ikki qonunni qabul qilgan holda ikki marta ishlatgan: Harbiy adolatning yagona kodeksi harbiy va harbiy odil sudlarning sifati va adolatliligini oshirish va Federal tortishish to'g'risidagi qonun Bu boshqa huquqlar qatorida harbiy xizmatchilarga AQSh Oliy sudi nizomning ushbu qismini bo'linuvchi qator ishlarni bekor qilgunga qadar tovon puli to'lashga ruxsat bergan. Feres doktrinasi.

Kongress "har qanday holatda ham" mamlakat poytaxti uchun qonun chiqaradigan eksklyuziv huquqga ega Kolumbiya okrugi. Kongress bunday vakolatlarning bir qismini saylanganlarga berishni tanlaydi shahar hokimi va kengash Kolumbiya okrugi. Shunga qaramay, Kongress okrug uchun har qanday qonunchilikni konstitutsiyada ruxsat berilgan muddatgacha qabul qilishda, shahar hokimiyati tomonidan har qanday qonunchilikni bekor qilishda va texnik jihatdan shahar hokimiyatini istalgan vaqtda bekor qilishda erkin bo'lib qoladi. Kongress shuningdek, shtatlardan qal'alar va boshqa binolarni barpo etish uchun sotib olingan erlarga nisbatan bunday vakolatni amalga oshirishi mumkin.

18-modda: Kongressning nazarda tutilgan vakolatlari (zarur va to'g'ri)

Kongress kuchga ega [...] Ijro etilishi uchun zarur bo'lgan va tegishli bo'lgan barcha qonunlarni yuqoridagi vakolatlarni va ushbu Konstitutsiyada Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Hukumatida yoki har qanday Departamentda yoki Zobitda berilgan boshqa barcha vakolatlarni amalga oshirish uchun. uning.

Va nihoyat, Kongress sanab o'tilgan vakolatlarini amalga oshirish uchun "zarur va to'g'ri" har qanday narsani qilishga qodir va, eng muhimi, unga tegishli bo'lgan barcha narsalarga ega. Bu xatti-harakatlari davlatlararo tijoratga "katta ta'sir ko'rsatadigan" shaxslarni jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish huquqini berish uchun talqin qilingan. Vikard va Filbern; ammo, Tomas Jefferson, ichida Kentukki qarorlari tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadi Jeyms Medison, jazo kuchini tartibga solish kuchidan xulosa chiqarish mumkin emasligini va jazo vakolatlari faqat xiyonat, qalbakilashtirish, qaroqchilik va jinoyat ustida ochiq dengiz va qarshi jinoyatlar millatlar qonuni.

Kerakli va to'g'ri band juda keng talqin qilindi va shu bilan Kongressga qonunchilikda keng kenglik berdi. Ushbu band bilan bog'liq birinchi muhim voqea bo'ldi Makkullox va Merilend Tashkil etish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan (1819) milliy bank. Aleksandr Xemilton, bankni yaratishni targ'ib qilar ekan, bank bilan "soliqlarni yig'ish, pul qarz olish, davlatlar o'rtasidagi savdoni tartibga solish, flot va dengiz flotini ko'tarish va saqlash vakolatlari" o'rtasida "ozmi-ko'pmi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri" munosabatlar mavjudligini ta'kidladi. Tomas Jefferson Kongressning vakolatlari "barchasi milliy banksiz bajarilishi mumkin. Shuning uchun bank zarur emas va shu sababli ushbu ibora bilan vakolat berilmagan" deb qarshi chiqdi. Bosh sudya Jon Marshall avvalgi talqin bilan rozi bo'ldi. Marshal Konstitutsiya ro'yxati deb yozgan barchasi Kongress vakolatlari "huquqiy kodeksning tez-tez ishtirok etishi va inson ongi tomonidan qabul qilinishi qiyin". Konstitutsiya Kongress vakolatining "kichik tarkibiy qismlarini" sanab o'tolmagani uchun, Marshal Kongressning umumiy farovonlik, savdo va boshqa bandlarning "buyuk konturlari" dan bank tashkil etish vakolatiga ega ekanligini "chiqarib tashladi". Kerakli va to'g'ri bandning ushbu doktrinasi ostida Kongress keng miqyosli vakolatlarga ega (ular nomi bilan tanilgan) nazarda tutilgan kuchlar ) Konstitutsiyada aniq sanab o'tilmagan. Biroq, Kongress faqat nazarda tutilgan vakolatlar to'g'risida qonunlar qabul qila olmaydi, sanab o'tilgan vakolatlarni amalga oshirishda har qanday harakat zarur va to'g'ri bo'lishi kerak.

