Grover Klivlend - Grover Cleveland

Ushbu maqola Qo'shma Shtatlarning 22 va 24-prezidenti haqida. Uning nomidagi kemalar uchun qarang SS prezidenti Klivlend.

Grover Klivlend
Grover Klivlend, Frederik Gutekunst.jpg tomonidan
Klivlend 1903 yilda
22-chi va 24-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti
Ofisda
1893 yil 4 mart - 1897 yil 4 mart
Vitse prezidentAdlai Stivenson I
OldingiBenjamin Xarrison
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam Makkinli
Ofisda
1885 yil 4 mart - 1889 yil 4 mart
Vitse prezident
OldingiChester A. Artur
MuvaffaqiyatliBenjamin Xarrison
28-chi Nyu-York gubernatori
Ofisda
1883 yil 1-yanvar - 1885 yil 6-yanvar
LeytenantDevid B. Xill
OldingiAlonzo B. Kornell
MuvaffaqiyatliDevid B. Xill
34-chi Buffalo meri
Ofisda
1882 yil 2-yanvar - 1882 yil 20-noyabr
OldingiAleksandr Brush
MuvaffaqiyatliMarkus M. Dreyk
17-chi Eri okrugi sherifi, Nyu-York
Ofisda
1871 yil 1 yanvar - 1873 yil 31 dekabr[1]
OldingiCharlz Darsi
MuvaffaqiyatliJon B. Veber
Shaxsiy ma'lumotlar
Tug'ilgan
Stiven Grover Klivlend

(1837-03-18)1837 yil 18-mart
Kolduell, Nyu-Jersi, BIZ.
O'ldi1908 yil 24-iyun(1908-06-24) (71 yosh)
Prinston, Nyu-Jersi, BIZ.
Dam olish joyiPrinston qabristoni, Nyu-Jersi
Siyosiy partiyaDemokratik
Turmush o'rtoqlar
​
(m. 1886)​
Bolalar6, shu jumladan Rut ("Chaqaloq"), Ester, Richard
Ota-onalar
Qarindoshlar
Kasb
  • Siyosatchi
  • yurist
ImzoMurakkab imzo

Stiven Grover Klivlend (1837 yil 18 mart - 1908 yil 24 iyun) - 22 va 24-kunlari bo'lgan amerikalik siyosatchi va huquqshunos. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari prezidenti, Amerika tarixidagi ketma-ket ikki muddat prezidentlik lavozimida ishlagan yagona prezident (1885-1889 va 1893-1897).[b] U g'alaba qozondi xalq ovozi uchta prezident saylovlari uchun - yilda 1884, 1888 va 1892 - va ikkitadan biri edi Demokratlar (bilan Vudro Uilson davrida prezident etib saylanish Respublika 1861 yildan 1933 yilgacha bo'lgan prezidentlik hukmronligi.

A tug'ilgan Presviterian vazir, Klivlend o'sgan Nyu-York shtati. 1881 yilda u saylandi Buffalo meri va keyinroq, Nyu-York gubernatori. Klivlend pro-biznesning etakchisi edi Burbon demokratlari kim qarshi chiqdi yuqori tariflar; Bepul kumush; inflyatsiya; imperializm; biznes, fermerlar yoki faxriylarga beriladigan subsidiyalar. Uning siyosiy islohot uchun salib yurishi va fiskal konservatizm uni davrning amerikalik konservatorlari uchun ikonka qildi.[2] Klivlend o'zining halolligi, o'ziga ishonchi, halolligi va printsiplariga sodiqligi uchun maqtovga sazovor bo'ldi klassik liberalizm.[3] U siyosiy korruptsiya, homiylik va bossizm. Klivlend islohotchi sifatida shunday obro'-e'tiborga ega ediki, Respublikachilar partiyasining hamfikr qanoti "Mugwumplar ", GOP prezidentlik chiptasini asosan bog'lab qo'ydi va 1884 yilgi saylovlarda uni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[4]

Uning ikkinchi ma'muriyati boshlanganda, xalqqa falokat tushdi 1893 yilgi vahima jiddiy milliy depressiyani keltirib chiqardi, uni Klivlend o'zgartira olmadi. A uchun yo'l ochib, uning Demokratik partiyasini buzdi Respublika ko'chkisi 1894 yilda va agrar uchun kumushit 1896 yilda Demokratik partiyaning bosib olinishi. Natijada a siyosiy qayta qurish bu tugadi Uchinchi tomon tizimi va ishga tushirdi To'rtinchi partiya tizimi va Progressive Era.[5]

Klivlend dahshatli siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchisi edi va u ham tegishli tanqidlarga duch keldi. Uning aralashuvi Pullman Strike 1894 yil Illinoys partiyasidan tashqari butun mamlakat bo'ylab ishchilar kasaba uyushmalarining g'azablanishini ta'minlash uchun; uning qo'llab-quvvatlashi oltin standart va Erkin Kumushga qarshi chiqish ularni chetlashtirdi agrar Demokratik partiyaning qanoti.[6] Tanqidchilar Klivlendning ozgina tasavvurga ega emasligidan va xalqning iqtisodiy ofatlariga duchor bo'lganidan shikoyat qildilar.depressiyalar va ish tashlashlar - uning ikkinchi muddatida.[6] Shunday bo'lsa-da, uning ehtimolligi va yaxshi xarakterdagi obro'si ikkinchi muddatdagi qiyinchiliklardan omon qoldi. Biograf Allan Nevins "Men Grover Klivlendning buyukligi g'ayrioddiy emas, odatdagi fazilatlarda. Unda minglab odamlarga xos bo'lmagan xayr-ehsonlar bo'lmagan. U halollik, jasorat, qat'iyat, mustaqillik va sog'lom fikrga ega edi. Ammo u ularga ega edi. boshqa erkaklar buni qilmaydilar. "[7] Ikkinchi muddatining oxiriga kelib, jamoatchilik fikri uni AQShning eng mashhur bo'lmagan prezidentlaridan biri ekanligini ko'rsatdi va shu paytgacha uni hatto ko'pchilik demokratlar rad etishdi.[8] Bugungi kunda Klivlend aksariyat tarixchilar tomonidan muvaffaqiyatli rahbar bo'lgan va halollik, halollik, odob-axloq qoidalariga rioya qilish va partiyaning chegaralariga bo'ysunmaslik va samarali rahbarlik bilan maqtalgan va umuman olganda yuqori-o'rta daraja orasida joylashgan Amerika prezidentlarining.

Hayotning boshlang'ich davri

Bolalik va oilaviy tarix

Kolduell Presviterian parsonaji, tug'ilgan joy Grover, Klivlend Kolduell, Nyu-Jersi

Stiven Grover Klivlend 1837 yil 18-martda tug'ilgan Kolduell, Nyu-Jersi, Annga (Nil ismli ayol) va Richard Falley Klivlend.[9] Klivlendning otasi a Jamoat va Presviterian asli bo'lgan vazir Konnektikut.[10] Uning onasi Baltimor va kitob sotuvchisining qizi edi.[11] Otasining yonida, Klivlend ingliz ajdodlaridan kelib chiqqan, oilaning birinchi ko'chib ketgan Massachusets shtati dan Klivlend, Angliya 1635 yilda.[12] Otasining onasining bobosi, Kichik Richard Falley, da kurashgan Bunker tepasidagi jang, va kelgan muhojirning o'g'li edi Gernsi. Klivlend onasining tarafidan kelib chiqqan Angliya-Irlandiya Protestantlar va Nemis Quakers Filadelfiyadan.[13] Klivlend General bilan uzoq qarindosh edi Musa Klivlend, undan keyin shahar Klivlend, Ogayo shtatiga ism berildi.[14]

To'qqiz farzandning beshinchisi bo'lgan Klivlendga otasi o'sha paytda ruhoniy bo'lgan Kolduellning birinchi presviterian cherkovining birinchi ruhoniysi sharafiga Stiven Grover deb nom berilgan. U kattalar hayotida Grover sifatida tanilgan.[15] 1841 yilda Klivlend oilasi ko'chib o'tdi Fayettevil, Nyu-York, bu erda Grover bolaligining ko'p qismini o'tkazgan.[16] Keyinroq qo'shnilar uni "o'yin-kulgiga to'la va hazillashishga moyil" deb ta'rifladilar.[17] va ochiq havoda sportni yaxshi ko'radiganlar.[18]

1850 yilda Klivlendning otasi ko'chib o'tdi Klinton, Nyu-York uchun tuman kotibi sifatida ishlash Amerika uy missionerlik jamiyati.[19] Otasi o'zining missionerlik ishiga bag'ishlanganiga qaramay, ko'p bolali oila uchun daromad etarli emas edi. Moliyaviy sharoit uni Groverni maktabdan Fayettevildagi ikki yillik merkantlik shogirdligiga chiqarib tashlashga majbur qildi. Tajriba qimmatli va qisqa va yashash sharoitlari juda og'ir edi. Grover Klintonga qaytib keldi va maktabda o'qiyotgan o'quvchining shartnomasi tugagandan so'ng.[20] 1853 yilda missionerlik uning sog'lig'iga zarar etkaza boshlaganda, Klivlendning otasi topshiriq oldi Holland Patent, Nyu-York (yaqin Utica ) va oila yana ko'chib o'tdi.[21] Ko'p o'tmay, u a oshqozon yarasi, Grover gazetalarni sotayotgan boladan otasining o'limi haqida taniqli eshitgan.[21]

Ta'lim va g'arbga harakat qilish

Grover Klivlendning erta, tarixga oid fotosurati

Klivlend boshlang'ich ta'limini Fayettevil akademiyasi va Klinton Liberal akademiyasida olgan.[22] 1853 yilda otasi vafot etganidan keyin u yana oilasini boqish uchun maktabni tark etdi. O'sha yili Klivlendning ukasi Uilyam o'qituvchi sifatida ishga qabul qilindi Nyu-York Ko'zi ojizlar instituti Nyu-York shahrida va Uilyam Klivlendga yordamchi o'qituvchi sifatida joy oldi. U 1854 yil oxirida Holland Patentga uyiga qaytib keldi, u erda o'z cherkovidagi oqsoqol, agar u vazir bo'lishga va'da bergan bo'lsa, kollejdagi ta'lim uchun pul to'lashni taklif qildi. Klivlend rad etdi va 1855 yilda u g'arbiy tomon harakat qilishga qaror qildi.[23] U birinchi bo'lib to'xtadi Buffalo, Nyu-York, qaerda amakisi, Lyuis F. Allen, unga ruhoniy ish berdi.[24] Allen Buffaloda muhim odam edi va u jiyanini u erdagi nufuzli erkaklar, jumladan sheriklari bilan tanishtirdi huquq firmasi Rojers, Bouen va Rojers.[25] Millard Fillmor, Qo'shma Shtatlarning 13-prezidenti, ilgari hamkorlik uchun ishlagan.[26] Keyinchalik Klivlend firma bilan kotiblikni oldi, boshladi qonunni o'qing va edi tan olindi 1859 yilda Nyu-York bariga.[27]

Dastlabki martaba va fuqarolar urushi

Klivlend Rojers firmasida uch yil ishladi, keyin 1862 yilda o'z amaliyotini boshlash uchun jo'nab ketdi.[28] 1863 yil yanvar oyida u yordamchi etib tayinlandi tuman prokurori ning Eri okrugi.[29] Bilan Amerika fuqarolar urushi g'azablanib, Kongress o'tdi 1863 yilgi harbiy majburiyat to'g'risidagi qonun, mehnatga layoqatli erkaklar chaqirilgan taqdirda armiyada xizmat qilishlarini yoki uning o'rnini bosadigan odamni yollashni talab qilishadi.[27] Klivlend o'ttiz ikki yoshli Jorj Benninskiyga 150 dollar (2019 yilda 3115 dollarga teng) to'lab, oxirgi kursni tanladi. Polsha immigrant, uning o'rniga xizmat qilish.[30] Benninskiy urushdan omon qoldi.[27]

Klivlend advokat sifatida o'zining yagona fikrli kontsentratsiyasi va mehnatsevarligi bilan tanilgan.[31] 1866 yilda u ba'zi ishtirokchilarni muvaffaqiyatli himoya qildi Feniya reydi, a ustida ishlash pro bono asos (bepul).[32] 1868 yilda Klivlend a g'olibligini himoya qilish uchun professional e'tiborni tortdi tuhmat Buffaloning muharririga qarshi da'vo Tijorat reklama beruvchisi.[33] Shu vaqt ichida Klivlend tekislikda yashash uchun soddalik turmush tarzini qabul qildi pansionat; Klivlend o'sayotgan daromadini o'rniga onasi va singillarini qo'llab-quvvatlashga bag'ishladi.[34] Klivlend o'zining shaxsiy kvartallari serqatnov bo'lganida, faol ijtimoiy hayotdan va "mehmonxonalar lobbilarining soddaligi va" salonlar."[35] U Buffaloning tog'asining oilasi sayohat qilgan yuqori jamiyat doiralaridan qochdi.[36]

Nyu-Yorkdagi siyosiy martaba

Eri okrugi sherifi

Grover Klivlend haykali shahar meriyasi tashqarisida Buffalo, Nyu-York

Klivlend siyosatdagi dastlabki ishtirokidanoq Demokratik partiya.[37] U respublikachilardan nafratlangan edi Jon Fremont va Avraam Linkoln va Rogers yuridik firmasi rahbarlari qat'iy demokratlar edi.[38] 1865 yilda u nomzodini qo'ydi Tuman prokurori, do'sti va xonadoshiga ozgina yutqazdi, Lyman K. Bass, Respublikachilar nomzodi.[31] 1870 yilda do'stim Oskar Folsom yordamida Klivlend Demokratlar partiyasidan nomzodlikni qo'lga kiritdi Eri okrugi sherifi, Nyu-York.[39] U saylovda 303 ovoz farqi bilan g'alaba qozondi va 1871 yil 1 yanvarda 33 yoshida ish boshladi.[40] Ushbu yangi martaba uni huquqshunoslik amaliyotidan chetlashtirgan bo'lsa-da, bu boshqa yo'llar bilan foydali edi: to'lovlar ikki yillik muddat davomida 40 000 AQSh dollarigacha (2019 yilda 853,667 AQSh dollariga teng) daromad keltirishi aytilgan.[39]

