Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston - Dutch East Indies - Wikipedia

Koordinatalar: 2 ° 00′S 118 ° 00′E / 2,0 ° S 118,0 ° E / -2.0; 118.0

Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston

Nederlandsch-Indie  (Golland )
Hindiston-Belanda  (Indoneziyalik )
1800–1949
Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston gerbi
Gerb
Madhiya:"Vilgelmus " (Gollandcha)
"Uilyam"
Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston xaritasi 1942 yilda Yaponiya tomonidan bosib olinishidan oldin uning 1800 yildan to butun hududigacha kengayganligini ko'rsatadi
Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston xaritasi 1942 yilda Yaponiya tomonidan bosib olinishidan oldin uning 1800 yildan to butun hududigacha kengayganligini ko'rsatadi
HolatGollandiya mustamlakasi
PoytaxtBataviya
Surgundagi poytaxtMelburn
(1942–1944)
Brisben
(1944–1945)
Eng katta shaharSoerabaja[1][2]
Rasmiy tillarGolland
Umumiy tillarMalaycha (lingua franca )
Yava
Xitoy
Mahalliy tillar
Din
Islom
Nasroniylik
Hinduizm
Buddizm
HukumatMustamlaka ma'muriyati
Davlat rahbari 
 
• 1800 (birinchi)
Augustijn Gerhard Besier
• 1806 (oxirgi)
Karel de Vos van Shtaynveyk
 
• 1806–1810 (birinchi)
Louis I
• 1948–1949 (oxirgi)
Juliana
General-gubernator 
• 1800–1801 (birinchi)
Piter G. van Overstraten
• 1949 (oxirgi)
A. H. J. Lovink
Tarix 
1603–1800
• Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindistonning shakllanishi
1800 yil 1-yanvar
1806–1815
1942–1945
1945 yil 17-avgust
1949 yil 27-dekabr
Aholisi
• 1930
60,727,233
ValyutaGulden
Oldingi		Muvaffaqiyatli
East Indies kompaniyasi
Britaniyalik Benkoolen
Aceh Sultonligi
Riau-Lingga Sultonligi
Bali qirolligi
Lanfang Respublikasi
Ternate sultonligi
Bulungan sultonligi
Sulu Sultonligi
Indoneziya Qo'shma Shtatlari
Gollandiya Yangi Gvineya
Bugungi qismi Indoneziya
 Malayziya
Qismi bir qator ustida
Tarixi Indoneziya
Surya Majapahit Gold.svg VOC gold.svg Indoneziya davlat gerbi Garuda Pancasila.svg
Xronologiya
Indonesia.svg bayrog'i Indoneziya portali

The Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston[3] (yoki Gollandiya Sharqiy-Hindistonlari; Golland: Nederlands (ch) -Hindiston; Indoneziyalik: Hindiston Belanda) edi a Gollandiya mustamlakasi hozirgidan iborat Indoneziya. U milliylashtirilgan mustamlakalardan tashkil topgan Dutch East India kompaniyasi, ma'muriyati ostida kelgan Golland 1800 yilda hukumat.

19-asr davomida Gollandiyaning mulklari va gegemoniyasi kengayib, 20-asr boshlarida eng katta hududiy darajaga yetdi. Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston Evropa hukmronligi ostidagi eng qimmat mustamlakalardan biri edi,[4] va Gollandiyaning ziravorlarda global miqyosda mashhur bo'lishiga hissa qo'shdi naqd hosil 19-asrdan 20-asr boshlarigacha bo'lgan savdo.[5] Mustamlakachilik ijtimoiy tartibi o'zlarining tabiiy sub'ektlaridan alohida, lekin ular bilan bog'langan Gollandiyalik elita bilan qat'iy irqiy va ijtimoiy tuzilmalarga asoslangan edi.[6] Atama Indoneziya 1880 yildan keyin geografik joylashuvi uchun foydalanishga kirishdi. 20-asrning boshlarida mahalliy ziyolilar Indoneziya milliy davlat sifatida va mustaqillik harakati uchun zamin yaratdi.[7]