9-bo'lim: Federal hokimiyatning chegaralari

Birinchi moddaning to'qqizinchi qismida federal vakolatlar, shu jumladan Kongress vakolatlari cheklangan:^[73][74]

Hozirda mavjud bo'lgan har qanday davlatlar kabi shaxslarning migratsiyasi yoki importi tan olishni to'g'ri deb hisoblaydi, Kongress tomonidan bir ming sakkiz yuz sakkizinchi yilgacha taqiqlanmaydi, ammo bunday import uchun soliq yoki boj olinishi mumkin; har bir kishi uchun o'n dollardan oshmasligi kerak.

Yozuvning imtiyozi Habeas Corpus To'xtatib qo'yilmaydi, agar isyon yoki bosqinchilik holatlarida jamoat xavfsizligi talab qilmasa.

Yo'q Ta'mirlash to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi yoki post post facto Qonun qabul qilinadi.

Yo'q Imkoniyat yoki boshqa to'g'ridan-to'g'ri soliq, agar bu erda ro'yxatga olish yoki sanab chiqishga mutanosib bo'lmaganda, olinishi kerak.

Hech bir davlatdan eksport qilinadigan buyumlarga soliq yoki boj undirilmaydi.

Savdo yoki daromadlar to'g'risidagi har qanday Nizom bilan bir davlatning portlariga boshqa davlatga nisbatan hech qanday ustunlik berilmaydi: shuningdek, bitta davlatga bog'langan yoki kelgan kemalar boshqa davlatga kirish, tozalash yoki bojlarni to'lashga majbur emas.

G'aznachilikdan pul olinmaydi, lekin Qonunda belgilangan mablag'lar natijasida; va vaqti-vaqti bilan barcha davlat pullari tushumlari va xarajatlari to'g'risidagi hisobot va hisobot e'lon qilinadi.

Qo'shma Shtatlar tomonidan biron bir zodagonlik unvoni berilmaydi: va ularning ostida biron bir foyda yoki ishonch idorasiga ega bo'lgan biron bir kishi Kongressning roziligisiz biron bir sovg'ani qabul qilmaydi; Taqdirlash, Har qanday qiroldan, shahzodadan yoki chet davlatdan har qanday turdagi ofis yoki lavozim.

1-band: Qul savdosi

AQSh brig Perri qul kemasiga qarshi turish Marta yopiq Ambriz 1850 yil 6-iyunda

Ushbu bo'limdagi birinchi band Kongressni cheklaydigan har qanday qonunni qabul qilishiga to'sqinlik qiladi qullarni olib kirish 1808 yilgacha Qo'shma Shtatlarga. Kongress a Aholi jon boshiga o'nga qadar vazifa Ispaniyalik tegirmon dollarlari mamlakatga olib kelingan har bir qul uchun. Ushbu band qo'shimcha edi mustahkamlangan tomonidan Konstitutsiyaga kiritilgan V modda, bu erda 1808 yilgacha konstitutsiyaviy o'zgartirishlardan aniq himoyalangan. 1807 yil 2 martda Kongress qonunlarni tasdiqladi qullarni olib kirishni taqiqlash Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlariga, 1808 yil 1-yanvarda, Konstitutsiyada ruxsat etilgan taqiqning birinchi kunida kuchga kirdi.