Klivlendning sherif sifatida xizmati beqiyos edi; biograf Reksford Tugvell lavozimdagi vaqtni Klivlend uchun siyosiy yo'qotish deb ta'riflagan. Klivlend ish paytida sherifning ofisida payvand bo'lganidan xabardor edi va unga duch kelmaslikni tanladi.[41] Uning muddatidagi muhim voqea 1872 yil 6-sentabrda, onasini o'ldirishda aybdor deb topilgan Patrik Morrissey qatl etilganda sodir bo'lgan.[42] Sherif sifatida Klivlend qatlni shaxsan o'zi bajarishi yoki topshiriqni bajarish uchun deputatga 10 dollar to'lashi uchun javobgar edi.[42] Klivlend osib qo'yilganligi haqidagi rezervasyonlarga qaramay, Morrissini o'zi qatl etdi.[42] U yana bir qotilni osdi, Jon Gaffni, 1873 yil 14 fevralda.[43]

Sheriflik muddati tugagandan so'ng, Klivlend o'zining advokatlik amaliyotiga qaytdi va do'stlari Lyman K. Bass bilan firma ochdi va Uilson S. Bissell.[44] 1872 yilda Kongressga saylangan Bass firmada ko'p vaqt o'tkazmadi, ammo tez orada Klivlend va Bissell Buffaloning huquqiy jamoatchiligi tepasiga ko'tarilishdi.[45] O'sha paytga qadar Klivlendning siyosiy faoliyati sharafli va g'ayrioddiy edi. Biograf sifatida Allan Nevins shunday yozgan edi: "1881 yil 4 martda mamlakatda hech bir odam, Buffaloning bu cheklangan, sodda va ishonchli advokatidan to'rt yil o'tgach, u shu erda turishi haqida o'ylamagan bo'lishi mumkin. Vashington va Qo'shma Shtatlar Prezidenti sifatida qasamyod qilish. "[46]

Aynan shu davrda Klivlend beva ayolga murojaat qilishni boshladi, Mariya Halpin. Keyinchalik u uni uni zo'rlaganlikda ayblagan.[47][48] U uni ichkilikbozlikda va erkaklar bilan birlashishda aybladi. Uni obro'sizlantirish uchun, u uni institutsionalizatsiya qildi va ularning bolasini olib ketishdi va do'stlari tomonidan tarbiyalashdi. Muassasa tezda uning u erga tegishli emasligini tushundi va uni qo'yib yubordi.[49] Noqonuniy bola o'zining birinchi prezidentlik kampaniyasida GOP uchun tashviqot masalasiga aylandi.[50]

Buffalo meri

1870-yillarda Buffaloda munitsipal hukumat tobora korruptsiyalashgan, demokratlar va respublikachilar siyosiy mashinalar almashish uchun hamkorlik qilish talon-taroj qiladi siyosiy lavozim.[51] 1881 yilda respublikachilar ayniqsa obro'siz mashinasozlik siyosatchilarining nomzodlarini nomzod qilib ko'rsatdilar; demokratlar ko'proq halolroq nomzodni ko'rsatish orqali norozi respublikachilarning ovozini olish imkoniyatini ko'rdilar.[52] Partiya rahbarlari Klivlendga murojaat qilishdi va u o'z nomzodini qo'yishga rozi bo'ldi Buffalo meri, chiptaning qolgan qismi unga yoqishi sharti bilan.[53] Keyinchalik taniqli siyosatchilar Demokratik chiptadan chetlashtirilganda, Klivlend nomzodni qabul qildi.[53] Klivlend saylandi shahar hokimi 15120 ovoz bilan, uning raqibi Milton C. Bebe uchun 11.528 ga qarshi.[54] U 1882 yil 2-yanvarda ish boshladi.

Klivlendning meri lavozimidagi faoliyati partiya mashinalarining mustahkam manfaatlariga qarshi kurashish bilan o'tdi.[55] Uning obro'sini o'rnatgan xatti-harakatlar orasida ko'chalarni tozalash to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasiga veto qo'yilgan Umumiy kengash.[56] Ko'chalarni tozalash bo'yicha shartnoma savdolar uchun ochiq edi va Kengash eng yuqori narxni taklif qildi, lekin eng past narx 100000 dollarni emas, 422000 dollarni tashkil etdi, chunki ishtirokchi siyosiy aloqalar tufayli.[56] Buffaloda ilgari bunday ikki tomonlama greftga yo'l qo'yilgan bo'lsa-da, shahar meri Klivlendda bularning hech biri bo'lmaydi. Uning veto xabarida: "Men buni odamlarning manfaatlariga xiyonat qilish va davlat pullarini isrof qilishdan ham yomoni uchun eng yalang'och yuzli, beparvo va uyatsiz sxemaning avj nuqtasi deb bilaman" deb aytilgan.[57] Kengash o'zini o'zgartirib, eng past narx ishtirokchisiga shartnoma tuzdi.[58] Klivlend, shuningdek, shtat qonun chiqaruvchisidan Buffaloda kanalizatsiya tizimini yaxshilash rejasini ishlab chiqish uchun Komissiya tuzishni iltimos qildi, ilgari mahalliy darajada taklif qilinganidan ancha past; ushbu reja muvaffaqiyatli qabul qilindi.[59] Buning uchun va davlat mablag'larini himoya qiladigan boshqa harakatlar, Klivlendning hukumat korruptsiyasini tozalashga tayyor rahbar sifatida obro'si Eri okrugidan tashqariga chiqa boshladi.[60]

Nyu-York gubernatori

Grover Klivlendning gubernatorlik portreti

Nyu-York Demokratik partiyasining rasmiylari Klivlendni gubernatorlikka nomzod bo'lishi mumkin deb hisoblay boshladilar.[61] Daniel Manning, Klivlendning rekordiga qoyil qolgan partiyaning insayderi uning nomzod bo'lishida muhim rol o'ynadi.[62] 1882 yilda shtatdagi Respublikachilar partiyasida bo'linish bilan Demokratik partiya afzalliklarga ega deb hisoblandi; ushbu partiyaning nomzodi uchun bir nechta da'vogarlar bor edi.[61] Ikki etakchi Demokratik nomzodlar edi Roswell P. Flower va Genri V. Slocum. Ularning fraktsiyalari boshi berk ko'chaga kirib qoldi va konventsiya nomzod bo'yicha kelisha olmadi.[63] Klivlend birinchi ovoz berishda uchinchi o'rinni egallab, keyingi ovozlarda qo'llab-quvvatladi va murosaga kelgan tanlov sifatida paydo bo'ldi.[64] Respublikachilar partiyasi o'zlariga qarshi bo'linishni davom ettirdilar va umumiy saylovlarda Klivlend g'olib chiqdi va respublikachilar nomzodiga 535,318 ovoz berdi. Charlz J. Folger 342,464.[65] Klivlendning g'alabasi o'sha paytda, Nyu-Yorkdagi saylovlarda eng katta yutuq edi; Demokratlar uyning ikkala uyidan joy olishdi Nyu-York shtati qonunchilik palatasi.[66]

Klivlend gubernatorlik ofisiga keraksiz xarajatlarga qarshi chiqishini olib keldi; u zudlik bilan ish boshlagan dastlabki ikki oy ichida qonun chiqaruvchi organga sakkiz veto yubordi.[67] Birinchi bo'lib narxlarni pasaytirish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasiga veto qo'ygan Nyu-York shahri ko'tarilgan poezdlar besh sentgacha.[68] Qonun loyihasi keng qo'llab-quvvatlandi, chunki poezdlar egasi, Jey Gould, mashhur emas edi va uning narxlari oshishi keng tanqid qilindi.[69] Ammo Klivlend qonun loyihasini adolatsiz deb topdi - ular ishlamay qolganda Guld temir yo'llarni egallab oldi va tizimni yana to'lovga qodir qildi.[70] Bundan tashqari, Klivlend Guldning franchayzasini o'zgartirish buzilgan deb hisoblagan Shartnoma bandi ning federal Konstitutsiya.[70] Narxlarni pasaytirish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi dastlab ommalashganiga qaramay, gazetalar Klivlendning vetosini maqtashdi.[70] Teodor Ruzvelt, keyin a'zosi Assambleya, vijdonsiz temir yo'l baronlarini jazolash istagi bilan Klivlend e'tiroz bildirgan qonun loyihasini istamay ovoz bergan edi.[71] Vetodan keyin Ruzvelt, ko'pgina qonun chiqaruvchilar singari, o'zini o'zgartirdi va veto qo'llab-quvvatlandi.[71]

Klivlendning siyosiy korruptsiyaga bo'ysunmasligi unga xalqning obro'siga sazovor bo'ldi va ta'sirchanlarning dushmanligi Tammany zali Nyu-York shahridagi tashkilot.[72] Tammany, uning boshlig'i ostida, Jon Kelli, Klivlendning gubernator lavozimiga nomzodini ma'qullamagan va Klivlend ochiqchasiga qarshi chiqib, shtat senatidagi o'z nomzodini qayta saylanishiga to'sqinlik qilgandan keyin ularning qarshiliklari kuchaygan; Tomas F. Grady.[73] Klivlend, shuningdek, Tammanitlar nomzodlariga, shuningdek ularning bitimi natijasida qabul qilingan qonun loyihalariga qat'iy qarshi chiqdi.[74] Tammanini qo'llab-quvvatlashini yo'qotish Teodor Ruzvelt va boshqa islohotchi respublikachilarning qo'llab-quvvatlashi bilan qoplandi, ular Klivlendga shahar hokimiyatlarini isloh qiladigan bir nechta qonunlarni qabul qilishda yordam berishdi.[75]

1884 yilgi saylov

Asosiy maqolalar: 1884 yil AQShda prezident saylovi va Grover Klivlend 1884 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasi

Prezidentlikka nomzod

Asosiy maqola: 1884 yil demokratlarning milliy qurultoyi
Blaynga qarshi multfilm uni "tatuirovka qilingan odam" sifatida taqdim etadi, ko'plab o'chmas janjallar bilan.
Klivlendga qarshi multfilm Halpin janjalini ta'kidlaydi.

Respublikachilar Chikagoda yig'ilib, palataning sobiq spikerini nomzod qilib ko'rsatdilar Jeyms G. Bleyn ning Meyn to'rtinchi byulleten bo'yicha prezident uchun. Bleynning nomzodligi Bleyni ambitsiyali va axloqsiz deb hisoblagan ko'plab respublikachilarni chetlashtirdi.[76] GOP standart tashuvchisi Mugwumplarni va yaqinda Prezident Artur tomonidan huquqsizlikka chiqarilgan Konkling fraktsiyasini chetlashtirish orqali zaiflashdi.[77] Demokratik partiyalar rahbarlari respublikachilarning tanlovini munosib nomzod topilsa, 1856 yildan beri birinchi marta Oq uyda g'alaba qozonish uchun imkoniyat deb bildilar.[76]

Demokratlar orasida Samuel J. Tilden partiyaning nomzodi bo'lgan dastlabki oldingi ishtirokchi edi 1876 ​​yilgi bahsli saylov.[78] Tilden sog'lig'i yomonligi sababli nomzodni rad etganidan so'ng, uning tarafdorlari yana bir nechta da'vogarlarga o'tishdi.[78] Klivlend dastlabki qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar orasida edi va Tomas F. Bayard ning Delaver, Allen G. Turman ning Ogayo shtati, Samuel Freeman Miller ning Ayova va Benjamin Butler ning Massachusets shtati shuningdek, turli xil narsalar bilan bir qatorda juda ko'p ta'qiblarga ega edi sevimli o'g'illari.[78] Boshqa nomzodlarning har biri uning nomzodini ko'rsatishga to'sqinlik qildi: Bayard uning foydasiga gapirdi ajralib chiqish 1861 yilda, uni shimolliklar uchun qabul qilinmaydigan qilib qo'ydi; Butler, aksincha, butun Janubda davomida qilgan harakatlari uchun haqoratlandi Fuqarolar urushi; Turman, odatda, juda yaxshi ko'rilgan, ammo qarib, zaiflashib qolgan va uning qarashlari kumush savol noaniq edi.[79] Klivlendda ham nafratlanuvchilar bor edi - Tammani unga qarshi bo'lib qoldi, ammo dushmanlarining tabiati uni yana ham ko'proq do'st qildi.[80] Klivlend birinchi ovoz berishda 820 ovozning 392 ovozi bilan yetakchilik qildi.[81] Ikkinchi byulletenda Tammany Butler orqasida o'z qo'llab-quvvatlashini tashladi, ammo qolgan delegatlar g'olib bo'lgan Klivlendga o'tdilar.[82] Tomas A. Xendriks ning Indiana uning sherigi sifatida tanlangan.[82]