Yaponiyaning Ikkinchi Jahon urushi bosib olinishi Gollandiyaning mustamlaka davlati va iqtisodiyotining katta qismini demontaj qildi. 1945 yil avgustda yaponlar taslim bo'lganlaridan keyin Indoneziya millatchilari e'lon qilishdi mustaqillik keyinchalik ular ta'minlash uchun kurashgan Indoneziya milliy inqilobi. Niderlandiya 1949 yilda Indoneziya suverenitetini rasman tan oldi Niderlandiya-Indoneziya davra suhbati bundan mustasno Gollandiya Yangi Gvineya (G'arbiy Yangi Gvineya qoidalari asosida 14 yildan keyin 1963 yilda Indoneziyaga berilgan Nyu-York shartnomasi.[8]

Etimologiya

So'z Hindiston dan keladi Lotin: Indus (Hindiston uchun ismlar ). Asl ism Gollandiya hindulari (Golland: Nederlandsch-Indie) inglizcha tomonidan tarjima qilingan Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston, dan farq qilish uchun Gollandiyaning G'arbiy Hindistoni. Ism Gollandiya hindulari qayd etilgan Dutch East India kompaniyasi 1620-yillar boshidagi hujjatlar.[9]

Ingliz tilida yozadigan olimlar bu atamalardan foydalanadilar Hindiston, Hindiston, Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston, Niderlandiya Hindistoniva mustamlaka Indoneziya bir-birining o'rnini bosadigan.[10]

Tarix

Kompaniya qoidasi

Shuningdek qarang: Indoneziyadagi Gollandiyalik Ost-Hindiston kompaniyasi va Niderlandiyaning iqtisodiy tarixi (1500–1815)
Indoneziya arxipelagida Gollandiya Sharqiy Hindistonining kengayishi

Evropaliklar kelishidan bir necha asrlar oldin Indoneziya arxipelagi turli davlatlarni, shu jumladan tijorat yo'naltirilgan qirg'oq savdo davlatlarini va ichki agrar davlatlarni qo'llab-quvvatladi (eng muhimi Srivijaya va Majapaxit ).[11] Orollar evropaliklarga ma'lum bo'lgan va ular kabi ekspeditsiyalar vaqti-vaqti bilan tashrif buyurgan Marko Polo 1292 yilda va uning hamkasbi italiyalik Pordenonning hidlari 1321 yilda. Indoneziyada o'zlarini o'rnatgan birinchi evropaliklar Portugal 1512 yilda. Gollandiyaliklarning ziravorlardan foydalanishlari to'xtatilganidan so'ng,[12] birinchi Golland 1595 yilda ekspeditsiya Sharqiy Hindistonga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ziravorlardan foydalanish uchun yo'l oldi Osiyo. Qaytish paytida 400% foyda ko'rganida, tez orada boshqa Gollandiyalik ekspeditsiyalar kuzatildi. Ning potentsialini tan olish Sharqiy Hindiston savdo, Gollandiya hukumati raqobatchi kompaniyalarni birlashtirdi United East India kompaniyasi (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie yoki VOC).[12]

VOCga urush olib borish, qal'alar qurish va Osiyo bo'ylab shartnomalar tuzish to'g'risidagi nizom berildi.[12] Yilda poytaxt tashkil etildi Bataviya (hozir Jakarta ), bu VOCning Osiyo savdo tarmog'ining markaziga aylandi.[13] Ularning asl monopoliyalariga muskat yong'og'i, qalampir, chinnigullar va doljin, kompaniya va keyinchalik mustamlakachilik ma'muriyati mahalliy bo'lmaganlarni joriy qildi naqd ekinlar kabi kofe, choy, kakao, tamaki, kauchuk, shakar va afyun va atrofdagi hududni egallab olish orqali o'zlarining tijorat manfaatlarini himoya qildilar.[13] Kontrabanda, urushning davom etayotgan xarajatlari, korruptsiya va noto'g'ri boshqaruv 18-asr oxiriga kelib bankrotlikka olib keldi. Kompaniya 1800 yilda rasmiy ravishda tarqatib yuborilgan va uning mustamlakachilik mulki Indoneziya arxipelagi (shu jumladan ko'p Java, qismlari Sumatra, ko'p Maluku va kabi portlarning hinterlandlari Makasar, Manado va Kupang ) Gollandiya Respublikasida Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistoni sifatida millatlashtirildi.[14]