2 va 3-bandlar: Fuqarolik va huquqiy himoya

Yozuv habeas corpus hibsga olingan shaxsga ega bo'lgan huquqni muhofaza qilish organi yoki boshqa organni hibsga olishning qonuniyligini sud tomonidan so'rashga buyruq beradigan noqonuniy hibsga olishga qarshi qonuniy choralar. Sud hibsga olish uchun sabab etarli emas yoki asossiz deb topilgan bo'lsa, ozod qilingan shaxsni tayinlashi mumkin. Bundan tashqari, Konstitutsiya ushbu yozuvning imtiyozini beradi habeas corpus "agar qo'zg'olon yoki bosqinchilik holatlarida jamoat xavfsizligi talab qilmasa" to'xtatib turilishi mumkin emas. Yilda Milliy partiyaning sobiq qismi (1866), Oliy sud qaroriga binoan to'xtatib turish habeas corpus urush davrida qonuniy edi, ammo harbiy tribunallar Konstitutsiyaning vakolatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlagan va fuqarolik sudlari faoliyat ko'rsatayotgan shtatlarda fuqarolarga nisbatan qo'llanilmadi.

A qonun loyihasi shaxsning sudsiz darhol sudlanganligi haqidagi qonun. An ex post facto qonun - bu orqaga qarab amal qiladigan qonun, bu sodir etilganidan keyin faqat jinoiy qilmishi uchun birovni jazolaydi. The ex post facto band fuqarolik ishlariga taalluqli emas.^[75]

4-7-bandlar: To'g'ridan-to'g'ri soliqlarni taqsimlash

To'qqizinchi bo'lim ushbu qoidani takrorlaydi Ikkinchi bo'lim, 3-band bu to'g'ridan-to'g'ri soliqlar davlat aholisi tomonidan taqsimlanishi kerak. Ushbu band 1808 yilgacha konstitutsiyaviy tuzatishlardan aniq himoya qilingan V modda. 1913 yilda 16-o'zgartirish barchadan ozod qilindi daromad solig'i ushbu banddan. Bu qarorni bekor qildi Pollock va Fermerlarning Kreditlari va Trust Co. daromad solig'i faqat doimiy daromadlarga nisbatan qo'llanilishi va dividendlar va kapital o'sishiga nisbatan qo'llanilishi mumkin emasligi. Bundan tashqari, biron bir davlatning eksportiga soliq solinishi mumkin emas. Kongress daromadlar yoki tijorat to'g'risidagi qonun hujjatlariga binoan bir davlat portlarini boshqasiga nisbatan ustun qo'yishi mumkin emas; shuningdek, bir davlatdan kemalardan boshqa davlatda boj to'lashni talab qilishi mumkin emas. G'aznachilikka tegishli barcha mablag'larni qonun hujjatlaridan tashqari olib qo'yish mumkin emas. Zamonaviy amaliyot shundan iboratki, Kongress har yili bir qator mablag 'ajratish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihalari davlat pullarini sarflashga ruxsat berish. Konstitutsiya bunday xarajatlar to'g'risida muntazam ravishda e'lon qilinishini talab qiladi.

8-band: Zodagonlarning unvonlari

The Asilzodlik moddasining nomi Kongressga biron birini berishni taqiqlaydi zodagonlar unvoni. Bundan tashqari, unda ta'kidlanishicha, biron bir fuqarolik xodimi Kongressning roziligisiz chet el hukmdori yoki davlatidan biron bir sovg'a, to'lov, lavozim yoki unvonni qabul qila olmaydi. Taqdirlashlar chuqur tashvish uyg'otdi muassislar.^[76] Biroq, AQSh fuqarosi chet el idorasini davlat xizmatidan oldin yoki undan keyin olishi mumkin.