Bleynga qarshi kampaniya

Siyosatdagi korruptsiya 1884 yilda markaziy muammo edi; Darhaqiqat, Bleyn faoliyati davomida bir nechta shubhali bitimlarga qo'shilgan.[83] Klivlendning korrupsiyaning raqibi sifatida obro'si demokratlarning eng kuchli boyligini isbotladi.[84] Uilyam C. Xadson Klivlendning "Davlat idorasi - bu xalqning ishonchi" degan kontekstli kampaniyasini yaratdi.[85] Islohotchi respublikachilar "deb nomlanganMugwumplar "Bleyni buzuq deb qoraladi va Klivlendga oqdi.[86] Mugwumplar, shu kabi erkaklar Karl Shurts va Genri Uord Beecher, partiyadan ko'ra ko'proq axloq bilan shug'ullangan va Klivlendni davlat xizmatlarini isloh qilishga yordam beradigan va hukumat samaradorligi uchun kurashadigan qarindosh jon deb bilgan.[86] Shu bilan birga Demokratlar Mugwumplar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanishdi, ular ba'zi ko'k rangli ishchilarni yo'qotishdi Greenback-Leyboristlar partiyasi, sobiq demokrat Benjamin Butler boshchiligida.[87] Umuman olganda, Klivlend prezidentlik saylov kampaniyasida sayohat va nutq so'zlashni minimallashtirish pretsedentiga amal qildi; Bleyn bu an'anani birinchilardan bo'lib buzdi.[88]

Saylovoldi tashviqotida nomzodlarning axloqiy me'yorlariga e'tibor qaratildi, chunki har bir tomon o'z raqiblariga qarshi intilishlarni uyushtirdi. Klivlend tarafdorlari Bleyn qonunchilikka korrupsiya ta'sirida uning foydasiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi degan eski ayblovlarni qayta ko'rib chiqdilar Kichik Rok va Fort Smit temir yo'li va Tinch okeani temir yo'llari, keyinchalik ikkala kompaniyada ham egalik qilgan obligatsiyalarni sotishdan foyda ko'rdi.[89] Garchi Bleynning temir yo'lga bo'lgan foydasi haqidagi hikoyalar sakkiz yil oldin turlarni amalga oshirgan bo'lsa-da, bu safar Bleynning yozishmalari aniqlanib, uning avvalgi inkorlari unchalik ishonchli emas edi.[89] Ba'zi zararli yozishmalarda Bleyn "Maktubni yozing" deb yozgan va demokratlarga ularning mitingiga so'nggi satrni bergan: "Bleyn, Bleyn, Jeyms G. Bleyn, Meyn shtatidan kelgan kontinental yolg'onchi. !'"[90]

Klivlend haqida, sharhlovchi Jeff Jeykli "Jorj Vashington prezidentlikka nomzod bo'lganidan beri emas, balki uning to'g'riligi bilan shu qadar tanilgan edi".[91] Ammo respublikachilar Klivlendning o'tmishida ko'milgan raddiya topdilar. Buffalodan kelgan vazir Muhtaram Jorj Xollning va'zlari yordamida ular Klivlend u erda advokat bo'lgan paytda noqonuniy bola tug'dirganligi haqidagi da'voni jamoatchilikka etkazishdi.[92] va ularning mitinglarida tez orada "Ma, Ma, mening Pa qaerda?"[93] Janjalga duch kelganda, Klivlend darhol o'z tarafdorlariga "Hammasidan ham, haqiqatni ayting", deb ko'rsatma berdi.[50] Klivlend 1874 yilda o'z o'g'li Oskar Folsom Klivlendni otasi deb ta'kidlagan va javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga olgan ayol Mariya Krofts Halpinga aliment to'lashni tan oldi.[50] Sal oldin 1884 yilgi saylov, respublika ommaviy axborot vositalari Halpinning "Klivlend bilan uchrashguniga qadar uning" hayoti beg'ubor va beg'ubor "bo'lganligini," bizning farzandimizning otaligiga shubha yo'qligi va mavjud emasligi, va Grover Klivlendning yoki uning do'stlarining Oskar Folsomning ismini yoki boshqa ismini o'sha bola bilan juftlashtirishga urinishi, shunchaki shuhratparast va yolg'ondir. "[94]

Natijalari 1884 yilgi saylov

Yaqindan bahsli bo'lgan Nyu-York, Nyu-Jersi, Indiana va Konnektikutning saylovchilarning ovozlari saylovni belgilab beradi.[95] Nyu-Yorkda Tammani demokratlari o'zlariga yoqmagan demokratni qo'llab-quvvatlashdan, ular uchun hech narsa qilmaydigan respublikachidan ko'ra ko'proq foyda olishlariga qaror qilishdi.[96] Bleyn Irlandiyalik amerikaliklar tomonidan respublikachilardan ko'ra ko'proq qo'llab-quvvatlanishiga umid qildi; Irlandiyaliklar asosan 19-asrda Demokratik saylov okrugi bo'lganlar, Bleynning onasi Irlandiyalik katolik bo'lgan va u bu partiyani qo'llab-quvvatlagan Irlandiya milliy er ligasi u davlat kotibi bo'lgan paytida.[97] Irlandlar, ularning uchtasida muhim guruh belanchak holatlari, respublikachiga qadar Bleyni qo'llab-quvvatlashga moyil bo'lib tuyuldi, Samuel D. Burchard, demokratlar uchun muhim ma'ruza qildi va ularni "Rum" partiyasi deb qoraladi, Rimizm, va isyon ".[98] Demokratlar katoliklarning haqoratli haqoratlari to'g'risida saylovlar arafasida tarqatishdi. Shuningdek, ular Bleyni Nyu-York shahrining eng badavlat odamlari bilan ziyofatga tashrif buyurish uchun qabariq qilishdi.[99]

Ovozlar sanab chiqilgandan so'ng, Klivlend deyarli to'rtta belanchak shtatlarining barchasida, shu jumladan Nyu-Yorkda 1200 ovoz bilan g'olib bo'ldi.[100] Ommaviy ovozlarning umumiy miqdori yaqinlashganda, Klivlend foizlarning faqat to'rtdan bir qismiga g'alaba qozongan bo'lsa, saylovchilar tomonidan berilgan ovozlar Klivlendga ko'pchilik 219-182 ovozini berdi.[100] Saylovdagi g'alabadan so'ng, "Ma, Ma ..." hujum iborasi klassik ripostga ega bo'ldi: "Oq uyga ketdik. Xa! Xa! Xa!"[101]

Birinchi prezidentlik (1885–1889)

Islohot

Klivlend tarif islohotchisi sifatida tasvirlangan

Klivlend ish boshlaganidan ko'p o'tmay, prezident tayinlash vakolatiga ega bo'lgan barcha hukumat ishlarini to'ldirish vazifasi bilan duch keldi. Ushbu ishlar odatda ostida to'ldirilgan edi tizimni buzadi, ammo Klivlend o'z ishini yaxshi bajarayotgan biron bir respublikachini ishdan bo'shatmasligini va hech kimni faqat partiya xizmati asosida tayinlamasligini e'lon qildi.[102] Shuningdek, u o'zining tayinlanish vakolatlarini federal xodimlar sonini kamaytirish uchun ishlatgan, chunki ko'plab bo'limlar siyosiy vaqt serverlari bilan shishib ketgan.[103] Keyinchalik uning vakolat muddati davomida, uning hamkasbi demokratlar o'ljadan chetlatilishga jur'at etganda, Klivlend partizan respublikachilarning ko'proq amaldorlarini demokratlar bilan almashtira boshladi;[104] bu, ayniqsa, siyosatni ishlab chiquvchi pozitsiyalarga tegishli edi.[105] Uning ba'zi qarorlariga partiyalarning tashvishlari ta'sir qilgan bo'lsa-da, Klivlendni tayinlashlari avvalgilarining ma'muriyatidagidan ko'ra ko'proq loyiqligi bilan hal qilindi.[106]

Klivlend hukumatning boshqa qismlarini ham isloh qildi. 1887 yilda u aktni tuzgan aktga imzo chekdi Davlatlararo savdo komissiyasi.[107] U va Dengiz kuchlari kotibi Uilyam C. Uitni modernizatsiya qilishni o'z zimmasiga oldi dengiz floti va sifatsiz kemalarga olib kelgan qurilish shartnomalarini bekor qildi.[108] Klivlend temir yo'l sarmoyadorlarini g'arbiy erlarni davlat granti asosida tekshirishni buyurib, ularni g'azablantirdi.[109] Ichki ishlar kotibi Lucius Q. C. Lamar temir yo'llar kelishuvlarga binoan uzaytirilmagani uchun ushbu er uchastkasining huquqlari jamoatchilikka qaytarilishi kerakligi to'g'risida aybladi.[109] Erlar bekor qilindi, natijada taxminan 81,000,000 akr (330,000 km) qaytib keldi2).[109]

Klivlend tobe bo'lgan birinchi Demokratik prezident edi Ofis qonuni muddati 1867 yilda paydo bo'lgan; dastlab Senat tomonidan uning maslahati va roziligi bilan amalga oshirilgan har qanday prezident tayinlagan shaxsni lavozimidan ozod etilishini Senatdan ma'qullashni talab qiladigan hujjat. Klivlend bu qilmishga printsipial ravishda e'tiroz bildirgan va unga rioya qilishdan qat'iyan bosh tortishi uning noroziligini keltirib chiqardi va 1887 yilda uning yakuniy bekor qilinishiga olib keldi.[110]

Vetoes

BEP Klivlendning prezident sifatida tasvirlangan portreti
BEP Klivlendning prezident sifatida o'yilgan portreti

Klivlend respublikachilar senatiga duch keldi va ko'pincha uning veto huquqlaridan foydalanishga murojaat qildi.[111] U yuzlab xususiy pensiya to'lovlariga veto qo'ydi Amerika fuqarolar urushi faxriylar, agar ularning pensiya talablari allaqachon rad etilgan bo'lsa, deb ishonishadi Pensiya byurosi, Kongress ushbu qarorni bekor qilishga urinmasligi kerak.[112] Kongress, tomonidan bosim o'tkazilganda Respublikaning katta armiyasi, o'tdi pensiya tayinlash to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi harbiy xizmat tufayli kelib chiqmagan nogironlar uchun Klivlend ham bunga veto qo'ydi.[113] Klivlend vetoni o'sha paytgacha har qanday prezidentga qaraganda tez-tez ishlatib turardi.[114] 1887 yilda Klivlend o'zining eng taniqli vetosini chiqardi, Texas urug'i to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi.[115] Qurg'oqchilik Texasning bir qancha okruglarida hosilni vayron qilganidan so'ng, Kongress u erdagi dehqonlar uchun urug 'donini sotib olish uchun 100000 AQSh dollarini (2019 yilda $ 2.845.556 ga teng) ajratdi.[115] Klivlend xarajatlarga veto qo'ydi. Veto xabarida u cheklangan hukumat nazariyasini qo'llab-quvvatladi:

Men Konstitutsiyada bunday mablag 'ajratish uchun hech qanday asos topolmayapman va men umumiy hukumatning vakolati va vazifasi hech qanday tarzda davlat xizmati yoki foydasi bilan bog'liq bo'lmagan individual azob-uqubatlarni engillashtirishga qaratilgan bo'lishi kerak deb o'ylamayman. . Ushbu kuch va vazifaning cheklangan missiyasini e'tiborsiz qoldirish tendentsiyasi, menimcha, sabr-toqat bilan qarshilik ko'rsatishi kerak, oxirigacha dars doimiy ravishda amalga oshirilishi kerak, garchi xalq hukumatni qo'llab-quvvatlasa ham, hukumat xalqni qo'llab-quvvatlamasligi kerak. Hamyurtlarini baxtsizlikdan xalos qilish uchun hamyurtlarimizning do'stona va xayrixohligiga doimo ishonish mumkin. Bu bir necha bor va so'nggi paytlarda namoyish etildi. Bunday holatlarda federal yordam hukumat tomonidan otalik g'amxo'rligini kutishni rag'batlantiradi va milliy xarakterimizdagi qat'iylikni susaytiradi, shu bilan birga xalqimiz o'rtasida umumiy birodarlik rishtalarini mustahkamlaydigan bunday muloyim kayfiyat va xulq-atvorni oldini oladi.[116]

Kumush

1880-yillarning eng o'zgaruvchan masalalaridan biri bu valyutani qo'llab-quvvatlash kerakmi oltin va kumush, yoki tomonidan yolg'iz oltin.[117] Bu masala partiya saflarini kesib tashladi, g'arbiy respublikachilar va janubiy demokratlar birlashib, kumushni erkin tanga qilish taklifiga qo'shildilar va ikkala partiyaning shimoliy-sharqdagi vakillari oltin standartni qo'llab-quvvatladilar.[118] Kumush oltinning qonuniy ekvivalenti qiymatidan past bo'lganligi sababli, soliq to'lovchilar o'zlarining hukumat hisob-kitoblarini kumush bilan to'lashgan, xalqaro kreditorlar esa oltin bilan to'lashni talab qilishgan, natijada xalqning oltin zaxirasi tugagan.[118]

Klivlend va moliya vaziri Daniel Manning oltin standart tomonida qat'iy turib, hukumat tomonidan tanga uchun zarur bo'lgan kumush miqdorini kamaytirishga harakat qildi. Bland-Allison qonuni 1878 yil[119] Klivlend ushbu qonunni ochilishidan oldin bekor qilishni so'rab, muvaffaqiyatsiz Kongressga murojaat qildi.[120] G'azablangan g'arbliklar va janubliklar o'zlarining kambag'al saylovchilariga yordam berish uchun arzon pulni qo'llab-quvvatladilar.[121] Bunga javoban, eng birinchi kumushlardan biri, Richard P. Bland, 1886 yilda hukumatdan o'sha paytdagi deflyatsiyaga uchragan valyutani ko'tarib, cheksiz miqdorda kumush tanga olishni talab qiladigan qonun loyihasini taqdim etdi.[122] Blandning vekselini mag'lubiyatga uchratgan bo'lsada, ma'muriyat kumush tanga zarbasini bekor qiladigan qonun loyihasini ma'qulladi.[122] Natijada, mavjud kvotani saqlab qolish va "Free Silver" masalasini hal qilishni keyinga qoldirish edi.[123]