Gollandiyalik fathlar

16-asrning oxirlarida birinchi golland kemalari kelgandan 1945 yilda mustaqillik e'lon qilingunga qadar Indoneziya arxipelagi ustidan Gollandiyaning nazorati doimo sust edi.[15] Java-da gollandlar ustun bo'lgan bo'lsa-da,[16] shu vaqt ichida ko'plab sohalar mustaqil bo'lib qoldi, shu jumladan Aceh, Bali, Lombok va Borneo.[15] Arxipelag bo'ylab ko'plab urushlar va tartibsizliklar yuz berdi, chunki turli xil mahalliy guruhlar Gollandiyalik gegemoniyani barpo etish uchun qilingan sa'y-harakatlarga qarshi turdilar, bu esa Gollandiyaning nazoratini zaiflashtirdi va harbiy kuchlarini bog'ladi.[17] 19-asrning o'rtalariga qadar qaroqchilik muammo bo'lib qoldi.[15] Nihoyat, 20-asrning boshlarida imperatorlik hukmronligi hozirgi Indoneziya hududiga aylanadigan hudud bo'ylab tarqaldi.

1806 yilda, Niderlandiya ostida Imperial frantsuz hukmronlik, imperator Napoleon I akasini tayinladi Lui Bonapart Gollandiyalik taxtga, bu 1808 yil Marshalni tayinlashga olib keldi Herman Willem Daendels Gollandiya Sharqiy Hindistonining general-gubernatori sifatida.[18] 1811 yilda Daendelsning o'rnini general-gubernator egalladi Jan Uillem Yanssens, lekin u kelganidan ko'p o'tmay ingliz kuchlari Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistonning bir qancha portlarini egallab olishdi, shu jumladan 1810 yilda Spice orollari va Keyingi yil Java - Tomas Stemford Raffles leytenant-gubernator bo‘ldi. Napoleon 1815 yilda mag'lub bo'lganidan keyin Vaterloo jangi va Vena kongressi, mustaqil Gollandiya nazorati 1816 yilda tiklangan.[19] 1824 yil ostida Angliya-Gollandiya shartnomasi, Gollandlar kabi Britaniyalik aholi punktlarini ta'minladilar Bengkulu yilda Sumatra, o'zlarining mol-mulkini ceding nazorati evaziga Malay yarim oroli (Malaya ) va Gollandiya Hindistoni. Angliya va Gollandiyaning sobiq mulklari o'rtasidagi hosil bo'lgan chegara bugungi kunda Malayziya va Indoneziya o'rtasida saqlanib qolmoqda.

XVII asrda VOC tashkil etilganidan beri Gollandiya hududini kengaytirish biznes masalasi edi. Graaf van den Bosch General-gubernatorlik (1830-1835) rasmiy siyosatning asosi sifatida rentabellikni tasdiqladi, uning e'tiborini Java, Sumatra va Bangka.[20] Biroq, taxminan 1840 yildan boshlab Gollandiyalik milliy ekspressionizm tashqi mulk orollarini boyitish va mustahkamlash uchun bir qator urushlar olib borganlarini ko'rdi.[21] Motivatsiyalar quyidagilarni o'z ichiga olgan: allaqachon o'tkazilgan maydonlarni muhofaza qilish; shon-sharaf yoki lavozimni ko'tarish uchun shuhratparast Gollandiyalik amaldorlarning aralashuvi; va boshqa g'arbiy davlatlarning aralashuviga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun arxipelag bo'ylab Gollandiyalik da'volarni o'rnatish Evropaning mustamlaka mulkiga intilishi.[20] Indoneziya boyliklarini ekspluatatsiya qilish Java hududida kengayib borar ekan, tashqi orollarning aksariyati Gollandiyaning bevosita hukumati nazorati ostida yoki ta'sirida edi.