10-bo'lim: Shtatlarning cheklovlari

1-band: Shartnoma moddasi

Hech bir davlat hech qanday Shartnoma, Ittifoq yoki Konfederatsiya tuzmaydi; Mark va repressiya xatlarini berish; tanga pul; chiqaradi Kredit veksellari; Oltin va kumush tangalardan boshqa har qanday narsani qarzlarni to'lash uchun tender qilish; ex postto facto qonunlari yoki shartnomalar majburiyatini buzadigan qonunlarni qabul qilish yoki zodagonlik unvonini berish.

Shtatlar federal hukumat uchun ajratilgan ba'zi vakolatlarni amalga oshirishi mumkin emas: ular shartnomalar, ittifoqlar yoki konfederatsiyalar tuza olmaydi, marke yoki repressiya xatlari, tanga pullari yoki muomalalar berishlari mumkin emas. kredit veksellari (valyuta kabi). Bundan tashqari, hech bir davlat qarzlarni to'lash uchun oltin va kumush tangalardan boshqa hech narsa qila olmaydi, bu har qanday shtat hukumatiga aniq taqiq qo'yadi (lekin federal hukumat emas)^[77]) "tender o'tkazish" dan (ya'ni to'lovga taklif qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan narsaga avtorizatsiya qilish)^[78]) ning har qanday turi yoki shakli pul har qanday moliyaviy majburiyatni bajarish,^[2-eslatma] agar ushbu pul shakli oltin yoki kumushdan yasalgan tangalar (yoki oltin yoki kumush tangalarda qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan va sotib olinadigan ayirboshlash vositasi bo'lsa) Fermerlar va savdogarlar banki Federal rezerv bankiga qarshi^[79]). Ushbu bandning katta qismi Shtatlarning Kongress yaratgan valyutadan boshqa har qanday valyutani ishlatishi yoki yaratilishining oldini olishga bag'ishlangan. Yilda Federalist yo'q. 44, Madisonning ta'kidlashicha, "davlatlarga tanga regulyatsiyasi kuchini inkor etish zarurligini ko'rsatadigan xuddi shu sabablar, tanga o'rniga qog'oz vositasini almashtirish erkinligida bo'lmaslik kerakligini teng kuch bilan isbotlashi mumkin". Agar har bir davlat o'z tanganing qiymatini tartibga solish huquqiga ega bo'lsa, unda davlatlar singari turli xil valyutalar bo'lishi mumkin edi va shu bilan ular o'rtasidagi aloqaga to'sqinlik qilar edi ".^[80] Bundan tashqari, davlatlar qonun loyihalarini qabul qilishlari, qabul qilishi mumkin emas ex post facto qonunlar, shartnomalar majburiyatini buzadi yoki zodagonlik unvonlarini beradi.

The Shartnoma moddasi 19-asrda juda ko'p tortishuvlarga sabab bo'lgan. Birinchi marta Oliy sud tomonidan 1810 yilda, qachon talqin qilingan Fletcher va Pek qaror qilindi. Ishga tegishli Yazoo er mojarosi, unda Gruziya qonun chiqaruvchi erni chayqovchilarga arzon narxlarda sotishga ruxsat berdi. Vakolatli qonunchilikni qabul qilishda ishtirok etgan poraxo'rlik shunchalik ravshan ediki, Jorjiya mafiyasi qonun chiqaruvchi korruptsion a'zolarni linchalashga urindi. Saylovlardan so'ng qonun chiqaruvchi qonun buzilgan qonun chiqaruvchilar tomonidan tuzilgan shartnomalarni bekor qiladigan qonun qabul qildi. Savdo bekor qilinganligining haqiqiyligi Oliy sudda so'roq qilingan. Bir ovozdan sudga yozma ravishda bosh sudya Jon Marshall "Shartnoma nima?" Uning javobi quyidagicha edi: "ikki yoki undan ortiq partiyalar o'rtasida ixchamlik". Marshalning ta'kidlashicha, Gruziya qonun chiqaruvchi organi tomonidan er sotilishi, garchi korruptsiya bilan to'la bo'lsa-da, amaldagi "shartnoma" edi. Uning qo'shimcha qilishicha, davlat erni sotib olishni bekor qilishga haqli emas, chunki bu shartnoma majburiyatlarini buzadi.