Tariflar

"Bizning institutlarimiz nazariyasi har bir fuqaroga o'z sohasi va korxonasining barcha mevalaridan to'liq bahramand bo'lishini kafolatlaydi, faqat uni himoya qiladigan hukumatni ehtiyotkorlik va tejamkorlik bilan ta'minlashda uning ulushi bo'lishi mumkin. shundan aniqrog'i, bundan ko'prog'ini tortib olish - bu amin bo'lmagan tovlamachilik va Amerikaning adolati va adolatiga aybdor xiyonat ... Xalq xazinasi, faqat xalqning o'lponligini o'zining qonuniy xarajatlariga etkazib beradigan kanal sifatida mavjud bo'lishi kerak. savdo-sotiqdan va odamlarning ehtiyojlaridan bekorga olib qo'yilgan pul uchun, shu bilan bizning milliy kuchlarimizni tanazzulga uchratish, mamlakatimiz rivojlanishini to'xtatish, ishlab chiqarish korxonalariga sarmoya kiritishni oldini olish, moliyaviy bezovtalikni tahdid qilish va ommaviy talon-toroj usullarini taklif qilish. "
Klivlendning Kongressga uchinchi yillik xabarnomasi,
1887 yil 6-dekabr.[124]

O'sha paytdagi yana bir munozarali moliyaviy masala himoya masalasi edi tarif. Ushbu tariflar fuqarolik urushi davrida Amerikaning sanoat manfaatlarini himoya qilish uchun vaqtinchalik chora sifatida amalga oshirilgan edi, ammo urushdan keyin ham o'z kuchida qoldi.[125] Bu uning saylovoldi kampaniyasida markaziy nuqta bo'lmaganda ham, Klivlendning tarif haqidagi fikri aksariyat demokratlarning fikri edi: tarifni pasaytirish kerak.[126] Respublikachilar odatda Amerika sanoatini himoya qilish uchun yuqori tarifni ma'qullashdi.[126] Fuqarolar urushidan beri Amerika tariflari yuqori bo'lgan va 1880-yillarga kelib tarif shu qadar ko'p daromad keltirdiki, hukumat profitsit bilan ishlay boshladi.[127]

1886 yilda Uyda tariflarni pasaytirish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi tor-mor keltirildi.[128] Bunda tarif masalasi ta'kidlangan o'sha yilgi Kongress saylovlari va protektsionizm kuchlari Kongressda o'zlarining sonini ko'paytirdilar, ammo Klivlend tarif islohotlarini qo'llab-quvvatlashni davom ettirdi.[129] Ortiqcha o'sib borishi bilan Klivlend va islohotchilar faqat daromad uchun tarif belgilashdi.[130] Uning 1887 yilda Kongressga qilgan xabarida (o'ng tomonida keltirilgan) hukumat o'zining operatsion xarajatlarini to'lash uchun zarur bo'lgan miqdordan ko'proq odamlardan pul olishning adolatsizligi ta'kidlangan.[131] Respublikachilar, shuningdek protektsionist shimoliy demokratlar yoqadi Samuel J. Randall, Amerika sanoatining yuqori tariflarsiz muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishiga ishongan va ular islohot harakatlariga qarshi kurashni davom ettirgan.[132] Rojer Q. Mills, Uyning usullari va usullari bo'yicha qo'mitaning raisi, tarifni taxminan 47% dan taxminan 40% gacha kamaytirish uchun qonun loyihasini taklif qildi.[133] Klivlend va uning ittifoqchilarining jiddiy harakatlaridan so'ng, qonun loyihasi Vakil palatasida qabul qilindi.[133] Respublikachilar senati Demokratik uy bilan kelisha olmadi va qonun loyihasi vafot etdi konferentsiya qo'mitasi. Tarif bo'yicha kelishmovchiliklar 1888 yilgi prezident saylovlariga qadar davom etdi.

Tashqi siyosat, 1885–1889 yy

Klivlend kengayish va imperializmga qarshi kampaniya olib borgan sodiq aralashmagan. U avvalgi ma'muriyatni targ'ib qilishdan bosh tortdi Nikaragua kanal shartnomasi va umuman olganda tashqi aloqalarda kamroq ekspansist edi.[134] Klivlendning davlat kotibi, Tomas F. Bayard, bilan kelishilgan Jozef Chemberlen Buyuk Britaniyaning Kanadadan tashqaridagi suvlarda baliq ovlash huquqlari bo'yicha va qarama-qarshi bo'lishiga qaramay, murosaga keltiruvchi notani urdi Yangi Angliya respublikachi senatorlar.[135] Klivlend ham Senat muhokamasidan chiqdi Berlin konferentsiyasi shartnomasi AQSh manfaatlari uchun ochiq eshikni kafolatlagan Kongo.[136]

Harbiy siyosat, 1885–1889 yy

Klivlendning harbiy siyosati o'zini himoya qilish va zamonaviylashtirishni ta'kidladi. 1885 yilda Klivlend tayinlangan Mustahkamlash kengashi ostida Urush kotibi Uilyam C. Endikot yangisini tavsiya qilish qirg'oqni mustahkamlash Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari uchun tizim.[137][138] 1870 yillarning oxiridan beri AQShning qirg'oq mudofaasi yaxshilanmagan.[139][140] Kengashning 1886 yilgi hisobotida 29 da 127 million dollarlik katta qurilish dasturi (2019 yilda 3,6 milliard dollarga teng) tavsiya etilgan portlar va daryo suvlari, yangi pog'onali o'qotar qurollar, minomyotlar va dengiz minalar maydonlari. Kengash va dastur odatda Endicott Board va Endicott dasturi deb nomlanadi. Kengashning ko'pgina tavsiyalari amalga oshirildi va 1910 yilga kelib 27 ta joy 70 dan ortiq qal'alar tomonidan himoya qilindi.[141][142] Ko'pgina qurol-yarog'lar Ikkinchi Jahon Urushida yangi mudofaa vositalari bilan almashtirilguncha bekor qilinmaguncha joyida bo'lgan. Endikott shuningdek Kongressga armiya ofitserlarining lavozimini ko'tarish uchun imtihonlar tizimini taklif qildi.[143] Dengiz kuchlari uchun Klivlend ma'muriyati rahbarlik qildi Dengiz kuchlari kotibi Uilyam Kollinz Uitni modernizatsiya tomon harakat qildi, ammo eng yaxshi Evropa harbiy kemalariga teng keladigan kemalar qurilmadi. Avvalgi ma'muriyat davrida boshlangan po'latdan yasalgan to'rtta harbiy kemaning qurib bitkazilishi korruptsiya tergovi va keyinchalik ularning binolari hovlisining bankrotligi sababli kechiktirilgan bo'lsa-da, ushbu kemalar o'z vaqtida bajarilgan dengiz kemasozlik zavodlari tergov tugagandan so'ng.[144] 1888 yil oxiriga qadar yana o'n oltita temir korpusli harbiy kemalar buyurtma qilingan; keyinchalik bu kemalar 1898 yildagi Ispaniya-Amerika urushida hayotiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lib, ko'pchilik Birinchi Jahon urushida qatnashgan. jangovar kemalar " Meyn va Texas, kabi yaqinda Evropadan Janubiy Amerika davlatlari tomonidan sotib olingan zamonaviy zirhli kemalarga mos kelish uchun mo'ljallangan Braziliya harbiy kemasi Riachuelo.[145] O'n bitta himoyalangan kreyserlar (shu jumladan mashhurlar Olimpiya ), bitta zirhli kreyser va bitta monitor eksperimental kreyser bilan birga buyurtma qilingan Vezuviy.[146]

Fuqarolik huquqlari va immigratsiya

Klivlend, tobora ko'payib borayotgan shimolliklar (va deyarli barcha oq tanli janubliklar) ko'rgan Qayta qurish muvaffaqiyatsiz tajriba sifatida va federal kuchdan foydalanishni istamadi 15-o'zgartirish ning AQSh konstitutsiyasi afro-amerikaliklarga ovoz berish huquqini kafolatlagan.[147] Klivlend qora tanli amerikaliklarni patronaj ishlariga tayinlamagan bo'lsa ham, u ruxsat berdi Frederik Duglass sifatida o'z lavozimida davom ettirish amallarni yozuvchi Vashingtonda va boshqa bir qora tanlini tayinladi (Jeyms Kempbell Metyus, Nyu-Yorkning sobiq sudyasi) iste'foga chiqqandan keyin Duglass o'rniga.[147] Uning Duglassni qora tanli odam bilan almashtirish to'g'risidagi qarori g'azab bilan kutib olindi, ammo Klivlend Metyusni shaxsan taniganini da'vo qildi.[148]

Klivlend xitoylik muhojirlarga qarshi "g'azablarni" qoralagan bo'lsa-da, u xitoylik muhojirlar istamayapti, deb ishongan. o'zlashtirmoq oq jamiyatga.[149] Davlat kotibi Tomas F. Bayard ga uzaytirish to'g'risida muzokara olib bordi Xitoyni istisno qilish to'g'risidagi qonun va Klivlend Kongressni qabul qilish uchun lobbi qildi Skot akti, Kongressmen tomonidan yozilgan Uilyam Lourens Skot, bu Qo'shma Shtatlarni tark etgan xitoylik muhojirlarning qaytishiga to'sqinlik qildi.[150] Skott qonuni Kongressning ikkala palatasini osongina qabul qildi va Klivlend uni 1888 yil 1 oktyabrda imzoladi.[150]

Mahalliy Amerika siyosati

Genri L. Deyvz yozgan Dawes Act Klivlend tomonidan imzolangan qonun.

Klivlend tub amerikaliklarga shunday qaradi davlat palatalari o'zining birinchi ochilish marosimidagi nutqida "uning vasiyligi biz tomondan, ularning ahvolini yaxshilash va huquqlarini ta'minlash bo'yicha sa'y-harakatlarni o'z ichiga oladi" dedi.[151] U madaniy assimilyatsiya g'oyasini rag'batlantirdi va o'tishni talab qildi Dawes Act Bu hind erlarini qabilalarning ayrim a'zolariga federal hukumat tomonidan qabilalarga ishonib topshirishda davom etish o'rniga ularni taqsimlashni nazarda tutgan.[151] Mahalliy mahalliy liderlarning konferentsiyasi ushbu aktni ma'qullagan bo'lsa-da, amalda mahalliy amerikaliklarning aksariyati buni rad etdilar.[152] Klivlend Dawes qonuni mahalliy amerikaliklarni qashshoqlikdan xalos qiladi va ularning oq tanli jamiyatga singib ketishini rag'batlantiradi deb ishongan. Bu oxir-oqibat qabilaviy hukumatlarni zaiflashtirdi va individual hindularga er sotish va pulni saqlashga imkon berdi.[151]

Klivlendning 1885 yil inauguratsiyasidan bir oy oldin Prezident Artur to'rt million akr maydonni ochdi Winnebago va Crow Creek Hindiston yerlari Dakota hududi ijro buyrug'i bilan oq aholi punktiga.[153] Ushbu erlarning chegarasida o'n minglab ko'chmanchilar to'planib, ularga egalik qilishga tayyorlanishdi.[153] Klivlend Arturning qabilalar bilan tuzilgan shartnomalarni buzgan degan buyrug'iga ishongan va o'sha yilning 17 aprelida bu yerdan ko'chib kelganlarga buyruq berib, uni bekor qilgan.[153] Klivlend o'n sakkiz kishini yubordi kompaniyalar Shartnomalarni bajarish uchun armiya qo'shinlari va generalga buyruq berdi Filipp Sheridan, paytda U. S. armiyasining qo'mondonligi general, masalani tekshirish uchun.[153]

Nikoh va bolalar

Frensis Folsom Klivlendga taxminan 1886 yil

Klivlend 47 yoshida, Oq uyga bakalavr sifatida kirganida va uning singlisi Klivlend ma'muriyatining dastlabki ikki yilida styuardessa vazifasini bajarish uchun unga qo'shildi.[154] Avvalgi bakalavr prezidentidan farqli o'laroq Jeyms Byukenen, Klivlend uzoq vaqt davomida bakalavr bo'lib qolmadi. 1885 yilda Klivlendning do'sti qizi Oskar Folsom Vashingtonga tashrif buyurdi.[155] Frensis Folsom da talaba bo'lgan Uells kolleji. U maktabga qaytgach, prezident Klivlend onasi bilan yozishmalar uchun onasining ruxsatini oldi va ular tez orada turmush qurishdi.[155] 1886 yil 2-iyunda Klivlend 49 yoshida Frances Folsomga (21 yosh) uylandi Moviy xona Oq uyda.[156] U ish paytida uylangan ikkinchi prezident edi,[c] va Oq uyda turmush qurgan yagona prezident bo'lgan. Ushbu nikoh g'ayrioddiy edi, chunki Klivlend Oskar Folsomning mol-mulkini ijro etgan va otasining o'limidan keyin Frensisning tarbiyasini boshqargan; Shunday bo'lsa-da, jamoatchilik uchrashuvni istisno qilmadi.[157] 21 yoshida Frensis Folsom Klivlend eng yoshi edi Birinchi xonim tarixda va tez orada jamoat uning iliq shaxsiga iliq munosabatda bo'ldi.[158]

Klivlendning beshta farzandi bor edi: Rut (1891–1904), Ester (1893-1980), Marion (1895-1977), Richard (1897-1974) va Frensis (1903-1995). Britaniyalik faylasuf Filippa oyog'i ularning nabirasi edi.[159]

Klivlend, shuningdek, Mariya Krofts Halpin bilan Oskar Folsom Klivlend ismli qo'shimcha bolaning otaligini da'vo qildi.[160]