Taqdim etish Shahzoda Diponegoro ga General De Kock oxirida Java urushi 1830 yilda. Rassomlik tomonidan Nikolaas Pieneman

Gollandlar itoat etdilar Minangkabau yilda Sumatra Padri urushi (1821–38)[22] va Java urushi (1825–30) muhim Yava qarshiliklariga barham berdi.[23] The Banjarmasin urushi Kalimantan janubi-sharqida (1859–1863) Sulton mag'lubiyatga uchradi.[24] Balini bosib olish uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz ekspeditsiyalardan so'ng 1846 va 1848, an 1849 aralashuvi shimoliy Balini Gollandiya nazorati ostiga oldi. Eng uzoq muddatli harbiy ekspeditsiya bu edi Acheh urushi unda 1873 yilda Gollandiyaliklar bosqini mahalliy partizanlarning qarshiligi bilan kutib olindi va 1912 yilda asxnesning taslim bo'lishi bilan tugadi.[23] Ham Java, ham tartibsizliklar davom etaverdi Sumatra 19-asrning qolgan davrida.[15] Biroq, orol Lombok Gollandiya nazorati ostiga o'tdi 1894 yilda,[25] va Batak Sumatra shimolidagi qarshilik 1895 yilda barham topdi.[23] 19-asrning oxirlariga kelib, harbiy kuch muvozanati sanoatlashgan Gollandiyaga va sanoatgacha bo'lgan mustaqil mahalliy Indoneziyaga qarshi siljidi. siyosatlar texnologiya farqi oshgani sayin.[20] Harbiy rahbarlar va Gollandiyalik siyosatchilar mahalliy Indoneziya xalqlarini zulmkor, qoloq yoki xalqaro huquqqa hurmatsizlik deb hisoblangan mahalliy hukmdorlardan xalos qilish uchun axloqiy burchga ega deb hisobladilar.[26]

Indoneziyadagi qo'zg'olonlar boshlangan bo'lsa-da, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri mustamlakachilik hukmronligi 1901 yildan 1910 yilgacha arxipelagning qolgan qismida tarqaldi va nazorat qolgan mustaqil mahalliy hukmdorlardan olingan.[27] Janubi-g'arbiy Sulavesi 1905–06 yillarda bosib olingan, Bali oroli harbiy fathlar bilan bo'ysundirilgan 1906 va 1908, Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan va boshqa mustaqil shohliklar kabi Nusa Tenggara.[23][26] Sultonlarni o'z ichiga olgan boshqa hukmdorlar Tidor Malukuda, Pontianak (Kalimantan) va Palembang Sumatra shahrida mustaqil qo'shnilaridan Gollandiyaning himoyasini so'radi, shu bilan Gollandiyaning harbiy zabt etilishidan saqlanib qoldi va mustamlaka hukmronligi ostida yaxshi sharoitlar bo'yicha muzokaralar olib bordi.[26] The Qushlarning boshi yarimoroli (G'arbiy Yangi Gvineya ), 1920 yilda Gollandiya ma'muriyatiga topshirildi. Ushbu yakuniy hududiy hudud Indoneziya Respublikasi hududini tashkil qiladi.

Ikkinchi jahon urushi va mustaqillik

Asosiy maqolalar: Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston kampaniyasi, Yaponiyaning Indoneziyani bosib olishi va Indoneziya milliy inqilobi
Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer va Miloddan avvalgi de Jonge, oxirgi va ikkinchisidan oxirigacha Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston general-gubernatori, oldin Yapon istilosi

Gollandiya o'zlarining Evropa hududlarini taslim qildi Germaniya 1940 yil 14 mayda. Qirol oilasi Britaniyaga surgun qilish uchun qochib ketdi. Germaniya va Yaponiya eksa ittifoqchilari bo'lgan. 1940 yil 27 sentyabrda Germaniya, Vengriya, Italiya va Yaponiya "ta'sir doiralarini" aks ettiruvchi shartnomani imzoladi. Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistoni Yaponiya doirasiga tushib qoldi.

Niderlandiya, Buyuk Britaniya va Qo'shma Shtatlar 1941 yil oxirlarida Gollandiyalik neftni qidirib janubga qarab siljiyotganlarida Yaponiya kuchlaridan mustamlakani himoya qilishga urindilar.[28][29] 1942 yil 10-yanvarda Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindiston kampaniyasi, Yaponiya kuchlari Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistoniga bostirib kirdi Tinch okeani urushi.[30] Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistondagi kauchuk plantatsiyalari va neft konlari Yaponiyaning urush harakati uchun juda muhim deb hisoblandi.[iqtibos kerak ] Yaponiya tomonidan ittifoqchi kuchlar tezda zabt etildi va 1942 yil 8 martda Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston armiyasi Java-da taslim bo'ldi.[31][32]