Bosh sudya Marshal tomonidan ilgari surilgan shartnoma ta'rifi tuyulishi mumkin bo'lgan darajada sodda emas edi. 1819 yilda Sud korporativ nizomni shartnoma sifatida talqin qilish mumkinligini ko'rib chiqdi. Ishi Dartmut kollejining vasiylari vudvordga qarshi jalb qilingan Dartmut kolleji Qirol tomonidan berilgan Qirollik Xartiyasiga binoan tashkil etilgan Jorj III. Nizomga binoan kollejni boshqarish uchun o'n ikki nafardan iborat kengash tuzildi. Ammo 1815 yilda Nyu-Xempshir kollej ustidan jamoatchilik nazorati amalga oshirilishini ta'minlash maqsadida kengash tarkibini yigirma bittaga ko'paytiradigan qonun qabul qildi. Sud, shu jumladan Marshall, Nyu-Xempshir shtat nizomni o'zgartira olmaydi, degan qarorni qabul qildi, chunki bu shartnoma ishonchli shaxslarga "berilgan huquqlar" ni berganligi sababli.

Marshall sudi yana bir nizoni aniqladi Sturges va Crowninshield. Bu ish 1811 yil boshida tuzilgan qarz bilan bog'liq edi. Keyinchalik o'sha yili Nyu-York shtati bankrotlik to'g'risidagi qonunni qabul qildi va unga binoan qarz keyinchalik bekor qilindi. Oliy sud qaroriga ko'ra, orqaga qaytarilgan holda tatbiq etilgan davlat bankrotligi to'g'risidagi qonun qarzni to'lash majburiyatini buzgan va shu sababli Konstitutsiyani buzgan. Yilda Ogden va Sonders (1827), ammo, sud bankrotlik to'g'risidagi qonunlarni davlat deb qaror qildi mumkin edi qonun qabul qilinganidan keyin tuzilgan qarzlarga nisbatan qo'llaniladi. Bankrotlik va qarzdorlarga yordam berish to'g'risidagi davlat qonunchiligi keng qamrovli qabul qilinganidan beri juda ko'p muammo bo'lib kelmadi federal bankrotlik to'g'risidagi qonun 1898 yilda.

2-band: Import-Export bandi

Hech bir davlat, Kongressning roziligisiz, import yoki eksportga hech qanday majburiyat va majburiyatlarni yuklamaydi, faqat uni bajarish uchun juda zarur bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan holatlar bundan mustasno [sic ] tekshirish to'g'risidagi qonunlar: va har qanday davlat tomonidan import yoki eksportga qo'yilgan barcha majburiyatlar va majburiyatlarning aniq ishlab chiqarilishi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari xazinasidan foydalanish uchun mo'ljallangan; va shunga o'xshash barcha qonunlar qayta ko'rib chiqilishi va qarama-qarshiliklarga bo'ysunishi kerak [sic ] Kongressning.

Shtatlar tomonidan hali ham ko'proq vakolatlar taqiqlangan. Shtatlar Kongressning roziligisiz soliqlarni olib kirish yoki eksport qilishlari mumkin emas, davlat nazorati to'g'risidagi qonunlarning bajarilishi bundan mustasno (Kongress tomonidan qayta ko'rib chiqilishi mumkin). Soliqning sof daromadi davlatga emas, balki federal G'aznachilikka to'lanadi.