Ma'muriyat va kabinet

Klivlendning birinchi kabineti.
Old qator, chapdan o'ngga: Tomas F. Bayard, Klivlend, Daniel Manning, Lucius Q. C. Lamar
Orqa qator, chapdan o'ngga: Uilyam F. Vilas, Uilyam C. Uitni, Uilyam C. Endikot, Augustus H. Garland
Birinchi Klivlend kabineti
IdoraIsmMuddat
PrezidentGrover Klivlend1885–1889
Vitse prezidentTomas A. Xendriks1885
Yo'q1885–1889
Davlat kotibiTomas F. Bayard1885–1889
G'aznachilik kotibiDaniel Manning1885–1887
Charlz S. Feyrchild1887–1889
Urush kotibiUilyam Crowninshield Endicott1885–1889
Bosh prokurorAugustus Hill Garland1885–1889
Bosh pochta boshqaruvchisiUilyam Freeman Vilas1885–1888
Donald M. Dikkinson1888–1889
Dengiz kuchlari kotibiUilyam Kollinz Uitni1885–1889
Ichki ishlar kotibiLucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar II1885–1888
Uilyam Freeman Vilas1888–1889
Qishloq xo'jaligi kotibiNorman Jey Koulman1889

Sud tayinlovlari

Asosiy maqola: Grover Klivlend tomonidan tayinlangan federal sudyalar ro'yxati
Bosh sudya Melvil Fuller

Birinchi muddat davomida Klivlend muvaffaqiyatli ikkita sudyani nomzod qilib ko'rsatdi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi. Birinchisi, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, ilgari bo'lgan Missisipi Klivlend kabinetida ichki ishlar vaziri bo'lib ishlagan senator. Qachon Uilyam Bernx Vuds vafot etdi, Klivlend Lamarni 1887 yil oxiriga o'z nomzodiga ko'rsatdi. Lamar senator sifatida yaxshi ko'rilgan bo'lsa-da, uning faoliyati Konfederatsiya yigirma yil oldin ko'plab respublikachilar unga qarshi ovoz berishga sabab bo'lishgan. Lamarning nomzodi 32 dan 28 gacha bo'lgan kichik farq bilan tasdiqlandi.[161]

Bosh sudya Morrison Uayt bir necha oydan so'ng vafot etdi va Klivlend nomzodini qo'ydi Melvil Fuller 1888 yil 30 aprelda o'z o'rnini to'ldirish uchun. Fuller qabul qildi. U ilgari Klivlend nomzodini rad etgan edi Davlat xizmati komissiyasi, uning Chikagodagi yuridik amaliyotini afzal ko'radi. The Senat Adliya qo'mitasi bir necha oy davomida noma'lum nomzodni o'rganib chiqdi, Senat 41 dan 20 gacha nomzodni tasdiqlaganidan oldin.[162][163]

Klivlend o'zining to'rtta Oliy sudi sudyalaridan tashqari 41 ta quyi federal sud sudyalarini nomzod qilib ko'rsatdi. Ular tarkibiga sudyalarning ikkitasi kiritilgan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tuman sudlari, to'qqiz hakamlar Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining apellyatsiya sudlari, va 30 hakamlar Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tuman sudlari. Klivlend muddat davomida Kongress Apellyatsiya sudlari foydasiga tuman sudlarini bekor qilganidan keyin ham ishlaganligi sababli, u ikkala organga sudyalarni tayinlagan ikkita prezidentdan biri. Boshqasi, Benjamin Xarrison, o'zgarish amalga oshirilgan paytda lavozimda edi. Shunday qilib, Klivlendning tuman sudlariga tayinlanishi uning birinchi muddatida, apellyatsiya sudlariga tayinlanishi esa ikkinchi muddatida amalga oshirildi.

1888 yilgi saylov va shaxsiy hayotga qaytish (1889–1893)

Harrison tomonidan mag'lubiyatga uchradi

Asosiy maqolalar: 1888 yil AQShda prezident saylovi va Grover Klivlend 1888 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasi
Klivlend - Turman kampaniyasining plakati
1888 yilgi saylov natijalari

Respublikachilar nomzodlarini ilgari surdilar Benjamin Xarrison ning Indiana prezident uchun va Levi P. Morton vitse-prezident uchun Nyu-York. Klivlend da osongina nomini o'zgartirgan Sent-Luisdagi demokratik qurultoy.[164]

Vitse-prezidentdan keyin Tomas A. Xendriks 1885 yilda o'lim, demokratlar tanladilar Allen G. Turman Ogayo shtati Klivlendning yangi turmush o'rtog'i bo'lishi mumkin.[164]

Respublikachilar kampaniyada ustunlikni qo'lga kiritishdi, chunki Klivlendning kampaniyasi yomon boshqarilgandi Kalvin S. Bris va Uilyam H. Barnum Garrison ko'proq tajovuzkor mablag 'yig'uvchilar va taktikalarni jalb qilgan edi Matt Quay va Jon Vanamaker.[165]

Respublikachilar shimolning muhim sanoat shtatlaridagi protektsionist saylovchilarni chiqarib, tarif masalasida qattiq tashviqot qildilar.[166] Bundan tashqari, Nyu-Yorkdagi demokratlar gubernatorlik nomzodi bo'yicha ikkiga bo'lindi Devid B. Xill, Klivlendning o'sha belanchak holatidagi yordamini susaytirmoqda.[167] A Britaniya elchisining maktubi Klivlendni qo'llab-quvvatlash janjalga sabab bo'ldi, bu Nyu-Yorkda Klivlendning ovozlariga sabab bo'ldi.

1884 yilda bo'lgani kabi, saylov Nyu-Yorkning belanchak shtatlariga qaratildi, Nyu-Jersi, Konnektikut va Indiana. Ammo o'sha yildan farqli o'laroq, Klivlend to'rttasida ham g'alaba qozonganida, 1888 yilda u faqat ikkitasini yutib, o'z uyi Nyu-York shtatini 14373 ovoz bilan yo'qotdi. Klivlend ommaviy ovozlarning ko'pchiligini qo'lga kiritdi - 48,6 foiz va Garrison uchun 47,8 foiz - ammo Garrison Saylovchilar Kollejining ovozini 233–168-da osonlikcha qo'lga kiritdi. [168] Respublikachilar asosan taniqli firibgar ovoz berish amaliyoti natijasida Indiana shtatida g'olib bo'lishdi Beshlik bloklari.[169] Klivlend muddat oxiriga qadar o'z vazifalarini sidqidildan davom ettirdi va shaxsiy hayotga qaytishni orziqib kuta boshladi.[170]

To'rt yil davomida xususiy fuqaro

Frensis Klivlend Oq uydan chiqib ketayotganda, u xodimiga: "Endi, Jerri, men sizning uyingizdagi barcha mebel va bezaklarga yaxshi g'amxo'rlik qilishingizni istayman, chunki men hamma narsani hozirgidek topmoqchiman, biz qachon yana qaytib kel ". Qachon qaytib kelishingizni so'rashganda, u: "Bugundan to'rt yil o'tib qaytamiz", deb javob berdi.[171] Ayni paytda, Klivlend Nyu-York shahriga ko'chib o'tdi, u erda Klivlend Bangs yuridik firmasi bilan ish olib bordi, Stetson, Tracy va MacVeigh. Ushbu mansublik ko'proq mos keladigan ofisni taqsimlash tartibi edi. Klivlendning yuridik amaliyoti o'rtacha daromad keltirdi, ehtimol Klivlend er-xotinning ta'til uyida ancha vaqt o'tkazdi Grey Gables baliq ovi uning obsesyoniga aylangan Buzzard ko'rfazida.[172] While they lived in New York, the Clevelands' first child, Ruth, was born in 1891.[173]

The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley tariflari, an aggressively protectionist measure, and the Sherman kumush sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonun, which increased money backed by silver;[174] these were among policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation's financial health.[175] At first he refrained from criticizing his successor, but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out, addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York.[176] The "silver letter" thrust Cleveland's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching.[177]

1892 yilgi saylov

Asosiy maqolalar: 1892 yil AQShda prezident saylovi va Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign

Democratic nomination

Cleveland's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination.[178] His leading opponent was Devid B. Xill, a Senator for New York.[179] Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination.[179] Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the anjuman Chikagoda.[180] Vitse-prezident uchun demokratlar chiptani balanslashni tanladilar Adlai E. Stivenson Illinoys shtati, kumush tosh.[181] Klivlend kuchlari ustun bo'lishiga qaramay Isaak P. Grey vitse-prezident uchun Indiana shtatidan, ular anjuman favoritini qabul qilishdi.[182] Tarafdori sifatida Yashillar Valyutani ko'tarish va Qishloq tumanlaridagi iqtisodiy muammolarni engillashtirish uchun "Free Silver", Stivenson esa boshqasini muvozanatlashtirgan qattiq pul, gold-standard Klivlend boshchiligidagi chipta.[183]

Campaign against Harrison

1892 yilgi saylov natijalari

Respublikachilar 1892 yilgi saylovni to'rt yil oldingi saylovni qayta o'tkazib, prezident Xarrisonni qayta nomzod qilib ko'rsatdilar. Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, "the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation",[184] in part because Harrison's wife, Caroline, was dying of tuberculosis.[185] Harrison did not personally campaign at all. Following Caroline Harrison's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.

The issue of the tariff had worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888. Now, however, the legislative revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that by 1892 many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business.[186] Ko'plab G'arbliklar, an'anaviy ravishda respublikachilarning saylovchilari Jeyms Uaver, yangi nomzod Populistlar partiyasi. Weaver Bepul kumush, saxiy faxriylarning pensiyalari va boshqalarni va'da qildi sakkiz soatlik ish kuni.[187] The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York.[188] Kampaniya yakunida ko'plab populistlar va ishchilarni qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar Karnegi korporatsiyasining kasaba uyushmasini buzishga urinishidan so'ng Klivlendni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Uy-joy ish tashlashi in Pittsburgh and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co.[189] The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes, and it was Cleveland's third consecutive popular vote plurality.[190]

Ikkinchi prezidentlik (1893–1897)

Iqtisodiy vahima va kumush masalasi

Klivlendning ikkinchi muddati boshlanganidan ko'p o'tmay, 1893 yilgi vahima struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute iqtisodiy tushkunlik.[191] The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem.[192] The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, and the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of the Sherman kumush sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonun.[192] Even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin.[193] Senatda kumush tangalarni bekor qilish ham bir xil tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ldi. Cleveland, forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal, convinced enough Democrats – and along with eastern Republicans, they formed a 48–37 majority for repeal.[194] Depletion of the Treasury's gold reserves continued, at a lesser rate, and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold.[195] At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency.[196]

Tarif islohoti

Gorman tomonidan Klivlendning kamsitilishi va shakarga bo'lgan ishonch

Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley tariflari. The Uilson-Gorman tariflari to'g'risidagi qonun was introduced by West Virginian Representative Uilyam L. Uilson 1893 yil dekabrda.[197] After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin.[198] The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials.[199] Daromaddagi kamomadni an tomonidan qoplanishi kerak edi daromad solig'i of two percent on income above $4,000 (equivalent to $113,822 in 2019).[199]

The bill was next considered in the Senate, where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by Artur Pue Gorman of Maryland, who insisted on more protection for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed.[200] The bill passed the Senate with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms.[201] The Shakarga ishonish in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer.[202] Cleveland was outraged with the final bill, and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests.[203] Even so, he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature.[204]

Ovoz berish huquqi

In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the Lodge Bill,[205] which would have strengthened voting rights protections through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district. The 1871 yildagi ijro to'g'risidagi qonun had provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral process, from registration to the certification of returns. Cleveland succeeded in ushering in the 1894 repeal of this law (ch. 25, 28 Stat. 36).[206] The pendulum thus swung from stronger attempts to protect voting rights to the repealing of voting rights protections; this in turn led to unsuccessful attempts to have the federal courts protect voting rights in Giles va Xarrisga qarshi, 189 U.S. 475 (1903), and Giles v. Teasley, 193 U.S. 146 (1904).