Yaponlar tomonidan yoqilg'i Osiyo nuri urush tashviqoti[33] va Indoneziya milliy uyg'onishi, mahalliy Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston aholisining katta qismi yaponlarni avval mustamlakachi Gollandiya imperiyasidan ozod qiluvchilar sifatida kutib oldi, ammo bu ishg'ol Gollandiyaning mustamlaka hukumatiga qaraganda ancha zolim va vayronagarchilik bo'lib chiqqanligi sababli bu kayfiyat tezda o'zgarib ketdi.[34][35] Yapon istilosi Ikkinchi Jahon urushi paytida Indoneziyada mustamlaka davlatining qulashi,[36] chunki yaponlar imkon qadar Gollandiya hukumat tuzilmasini olib tashladilar va o'zlarining rejimlariga almashtirishdi.[37] Yuqori lavozimlarni yaponlar egallagan bo'lsalar-da, barcha Gollandiya fuqarolarining stajirovkasi indoneziyaliklarning ko'plab rahbarlik va ma'muriy lavozimlarni egallaganligini anglatardi. Indoneziya millatchiligini Gollandiyadagi repressiyalaridan farqli o'laroq, yaponlar mahalliy etakchilarga omma o'rtasida aloqa o'rnatishga imkon berishdi va ular yosh avlodlarni o'qitib, qurollantirishdi.[38]

BMT hisobotiga ko'ra, Indoneziyada Yaponiya istilosi natijasida to'rt million kishi vafot etgan.[39]

1945 yil avgustda yaponlarning taslim bo'lishidan so'ng, millatchi rahbarlar Sukarno va Muhammad Xatta Indoneziyaning mustaqilligini e'lon qildi. To'rt yarim yillik kurash gollandlar o'z mustamlakasini qayta tiklashga harakat qilganda ergashdi; garchi Gollandiya kuchlari Indoneziyaning aksariyat hududlarini qayta ishg'ol etgan bo'lsa-da, partizanlarga qarshi kurash boshlandi va indoneziyaliklarning aksariyati va pirovardida xalqaro fikr Indoneziyaning mustaqilligini yoqladi. Niderlandiya harbiy jinoyatlar sodir etdi: Indoneziyalik qishloq aholisi va dehqonlarini qisqa va o'zboshimchalik bilan o'ldirish, indoneziyalik mahbuslarni qiynoqqa solish va mahbuslarni qatl etish. Ad van Liemp Galoeng Galoeng qishlog'ida gollandiyalik askarlar tomonidan 364 indoneziyalikning ommaviy ravishda o'ldirilishini hujjatlashtirdi. Keyinchalik hujjatlashtirilgan Alfred Edelshteyn va Karin van Koevorden Rawagede qishlog'ida yuzlab odamlarning qatl qilinishi.[40]

1949 yil dekabrda Niderlandiya Indoneziya suverenitetidan tashqari rasmiy ravishda tan oldi Gollandiya Yangi Gvineya (G'arbiy Yangi Gvineya ). Sukarno hukumati Indoneziya hududini nazorat qilish uchun kampaniya olib bordi va Qo'shma Shtatlar bosimi bilan Niderlandiya bunga rozi bo'ldi Nyu-York shartnomasi 1963 yil may oyida hududni Indoneziya ma'muriyatiga topshirdi.[41]

Hukumat

Huquq va boshqaruv

Shuningdek qarang: Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston general-gubernatori
Bataviyada general-gubernator saroyi (1880-1900)

VOC davridan beri koloniyada Gollandiyaning eng yuqori hokimiyati "general-gubernator idorasi" da yashagan. Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston davrida general-gubernator mustamlakachilik hukumatining bosh ijrochi prezidenti bo'lib ishlagan va xizmat qilgan bosh qo'mondon mustamlakachining (KNIL ) armiya. 1903 yilgacha barcha davlat amaldorlari va tashkilotlari general-gubernatorlikning rasmiy agentlari bo'lgan va byudjetlari bo'yicha "general-gubernatorlik idorasi" ning markaziy boshqaruviga to'liq bog'liq edilar.[42] 1815 yilgacha general-gubernator koloniyadagi har qanday nashrni taqiqlash, senzuralash yoki cheklash bo'yicha mutlaq huquqqa ega edi. Deb nomlangan Katta kuchlar general-gubernatorlik unga har qanday sudni jalb qilmasdan, buzg'unchi va tinchlik va tartib uchun xavfli deb hisoblangan har kimni surgun qilishga ruxsat berdi.[43]