3-band: ixcham shart

Hech bir davlat, Kongressning roziligisiz, tonnaj vazifasini yuklamaydi, qo'shinlarni yoki urush kemalarini tinchlik davrida saqlamaydi, boshqa davlat bilan yoki chet el davlati bilan hech qanday bitim tuzmaydi yoki shartnomani tuzmaydi yoki urushga kirmaydi. haqiqatan ham bosib olingan yoki kechikishni tan olmaydigan yaqin xavf.

Shartnomaga binoan, davlatlar Kongressning roziligisiz tinchlik davrida qo'shinlarni yoki qo'shinlarni saqlashi yoki boshqa davlatlar yoki xorijiy hukumatlar bilan bitimlar tuzishi mumkin emas. Bundan tashqari, davlatlar bosqin qilinmasa, urushga kirisha olmaydi. Biroq, davlatlar a tashkil qilishlari va qurollantirishlari mumkin militsiya Kongress tomonidan belgilangan intizomga muvofiq. The Milliy gvardiya, ularning a'zolari ham belgilangan militsiya a'zolari 10 AQSh  § 311, a funktsiyasini bajaradigan shaxslar kabi, ushbu funktsiyani bajaring davlat mudofaa kuchlari ostida federal nazorat bilan 32 AQSh  § 109.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Kongressga davlatlar o'rtasidagi kelishuvlar to'g'risida gapirishlariga imkon berish g'oyasi turli koloniyalar o'rtasida yuzaga kelgan ko'plab qarama-qarshiliklardan kelib chiqadi. Oxir oqibat ikki mustamlaka o'rtasida murosaga kelinadigan va bu murosaga bo'ysungan bo'lar edi toj tasdiqlash uchun. Keyin Amerika inqilobiy urushi, Konfederatsiya moddalari davlatlar o'rtasidagi chegaralarni yoki "har qanday sababga ko'ra" nizolarni hal qilish uchun Kongressga murojaat qilishga ruxsat berdi. Konfederatsiya moddalari, shuningdek, davlat taraflardan biri bo'lgan "har qanday shartnoma yoki ittifoqni" Kongress tomonidan tasdiqlashni talab qildi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Bir qator Oliy sud holatlar Kongressning an davlatlararo ixcham. Yilda Virjiniya va Tennessi, 148 BIZ. 503 (1893), Sud, davlatlar o'rtasidagi ba'zi kelishuvlar Kongressning aniq roziligiga ega bo'lmagan taqdirda ham mavjudligini aniqladi. Sud keltirgan misollardan biri, ba'zi tovarlarni uzoq davlatdan o'ziga ko'chiradigan davlat edi, buning uchun boshqa davlat bilan o'z kanallaridan transport uchun foydalanish uchun shartnoma tuzish uchun Kongressning roziligi talab qilinmaydi. Sudning fikriga ko'ra, Shartnoma bo'yicha kelishuv faqat davlatlar o'rtasidagi kelishuv "davlatlarda siyosiy hokimiyatni kuchaytirishga qaratilgan har qanday kombinatsiyani shakllantirishga yo'naltirilgan bo'lsa, Kongressning roziligini talab qiladi. Qo'shma Shtatlar".^[81]

Kongressning roziligi masalasi konstitutsiyaga muvofiq emasligi haqidagi hozirgi munozaralarning markazida samarali Milliy ommaviy ovoz berish davlatlararo ixcham o'n besh davlatlar tomonidan kiritilgan Kolumbiya okrugi.^[82]

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Irons, Peter H. (1999). Oliy sudning xalq tarixi. Nyu-York: Pingvin.

Tashqi havolalar

• Davis, Z. (2001). "Presidential Vetoes, 1989–2000."
• Kilman, J. & Costello, G. (Eds). (2000). Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi: tahlil va talqin. s
• CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 1
• "Resources Regarding the Origination Clause" (from TIFIS)
• Milliy Kabel Yo'ldosh Korporatsiyasi. (2003). "Capitol Questions."