Mehnat tartibsizliklari

Jon T. Morgan, Senator Alabama, opposed Cleveland on Free Silver, the tariff, and the Hawaii treaty, saying of Cleveland that "I hate the ground that man walks on."[207]

The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers.[208] A group of workingmen led by Jeykob S. Koksi began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland's policies.[208] Sifatida tanilgan ushbu guruh Coxey's Army, agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen, and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts.[208] By the time they reached Washington, only a few hundred remained, and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the lawn of the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kapitoliy, the group scattered.[208] Even though Coxey's Army may not have been a threat to the government, it signaled a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies.[209]

Pullman Strike

Asosiy maqola: Pullman zarbasi

The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey's Army. A strike began against the Pullman kompaniyasi over low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and sympathy strikes, led by Amerika temir yo'llari ittifoqi rahbar Evgeniy V. Debs, tez orada ergashdi.[210] By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce.[211] Because the railroads carried the pochta, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate.[212] Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers.[213] "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago", he proclaimed, "that card will be delivered."[214] Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat Jon P. Altgeld of Illinois, who became his bitter foe in 1896. Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration.[215]

Just before the 1894 election, Cleveland was warned by Francis Lynde Stetson, an advisor:

"We are on the eve of [a] very dark night, unless a return of commercial prosperity relieves popular discontent with what they believe [is] Democratic incompetence to make laws, and consequently [discontent] with Democratic Administrations anywhere and everywhere."[216]

The warning was appropriate, for in the Congressional elections, Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House, while the Populists lost most of their support. Cleveland's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan, and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states. Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland's allies. The Democratic opposition were close to controlling two-thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate. They failed for lack of unity and a national leader, as Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for president.[217]

Tashqi siyosat, 1893–1897 yy

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: 1895 yildagi Venesuela inqirozi
"I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject. If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial expansion or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our government and the behavior which the conscience of the people demands of their public servants."
Cleveland's message to Congress on the Hawaiian question, 1893 yil 18-dekabr.[218]
His Little Hawaiian Game Checkmated, 1894

When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation. In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor.[136] In the intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government. In early 1893 they overthrew her, set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States.[219] The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval.[219] Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman Jeyms Xenderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there.[220]

Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation.[220] Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu, but Dole's government refused to yield their position.[221] By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress.[221] In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right).[218] The Senate, under Democratic control but opposed to Cleveland, commissioned and produced the Morgan hisoboti, which contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair.[222] Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the Queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Gavayi Respublikasi.[223]

Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monro doktrinasi that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere.[224] When Britain and Venesuela disagreed over the boundary between Venezuela and the colony of Britaniya Gvianasi, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney norozilik bildirdi.[225] Buyuk Britaniya bosh vaziri Lord Solsberi and the British ambassador to Washington, Julian Paunfote, misjudged how important successful resolution of the dispute was to the American government, having prolonged the crisis before ultimately accepting the American demand for arbitration.[226][227] A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[228] But by standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with the United States' southern neighbors, and at the same time, the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain.[229]

Harbiy siyosat, 1893–1897 yy

The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first, and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action. Construction continued on the Endicott program of qirg'oq istehkomlari begun under Cleveland's first administration.[137][138] The adoption of the Krag-Yorgensen rifle, the US Army's first bolt-action repeating rifle, was finalized.[230][231] 1895–96 yillarda Dengiz kuchlari kotibi Xilari A. Herbert, having recently adopted the aggressive naval strategy advocated by Captain Alfred Tayer Mahan, successfully proposed ordering five jangovar kemalar (the Kearsarge va Illinoys sinflar ) va o'n olti torpedo qayiqlari.[232][233] Completion of these ships nearly doubled the Navy's battleships and created a new torpedo boat force, which previously had only two boats. The battleships and seven of the torpedo boats were not completed until 1899–1901, after the Spanish–American War.[234]

Saraton

Grover Klivlendning yog'li rasmlari, 1899 yilda bo'yalgan Anders Zorn

In the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O'Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland's qattiq tanglay. Clinical samples were sent anonymously to the Armiya tibbiyot muzeyi; the diagnosis was an epithelioma, a o'rniga zararli saraton.[235]

Klivlend moliyaviy tushkunlikni kuchaytirishi mumkin bo'lgan vahima qo'zg'atmaslik uchun yashirincha operatsiya qilishga qaror qildi.[236] Klivlendga yaqinlashib kelayotgan Kongress sessiyasi vaqtida to'liq tiklanishiga vaqt berish uchun operatsiya 1 iyulda sodir bo'ldi.[237] Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. Jarrohlar kemada operatsiya qilishdi Oneida, Klivlendning do'stiga tegishli yaxta E. C. Benedikt, suzib ketayotganda Long Island.[238] The surgery was conducted through the President's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery.[239] The team, sedating Cleveland with azot oksidi va efir, successfully removed parts of his upper left jaw and hard palate.[239] Shishning kattaligi va operatsiya hajmi Klivlendning og'zini buzdi.[240] Boshqa bir operatsiya paytida Klivlendga qattiq kauchuk tish protezi o'rnatildi, u nutqini to'g'irlab, ko'rinishini tikladi.[240] Ikkita yomon tishni olib tashlash haqidagi qopqoq hikoyasi shubhali pressni ushlab turdi.[241] Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation.[240] In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the Oneida, Dr. William W. Keen, wrote an article detailing the operation.[242]

Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed, and there was some debate as to whether it was actually malignant. Several doctors, including Dr. Keen, stated after Cleveland's death that the tumor was a karsinoma.[242]Other suggestions included ameloblastoma[243] or a benign salivary mixed tumor (also known as a pleomorphic adenoma ).[244]In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous karsinoma,[245] a low-grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastaz.[235]

Ma'muriyat va kabinet

Klivlendning so'nggi kabineti.
Old qator, chapdan o'ngga: Daniel S. Lamont, Richard Olney, Cleveland, Jon G. Karlisl, Judson Xarmon
Orqa qator, chapdan o'ngga: Devid R. Frensis, Uilyam Layn Uilson, Xilari A. Herbert, Julius S. Morton
Ikkinchi Klivlend kabineti
IdoraIsmMuddat
PrezidentGrover Klivlend1893–1897
Vitse prezidentAdlai E. Stivenson I1893–1897
Davlat kotibiValter Q. Gresham1893–1895
Richard Olney1895–1897
G'aznachilik kotibiJon G. Karlisl1893–1897
Urush kotibiDaniel S. Lamont1893–1897
Bosh prokurorRichard Olney1893–1895
Judson Xarmon1895–1897
Bosh pochta boshqaruvchisiUilson S. Bissell1893–1895
Uilyam Layn Uilson1895–1897
Dengiz kuchlari kotibiXilari A. Herbert1893–1897
Ichki ishlar kotibiM. Xok Smit1893–1896
Devid R. Frensis1896–1897
Qishloq xo'jaligi kotibiJulius S. Morton1893–1897

Sud tayinlovlari

Asosiy maqola: Grover Klivlend tomonidan tayinlangan federal sudyalar ro'yxati

Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominated Uilyam B. Xornblower sudga.[246] Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator Devid B. Xill his enemy.[246] Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved.[246] The Senate rejected Hornblower's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 30 to 24.[246]

Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill's machine in that state.[247] Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41.[247] Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederik R. Kudert, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of Senator Edvard Duglas Oq ning Luiziana, whose nomination was accepted unanimously.[247] Later, in 1896, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated.[248] Instead, Cleveland nominated Rufus Uiler Pexem, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily.[248]

Ittifoqga qabul qilingan davlatlar

No new states were ittifoqqa qabul qilingan during Cleveland's first term. On February 22, 1889, 10 days before leaving office, the 50-kongress o'tdi 1889 yilgi qonun, avtorizatsiya qilish Shimoliy Dakota, Janubiy Dakota, Montana va Vashington to form state governments and to gain admission to the Union. All four officially became states in November 1889, during the first year of Benjamin Harrison's administration.[249][250] During his second term, the 53-AQSh Kongressi passed an Enabling Act that permitted Yuta to apply for statehood. Cleveland signed it on July 16, 1894.[251][252] Utah joined the Union as the 45th state on January 4, 1896.

1896 election and retirement (1897–1908)

Cleveland in 1903 at age 66 by Frederik Gutekunst

Cleveland's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated Uilyam Jennings Bryan a Silver Platform.[253][254] Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats' third-party ticket that promised to defend the oltin standart, limit government and oppose high tariffs, but he declined their nomination for a third term.[255] The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election, and Uilyam Makkinli, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan.[256] Agrarians nominated Bryan again in 1900. Yilda 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker.[257]

Outgoing President Grover Cleveland, at right, stands nearby as Uilyam Makkinli is sworn in as president by Bosh sudya Melvil Fuller.

After leaving the White House on March 4, 1897, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, yilda Prinston, Nyu-Jersi.[258] For a time he was a trustee of Princeton universiteti, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred Dean West's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Vudro Uilson, then president of the university.[259] Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Teodor Ruzvelt (1901–1909), but was financially unable to accept the chairmanship of the commission handling the Coal Strike of 1902.[260] Cleveland still made his views known in political matters. In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal, Cleveland weighed in on the ayollarning saylov huquqi movement, writing that "sensible and responsible women do not want to vote. The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence."[261]

Last photograph of Cleveland (1907).

In 1906, a group of New Jersey Democrats promoted Cleveland as a possible candidate for the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Senati. Amaldagi rahbar, Jon F. Drayden, was not seeking re-election, and some Democrats felt that the former president could attract the votes of some disaffected Republican legislators who might be drawn to Cleveland's statesmanship and conservatism.[262]

Cleveland's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill.[263] In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died on June 24 at age 71.[263] His last words were, "I have tried so hard to do right."[264] U dafn etilgan Prinston qabristoni ning Nassau Presviterian cherkovi.[265]

Faxriy va yodgorliklar

In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., near enough the capital. He secretly bought a farmhouse, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, in 1886, and remodeled it into a Qirolicha Anne uslubi summer estate. He sold Oak View upon losing his bid for re-election in 1888. Not long thereafter, suburban residential development reached the area, which came to be known as Oak View, and then Cleveland Heights, and eventually Klivlend bog'i.[266] The Clevelands are depicted in local murals.[267]

Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo shtat kolleji in Buffalo, New York is named after Cleveland. Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president, vice presidents, and other administrative functions and student services. Cleveland was a member of the first board of directors of the then Buffalo Normal School.[268] Grover Cleveland Middle School uning tug'ilgan joyida, Kolduell, Nyu-Jersi, was named for him, as is Grover Klivlend o'rta maktabi in Buffalo, New York, and the town of Klivlend, Missisipi. Klivlend tog'i, a volcano in Alaska, is also named after him.[269] In 1895 he became the first U.S. president who was filmed.[270]

The first U.S. postage stamp to honor Cleveland appeared in 1923. This twelve-cent issue accompanied a thirteen-cent stamp in the same definitive series that depicted his old rival Benjamin Harrison. Cleveland's only two subsequent stamp appearances have been in issues devoted to the full roster of U.S. Presidents, released, respectively, in 1938 and 1986.

Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill of series 1928 and series 1934. He also appeared on the first few issues of the $20 Federal zaxira eslatmalari from 1914. Since he was both the 22nd and 24th president, he was featured on two separate dollar coins released in 2012 as part of the Prezidentning 2005 yilgi 1 dollarlik tangalar to'g'risidagi qonuni.

In 2013, Cleveland was inducted into the Nyu-Jersi shon-sharaf zali.

Shuningdek qarang

Tushuntirish yozuvlari

  1. ^ Vice President Hendricks died in office. As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the office of Vice President was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.
  2. ^ He was therefore the only person to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents.
  3. ^ Jon Tayler, who married his second wife Julia Gardiner in 1844, was the first.

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ Nelson, Julie (2003). American Presidents Year by Year. Yo'nalish. p. 334. ISBN  9780765680464.
  2. ^ Blum, 527
  3. ^ Jeffers, 8–12; Nevins, 4–5; Beito and Beito
  4. ^ McFarland, 11–56
  5. ^ Gould, passim
  6. ^ a b Tugwell, 220–249
  7. ^ Nevins, 4
  8. ^ President-Making in the Gilded Age: The Nominating Conventions of 1876–1900 by Stan M. Haynes page 2
  9. ^ Nevins, 8–10
  10. ^ Graff, 3–4; Nevins, 8–10
  11. ^ Graff, 3–4
  12. ^ Nevins, 6
  13. ^ Nevins, 9
  14. ^ Graff, 7
  15. ^ Nevins, 10; Graff, 3
  16. ^ Nevins, 11; Graff, 8–9
  17. ^ Nevins, 11
  18. ^ Jeffers, 17
  19. ^ Nevins, 17–19
  20. ^ Tugwell, 14
  21. ^ a b Nevins, 21
  22. ^ Nevins, 18–19; Jeffers, 19
  23. ^ Nevins, 23–27
  24. ^ Nevins, 27–33
  25. ^ Nevins, 31–36
  26. ^ Graff, 11
  27. ^ a b v Graff, 14
  28. ^ Graff, 14–15
  29. ^ Graff, 15; Nevins, 46
  30. ^ Graff, 14; Nevins, 51–52
  31. ^ a b Nevins, 52–53
  32. ^ Nevins, 54
  33. ^ Nevins, 54–55
  34. ^ Nevins, 55–56
  35. ^ Nevins, 56
  36. ^ Tugwell, 26
  37. ^ Nevins, 44–45
  38. ^ Tugwell, 32
  39. ^ a b Nevins, 58
  40. ^ Jeffers, 33
  41. ^ Tugwell, 36
  42. ^ a b v Jeffers, 34; Nevins, 61–62
  43. ^ "The Execution of John Gaffney". Buffaloniya. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2017 yil 6 oktyabrda. Olingan 27 mart, 2008.
  44. ^ Jeffers, 36; Nevins, 64
  45. ^ Nevins, 66–71
  46. ^ Nevins, 78
  47. ^ "Sexual misconduct allegations against presidents have a long history; George H.W. Bush is latest". Newsweek. October 25, 2017.
  48. ^ "Grover Cleveland, a Rapist President". vice.com. August 26, 2015.
  49. ^ Lachman, Charles (May 23, 2011). "Grover Cleveland's Sex Scandal: The Most Despicable in American Political History". The Daily Beast. Olingan 3 iyul, 2020.
  50. ^ a b v Genri F. Graf (2002). Grover Cleveland: The American Presidents Series: The 22nd and 24th President, 1885–1889 and 1893–1897. Genri Xolt va Kompaniya. 60-63 betlar. ISBN  9780805069235.
  51. ^ Nevins, 79; Graff, 18–19; Jeffers, 42–45; Welch, 24
  52. ^ Nevins, 79–80; Graff, 18–19; Welch, 24
  53. ^ a b Nevins, 80–81
  54. ^ Nevins, 83
  55. ^ Graff, 19; Jeffers, 46–50
  56. ^ a b Nevins, 84–86
  57. ^ Nevins, 85
  58. ^ Nevins, 86
  59. ^ Tugvel, 58 yosh
  60. ^ Nevins, 94–95; Jeffers, 50–51
  61. ^ a b Nevins, 94–99; Graff, 26–27
  62. ^ Tugwell, 68–70
  63. ^ Graff, 26; Nevins, 101–103
  64. ^ Nevins, 103–104
  65. ^ Nevins, 105
  66. ^ Graff, 28
  67. ^ Graff, 35
  68. ^ Graff, 35–36
  69. ^ Nevins, 114–116
  70. ^ a b v Nevins, 116–117
  71. ^ a b Nevins, 117–118
  72. ^ Nevins, 125–126
  73. ^ Tugwell, 77
  74. ^ Tugwell, 73
  75. ^ Nevins, 138–140
  76. ^ a b Nevins, 185–186; Jeffers, 96-97
  77. ^ Tuguell, 88 yosh
  78. ^ a b v Nevins, 146–147
  79. ^ Nevins, 147
  80. ^ Nevinlar, 152-153; Graf, 51-53
  81. ^ Nevins, 153
  82. ^ a b Nevins, 154; Graf, 53-54
  83. ^ Tuguell, 80 yosh
  84. ^ Yoz, passim; Grossman, 31 yosh
  85. ^ Tuguell, 84 yosh
  86. ^ a b Nevinlar, 156-159; Graf, 55 yosh
  87. ^ Nevinlar, 187-188
  88. ^ Tuguell, 93 yosh
  89. ^ a b Nevinlar, 159–162; Graf, 59-60
  90. ^ Graf, 59 yosh; Jeffers, 111; Nevins, 177, Uelch, 34 yoshda
  91. ^ Jeff Jeykli, ""Yaxshilikni etkazing" - ularning barchasining eng halol prezidenti ", Boston Globe 2015 yil 15 fevral, 2-15 bet
  92. ^ Lakman, Charlz (2011). "9-bob -" Dahshatli ertak"". Yashirin hayot: Prezident Grover Klivlendning jinsi, yolg'onlari va janjallari. Skyhorse nashriyoti. 195-216 betlar. ISBN  9781616082758. Olingan 14 oktyabr, 2016.
  93. ^ Tugvel, 90 yosh
  94. ^ Lakman, Charlz (2011). Yashirin hayot: Prezident Grover Klivlendning jinsi, yolg'onlari va janjallari. Skyhorse nashriyoti. 285-288 betlar. ISBN  9781616082758.
  95. ^ Uelch, 33 yosh
  96. ^ Nevinlar, 170–171
  97. ^ Nevins, 170
  98. ^ Nevinlar, 181-184
  99. ^ Tuguell, 94–95
  100. ^ a b Leyp, Devid. "1884 yilgi Prezident saylovlari natijalari". Deyv Leypning AQSh Prezidenti saylovlari atlasi. Olingan 27 yanvar, 2008., "Saylovchilar kollejining 1789–1996 yildagi ballari". Milliy arxivlar va yozuvlar boshqarmasi. Olingan 27 yanvar, 2008.
  101. ^ Graf, 64 yosh
  102. ^ Nevinlar, 208–211
  103. ^ Nevins, 214-217
  104. ^ Graf, 83 yosh
  105. ^ Tugvel, 100 yosh
  106. ^ Nevinlar, 238-241; Welch, 59-60
  107. ^ Nevinlar, 354-357; Graf, 85 yosh
  108. ^ Nevinlar, 217–223; Graf, 77 yosh
  109. ^ a b v Nevinlar, 223-228
  110. ^ Tuguell, 130-134
  111. ^ Graf, 85 yosh
  112. ^ Nevins, 326-328; Graf, 83–84
  113. ^ Nevinlar, 300-331; Graf, 83 yosh
  114. ^ Qarang Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari prezidentiga qo'yilgan vetolar ro'yxati
  115. ^ a b Nevinlar, 331-332; Graf, 85 yosh
  116. ^ "Klivlendning Vetosi" Texas urug'i to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi ". Grover Klivlendning yozuvlari va nutqlari. Nyu-York: Cassell Publishing Co. 1892. p. 450. ISBN  0-217-89899-8.
  117. ^ Jeffers, 157–158
  118. ^ a b Nevins, 201–205; Graff, 102-103
  119. ^ Nevins, 269
  120. ^ Tugvell, 110
  121. ^ Nevins, 268
  122. ^ a b Nevins, 273
  123. ^ Nevinlar, 277–279
  124. ^ Grover Klivlendning yozuvlari va nutqlari. Nyu-York: Cassell Publishing Co. 1892. bet.72 –73. ISBN  0-217-89899-8.
  125. ^ "Grover Klivlend: muhim voqealar" Virjiniya universiteti Miller markazi. Qabul qilingan 3 iyun 2019 yil.
  126. ^ a b Nevins, 280-282, Reitano, 46-62
  127. ^ Nevins, 286-287
  128. ^ Nevins, 287-288
  129. ^ Nevinlar, 290-296; Graf, 87–88
  130. ^ Nevinlar, 370-371
  131. ^ Nevinlar, 379-381
  132. ^ Nevinlar, 383-385
  133. ^ a b Graff, 88-89
  134. ^ Nevinlar, 205, 404-405
  135. ^ Nevinlar, 404-413
  136. ^ a b Zakariya, 80 yosh
  137. ^ a b Berhow, 9-10 betlar
  138. ^ a b Sohil mudofaasini o'rganish guruhining veb-saytidagi Endikot va Taft kengashlari Arxivlandi 2016 yil 4-fevral, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  139. ^ Berhow, p. 8
  140. ^ Fuqarolik urushi va 1870-yillarning mudofaasi Sohil mudofaasini o'rganish guruhining veb-saytida Arxivlandi 2016 yil 4-fevral, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  141. ^ Berhow, pp. 201–226
  142. ^ AQShning barcha qirg'oq qal'alari va batareyalari ro'yxati Coast Defense Study Group veb-saytida
  143. ^ Uilyam Krounshild Endikot, Belldan, Uilyam Gardner (1992), Harbiy kotiblar va armiya kotiblari, Harbiy tarix markazi, AQSh armiyasi
  144. ^ Bauer va Roberts, p. 141
  145. ^ Bauer va Roberts, p. 102
  146. ^ Bauer va Roberts, 101, 133, 141-147 betlar
  147. ^ a b Welch, 65-66
  148. ^ Buker, Kristofer Brayan (2014). ""Majburiy to'lov yo'q! Janubda negr hukmronligi yo'q! ": Prezident Grover Klivlend va Demokratik partiyaning hokimiyat tepasiga qaytishi". Afro-amerikaliklar va prezidentlik. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2016 yil 17 oktyabrda. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2016.
  149. ^ Uelch, 72 yosh
  150. ^ a b Uelch, 73 yosh
  151. ^ a b v Uelch, 70 yosh; Nevinlar, 358-359
  152. ^ Graf, 206-207
  153. ^ a b v d Brodskiy, 141–142; Nevins, 228-229
  154. ^ Brodskiy, 158; Jeffers, 149
  155. ^ a b Graf, 78 yoshda
  156. ^ Graf, 79 yosh
  157. ^ Jeffers, 170–176; Graf, 78-81; Nevinlar, 302-308; Uelch, 51 yosh
  158. ^ Graff, 80-81
  159. ^ Uilyam Grimes, "Philippa Foot, taniqli faylasuf, 90 yoshida vafot etdi" NY Times 2010 yil 9 oktyabr
  160. ^ "Oskar Folsom Klivlend". Geni.com. 2018 yil 2 sentyabr. Olingan 20 fevral, 2019.
  161. ^ Daniel J. Meador, "Lamar sudga: milliy uchrashuvga so'nggi qadam" Oliy sud tarixiy jamiyat yilnomasi 1986 yil: 27–47. ISSN  0362-5249
  162. ^ Villard L. King, Melvill Ueston Fuller - AQShning 1888–1910 yillarda bosh sudyasi (1950)
  163. ^ Nevinlar, 445-450
  164. ^ a b Graf, 90-91
  165. ^ Tuguell, 166
  166. ^ Nevinlar, 418-420
  167. ^ Nevinlar, 423-427
  168. ^ Leyp, Devid. "1888 yilgi Prezident saylovlari natijalari". Deyv Leypning AQSh Prezidenti saylovlari atlasi. Olingan 18-fevral, 2008., "Saylovchilar kollejining 1789–1996 yildagi ballari". Milliy arxivlar va yozuvlar boshqarmasi. Olingan 18-fevral, 2008.
  169. ^ Nevinlar, 435-439; Jeffers, 220–222
  170. ^ Nevinlar, 443-449
  171. ^ Nevins, 448
  172. ^ Tugvel, 175
  173. ^ Nevins, 450; Graf, 99-100
  174. ^ Tuguell, 168
  175. ^ Graf, 102-105; Nevinlar, 465-467
  176. ^ Graf, 104-105; Nevinlar, 467-468
  177. ^ Nevinlar, 470-471
  178. ^ Nevinlar, 468-469
  179. ^ a b Nevinlar, 470-473
  180. ^ Tuguell, 182
  181. ^ Graf, 105; Nevins, 492-493
  182. ^ Uilyam DeGregorio, AQSh prezidentlarining to'liq kitobi, Gramercy 1997 yil
  183. ^ "AQSh Senati: San'at va tarix uyi> Adlay Eving Stivenson, 23-vitse-prezident (1893–1897)". Senat.gov. nd. Olingan 30 may, 2011.
  184. ^ Nevins, 498
  185. ^ Kalxun, 149
  186. ^ Nevins, 499
  187. ^ Graf, 106-107; Nevinlar, 505-506
  188. ^ Graf, 108 yosh
  189. ^ Tuguell, 184–185
  190. ^ Leyp, Devid. "1892 yilgi Prezident saylovlari natijalari". Deyv Leypning AQSh Prezidenti saylovlari atlasi. Olingan 22 fevral, 2008., "Saylovchilar kollejining 1789–1996 yildagi ballari". Milliy arxivlar va yozuvlar boshqarmasi. Olingan 22 fevral, 2008.
  191. ^ Graf, 114 yosh
  192. ^ a b Nevins, 526-528
  193. ^ Nevinlar, 524-528, 537-540. Ovoz 239 ga qarshi, 108 ga qarshi bo'ldi.
  194. ^ Tugvel, 192–195
  195. ^ Welch, 126–127
  196. ^ Timberleyk, Richard H. (1993). Qo'shma Shtatlardagi pul-kredit siyosati: intellektual va institutsional tarix. Chikago universiteti matbuoti. p.179. ISBN  0-226-80384-8.
  197. ^ Festus P. Summers, Uilyam L. Uilson va tarif islohoti: biografiya (1974)
  198. ^ Nevins, 567; Ovoz 204 ta 140 ga qarshi edi
  199. ^ a b Nevinlar, 564-566; Jeffers, 285-287
  200. ^ Lambert, 213-15
  201. ^ Uilson-Gorman qonunining daromad solig'i tarkibiy qismi 1895 yilda qisman konstitutsiyaga zid deb topilgan. Qarang Pollock va Fermerlarning Kreditlari va Trust Co.
  202. ^ Nevinlar, 577-578
  203. ^ Nevinlar, 585-587; Jeffers, 288–289
  204. ^ Nevins, 564-588; Jeffers, 285-289
  205. ^ Jeyms B. Xedjes (1940), "Shimoliy Amerika", yilda Uilyam L. Langer, ed., Jahon tarixi ensiklopediyasi, Boston: Xyuton Mifflin, V qism, G bo'lim, 1c kichik bo'lim, p. 794.
  206. ^ Kongress tadqiqot xizmati (2004), Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasi: tahlil va talqin - ishlarni tahlil qilish AQSh Oliy sudining 2002 yil 28 iyundagi qarori bilan, Vashington: Hukumatning bosmaxonasi, "O'n beshinchi tuzatish", "Kongressning ijro etilishi", "Federal tuzatish qonunchiligi", p. 2058.
  207. ^ Nevins, 568
  208. ^ a b v d Graf, 117–118; Nevinlar, 603-605
  209. ^ Graf, 118; Jeffers, 280-281
  210. ^ Nevins, 611-613
  211. ^ Nevins, 614
  212. ^ Nevins, 614-618; Graf, 118–119; Jeffers, 296–297
  213. ^ Nevins, 619-623; Jeffers, 298–302. Shuningdek qarang Qayta Debsda.
  214. ^ Nevins, 628
  215. ^ Nevinlar, 624-628; Jeffers, 304-305; Graf, 120 yosh
  216. ^ Frensis Lind Stetson Klivlendga, 1894 yil 7 oktyabrda Allan Nevinsda, ed. Grover Klivlendning maktublari, 1850-1908 (1933) p. 369
  217. ^ Richard J. Jensen, O'rta g'arbiy g'alaba: ijtimoiy va siyosiy ziddiyatlar, 1888–96 (1971) 229-230 betlar
  218. ^ a b Nevins, 560
  219. ^ a b Nevins, 549-552; Graff 121–122
  220. ^ a b Nevinlar, 552-555; Graf, 122
  221. ^ a b Nevinlar, 558-559
  222. ^ Welch, 174
  223. ^ McWilliams, 25-36
  224. ^ Zakariya, 145–146
  225. ^ Graf, 123–125; Nevins, 633-62
  226. ^ Pol Gibb, "Achchiq harakatsizlikmi? Ser Xulian Paunsefote, Lord Solsberi va Venesuela chegara mojarosi", Diplomatiya & Statecraft, 2005 yil mart, jild 16 1-son, 23-55 betlar
  227. ^ Bleyk, Nelson M. (1942). "Klivlendning Venesuela siyosati to'g'risida". Amerika tarixiy sharhi. 47 (2): 259–277. doi:10.2307/1841667. JSTOR  1841667.
  228. ^ Graf, 123–125
  229. ^ Nevins, 550, 633-688
  230. ^ Bryus N. Kanfild "Chet el miltig'i: AQSh Krag-Yorgensen" Amerikalik miltiqchi Oktyabr 2010 yil 86-89, 126, 129-betlar
  231. ^ Xanevik, Karl Egil (1998). Norske Militærgeverr 1867 yil
  232. ^ Fridman, 35-38 betlar
  233. ^ Bauer va Roberts, 162-165 betlar
  234. ^ Bauer va Roberts, 102-104, 162-165 betlar
  235. ^ a b Renehan; J C Lowry (1995 yil iyul). "Amerikaning ikki prezidentining og'zaki o'smalari: agar ular bugun tirik bo'lganlarida nima bo'ladi?". J R Soc Med. 88 (7): 377–383. PMC  1295266. PMID  7562805.
  236. ^ Nevinlar, 528-529; Graf, 115–116
  237. ^ Nevinlar, 531-533
  238. ^ Nevins, 529
  239. ^ a b Nevins, 530-531
  240. ^ a b v Nevins, 532-533
  241. ^ Nevins, 533; Graf, 116
  242. ^ a b Kin, Uilyam V. (1917). 1893 yilda prezident Klivlendga qilingan jarrohlik operatsiyalar. G. W. Jacobs & Co. Qopqoq saqlanib qolgan va namoyish etilgan Mutter muzeyi yilda Filadelfiya
  243. ^ Hardig WG. (1974). "Og'zaki jarrohlik va prezidentlar - qarama-qarshi asr". J Oral Surg. 32 (7): 490–493. PMID  4601118.
  244. ^ Miller JM. (1961). "Stiven Grover Klivlend". Jarrohlik ginekol aksteti. 113: 524–9. PMID  13770838.
  245. ^ Bruks JJ; Enterline HT; Aponte GE. (1908). "Prezident Klivlendning shikastlanishining yakuniy tashxisi". Trans Stud Coll Fizik Filadelfiya. 2 (1).
  246. ^ a b v d Nevinlar, 569-570
  247. ^ a b v Nevinlar, 570-571
  248. ^ a b Nevins, 572
  249. ^ "Bugun tarixda: 11-noyabr". loc.gov. Kongress kutubxonasi.
  250. ^ "Bugun tarixda: 2-noyabr". loc.gov. Kongress kutubxonasi.
  251. ^ Timberleyk, Richard H. (1993). Qo'shma Shtatlardagi pul-kredit siyosati: intellektual va institutsional tarix. Chikago universiteti matbuoti. p.77. ISBN  0-226-80384-8.
  252. ^ Tetcher, Linda (2016). "Davlatchilik xronologiyasi uchun kurash". historytogo.utah.gov. Yuta shtati. Olingan 18 mart, 2020.
  253. ^ Nevins, 684-693
  254. ^ R. Xel Uilyams, Qaror yillari: 1890-yillarda Amerika siyosati (1993)
  255. ^ Graf, 128–129
  256. ^ Leyp, Devid. "1896 yilgi Prezident saylovlari natijalari". Deyv Leypning AQSh Prezidenti saylovlari atlasi. Olingan 23 fevral, 2008.
  257. ^ Nevinlar, 754-758
  258. ^ Graf, 131-133; Nevins, 730-735
  259. ^ Graff, p. 131; Aleksandr Leych, Prinston sherigi, Princeton Univ Press, 1978, "Grover Klivlend "
  260. ^ Nevinlar, 748-751
  261. ^ Ladies Home Journal 22, (1905 yil oktyabr), 7-8
  262. ^ "Drayden kuchlari o'zlarining janglarini o'tkazish uchun to'planishdi". The New York Times. 1906 yil 11-noyabr. Olingan 4 mart, 2015.
  263. ^ a b Graf, 135–136; Nevinlar, 762-764
  264. ^ Jeffers, 340; Graf, 135. Nevins bu so'nggi so'zlarni eslatib o'tmaydi.
  265. ^ Roberts, Rassel (1995). Yashirin Nyu-Jersini kashf eting. Rutgers universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-8135-2252-4. Olingan 22 avgust, 2012.
  266. ^ Kimberli Protro Uilyams, Klivlend bog'ining tarixiy tumani risola, D.C.ni saqlash ligasi, 2001 yil.
  267. ^ Qarang, masalan."Klivlend bog'ining qisqacha tarixi". Klivlend Park tarixiy jamiyati. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 26 noyabrda. Olingan 8 aprel, 2009.
  268. ^ "Buffalo shtat kolleji Klivlend zali". Olingan 11-noyabr, 2009.
  269. ^ Jeyms D. Mayers (1994). "Markaziy va G'arbiy Aleut arkining magmatik bosqichining geologiyasi, geokimyosi va petrologiyasi" (Nashr qilingan qo'lyozma). Vayoming universiteti. p. 41. Olingan 9 sentyabr, 2010.
  270. ^ "Grover Klivlendning 24-prezidenti". Presidentsgraves.com. 1908 yil 24-iyun. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2012 yil 1 avgustda. Olingan 17 oktyabr, 2012.

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Ilmiy tadqiqotlar

  • Bauer, K. Jek; Roberts, Stiven S. (1991). 1775-1990 yillarda AQSh dengiz floti kemalarining reestri: yirik jangchilar. Westport, Konnektikut: Greenwood Press. ISBN  0-313-26202-0.
  • Bard, Mitchell. "Mafkura va depressiya siyosati I: Grover Klivlend (1893–1897)" Prezidentlik tadqiqotlari chorakda 1985 15(1): 77–88. ISSN  0360-4918
  • Beyto, Devid T. va Beyto, Linda Royster, "Oltin demokratlar va klassik liberalizmning tanazzuli, 1896–1900", Mustaqil sharh 4 (2000 yil bahor), 555-575.
  • Berxu, Mark A., Ed. (2015). Amerika dengiz qirg'og'ini himoya qilish, qo'llanma, uchinchi nashr. McLean, Virjiniya: CDSG Press. ISBN  978-0-9748167-3-9.
  • Bleyk, Nelson M. (1942). "Klivlendning Venesuela siyosati to'g'risida". Amerika tarixiy sharhi. 47 (2): 259–277. doi:10.2307/1841667. JSTOR  1841667.
  • Blodgett, Jefri. "Prezident homiyligida etnik-madaniy haqiqatlar: Grover Klivlendning tanlovi" Nyu-York tarixi 2000 81(2): 189–210. ISSN  0146-437X Germaniya amerikalik etakchisi irlandiyalik amerikaliklarni kamroq tayinlashga chaqirganda, Klivlend o'rniga ko'proq nemislarni tayinladi
  • Blodgett, Jefri. "Grover Klivlendning paydo bo'lishi: yangi baho" Nyu-York tarixi 1992 73(2): 132–168. ISSN  0146-437X Klivlendni 1884 yilgacha qamrab oladi
  • Blum, Jon. Milliy tajriba (1993) ISBN  0-15-500366-6
  • Brodskiy, Alan. Grover Klivlend: Belgilar bo'yicha tadqiqot, (2000). ISBN  0-312-26883-1
  • Calhoun, Charlz Uilyam (2005). Benjamin Xarrison. Makmillan. ISBN  0-8050-6952-6.
  • Kliver, Nik. Grover Klivlendning yangi tashqi siyosati: hakamlik, betaraflik va Amerika imperiyasining tongi (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
  • DeSantis, Vinsent P. "Grover Klivlend: yana bir ko'rinish". Xeys tarixiy jurnali 1980 3(1–2): 41–50. ISSN  0364-5924 Uning kuch-qudrati, halolligi va burchga sodiqligi - bu uning buyuklikka da'vosini aniq yutuqlaridan aniqlanganidan ham ko'proq.
  • Devi, Devis R. Milliy muammolar: 1880–1897 (1907), onlayn nashr
  • Doenek, Yustus. "Grover Klivlend va davlat xizmati to'g'risidagi qonun ijrosi" Xeys tarixiy jurnali 1984 4(3): 44–58. ISSN  0364-5924
  • Folkner, Garold U. Siyosat, islohot va kengayish, 1890–1900 (1959), onlayn nashr
  • Ford, Genri Jons. Klivlend davri: Siyosatdagi yangi tartib yilnomasi (1921), onlayn qisqa sharh
  • Gould, Lyuis. Progressiv davrda Amerika, 1890-1914 (2001) ISBN  0-582-35671-7
  • Graf, Genri F. Grover Klivlend (2002). ISBN  0-8050-6923-2, olimning qisqa tarjimai holi
  • Grossman, Mark, Amerikadagi siyosiy korruptsiya: janjallar, kuch va ochko'zlik ensiklopediyasi (2003) ISBN  1-57607-060-3.
  • Hoffman, Karen S. "" O'n to'qqizinchi asrda "ommaviy": Grover Klivlendning Sherman kumushini sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonunni bekor qilishi " Ritorika va jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar 2002 5(1): 57–77. ISSN  1094-8392
  • Xirsh, Mark D. Uilyam C. Uitni, Zamonaviy Uorvik (1948), asosiy siyosiy sherikning biografiyasi
  • Hoffman, Karen S. "" O'n to'qqizinchi asrda "ommaviy": Grover Klivlendning Sherman kumushini sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonunni bekor qilishi " Ritorika va jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar 2002 5(1): 57–77. MUSE loyihasida
  • Hoffmann, Charlz (1956). "To'qsoninchi yillardagi tushkunlik". Iqtisodiy tarix jurnali. 16 (2): 137–164. doi:10.1017 / S0022050700058629. JSTOR  2114113.
  • Xofman, Charlz. To'qsoninchi yillardagi tushkunlik; iqtisodiy tarix (1970)
  • Jeffers, H. Pol, Halol prezident: Grover Klivlendning hayoti va prezidentligi (2000), ISBN  0-380-97746-X.
  • Kelley, Robert (1966). "Presviterianizm, jeksonizm va Grover Klivlend". Amerika chorakligi. 18 (4): 615–636. doi:10.2307/2711386. JSTOR  2711386.
  • Klinghard, Daniel P. "Grover Klivlend, Uilyam Makkinli va prezidentning partiya rahbari sifatida paydo bo'lishi". Prezidentlik tadqiqotlari chorakda 35.4 (2005): 736–760.
  • Lambert, Jon R. Artur Pue Gorman (1953)
  • Linch, G. Patrik "O'n to'qqizinchi asrdagi AQSh prezidentlik saylovlari: nega madaniyat va iqtisodiyot bir-biriga ta'sir qildi". Siyosat 35 # 1 (2002) 29-50 betlar. JSTOR-da, 1884 yilgi saylovlarga e'tibor bering
  • Makelroy, Robert. Grover Klivlend, odam va davlat arbobi: Vakolatli biografiya (1923) jild Men, jild II, eskirgan rivoyat
  • Makfarland, Jerald V. Mugwumplar, axloq va siyosat, 1884-1920 (1975) ISBN  0-87023-175-8
  • McWilliams, Tennant S., "Jeyms X.Blount, janub va Gavayi qo'shilishi". Tinch okeanining tarixiy sharhi 1988 yil 57 (1): 25-46. JSTOR-da.
  • Merril, Xoras Semyuel. Burbon rahbari: Grover Klivlend va Demokratik partiya (1957) 228 bet
  • Morgan, X. Ueyn. Xeysdan Makkinligacha: Milliy partiya siyosati, 1877–1896 (1969).
  • Nevins, Allan. Grover Klivlend: Jasorat bo'yicha tadqiq (1932) Pulitser mukofotiga sazovor bo'lgan biografiya, Klivlenddagi asosiy manba.
  • Oberxoltser, Ellis Paksson. Fuqarolar urushidan beri Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari tarixi. V jild, 1888-1901 (Makmillan, 1937). 791 pp; har tomonlama eskirgan siyosiy tarix
  • Reitano, Joanne R. Oltin oltin davridagi tarif masalasi: 1888 yilgi katta munozara (1994). ISBN  0-271-01035-5.
  • Rods, Jeyms Ford. 1850 yilgi murosadan AQSh tarixi: 1877–1896 (1919) onlayn to'liq; Pulitser mukofoti sovrindori tomonidan eskirgan, haqiqiy va og'ir siyosiy
  • Sturgis, Emi H. ed. McKinley orqali Hayesdan kelgan prezidentlar: Pro va Con boshlang'ich hujjatlaridagi masalalarni muhokama qilish (Grinvud, 2003).
  • Yozlar, Mark Vahlgren. Rum, rimizm va isyon: Prezidentning tuzilishi, 1884 yil (2000). ISBN  0-8078-4849-2. kampaniyaning texnikasi va muammolari onlayn nashr
  • Tuguell, Reksford Yigit, Grover Klivlend Simon & Schuster, Inc. (1968).
  • Welch, Richard E. Jr. Grover Klivlendning prezidentlari (1988) ISBN  0-7006-0355-7, Prezidentlik yillarini ilmiy o'rganish
  • Uilson, Vudrou, Janob Klivlend Prezident sifatida Atlantika oyligi (1897 yil mart): 289-301 betlar onlayn; Keyinchalik Uilson prezident bo'ldi
  • Zakariya, Fareed Boylikdan hokimiyatgacha (1999) Prinston universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  0-691-01035-8.

Birlamchi manbalar

  • Klivlend, Grover. Grover Klivlendning yozuvlari va nutqlari (1892) onlayn nashr
  • Klivlend, Grover. Prezident muammolari. (1904) onlayn nashr
  • Nevins, Allan ed. Grover Klivlendning maktublari, 1850-1908 (1933)
  • Milliy Demokratik Qo'mita (1896). Milliy Demokratik partiyaning targ'ibot kampaniyasi. Milliy Demokratik qo'mita., Klivlendga qoyil qolgan Oltin demokratlarning qo'llanmasi
  • Sturgis, Emi H. ed. Makkinli orqali Xeyzdan kelgan prezidentlar, 1877-1901: Pro va Con boshlang'ich hujjatlaridagi masalalarni muhokama qilish (2003) onlayn nashr
  • Uilson, Uilyam L. Uilyam L. Uilsonning kabinet kundaligi, 1896–1897 (1957) onlayn nashr

Tashqi havolalar

Rasmiy

Xatlar va nutqlar

Ommaviy axborot vositalarida yoritish

Boshqalar