1848 yilgacha general-gubernator Gollandiya monarxi tomonidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tayinlangan, keyingi yillarda esa Crown orqali va Gollandiyalik metropolitan kabinetining maslahati bilan. Ikki davrda (1815-1835 va 1854-1925) general-gubernator "deb nomlangan maslahat kengashi bilan birgalikda hukmronlik qildi. Raad van Indi (Hindiston Kengashi). Mustamlakachilik siyosati va strategiya javobgar edi Mustamlakalar vazirligi asoslangan Gaaga. 1815 yildan 1848 yilgacha vazirlik to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Gollandiya qiroli huzurida edi. 20-asrda mustamlaka asta-sekin Gollandiyalik metropoldan ajralib turadigan davlat sifatida rivojlanib, 1903 yilda xazina bilan ajralib turdi, 1913 yildan boshlab koloniya tomonidan davlat ssudalari bilan shartnoma tuzildi va Arabiston bilan Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistonidan Hoji ziyoratini boshqarish uchun kvaziy diplomatik aloqalar o'rnatildi. . 1922 yilda mustamlaka Gollandiya konstitutsiyasida Niderlandiya bilan teng huquqli bo'lib, mustamlakalar vazirligi tarkibida qoldi.[44]

In rezident uyi (mustamlakachi ma'mur) Surabaya

General-gubernator Gollandiyalik amaldorlar ierarxiyasini boshqargan; aholi, yordamchilar va tuman hokimi nazoratchilarni chaqirishdi. Gollandiyaliklar tomonidan bosib olinishdan qutulgan an'anaviy hukmdorlar regentslar sifatida o'rnatildi va mahalliy zodagonlar mahalliy davlat xizmatiga aylandilar. Ular haqiqiy boshqaruvni yo'qotib qo'yishganida, Gollandlar ostida ularning boyligi va ulug'vorligi o'sdi.[27] Ushbu bilvosita qoida dehqonlarni bezovta qilmadi va gollandlar uchun iqtisodiy jihatdan foydali bo'ldi; 1900 yilda faqat 250 evropalik va 1500 mahalliy davlat xizmatchilari va 16000 gollandiyalik ofitserlar va erkaklar va 26000 yollanma mahalliy qo'shinlar 35 million mustamlaka sub'ektlarini boshqarishi kerak edi.[45] 1910 yildan Gollandiyada eng markazlashgan davlat hokimiyati yaratildi Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo.[23] Siyosiy jihatdan yuqori darajada markazlashgan kuch tuzilishi, shu jumladan surgun va tsenzuraning haddan tashqari kuchlari,[46] Gollandiya ma'muriyati tomonidan tashkil etilgan yangi Indoneziya respublikasiga topshirildi.[23]

Xalq kengashi Volksraad Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston uchun 1918 yilda boshlangan Volksraad maslahat vazifasi bilan cheklangan va mahalliy aholining ozgina qismi uning a'zolari uchun ovoz berishga qodir edi. Kengash 30 mahalliy a'zodan iborat edi, ularning 25 nafari evropalik va 5 nafari xitoylik va boshqa aholidan iborat bo'lib, har to'rt yilda bir marta tuzilib turardi. 1925 yilda Volksrad yarim qonun chiqaruvchi organga aylantirildi; qarorlar hali ham Gollandiya hukumati tomonidan qabul qilingan bo'lsa-da, general-gubernator bu bilan maslahatlashishi kutilgan edi Volksraad asosiy masalalar bo'yicha. The Volksraad 1942 yilda Yaponiya istilosi paytida tarqatib yuborilgan.[47]

Oliy sud binosi, Bataviya

Gollandiya hukumati Gollandiya qonun kodekslarini o'z mustamlakasida moslashtirdi. Eng yuqori sud sudi - Bataviyadagi Oliy sud apellyatsiya shikoyatlarini ko'rib chiqdi va butun koloniya bo'ylab sudyalar va sudlarni kuzatdi. Olti adliya kengashi (Raad van Justitie) asosan Evropa yuridik sinfidagi odamlar tomonidan sodir etilgan jinoyatlar bilan shug'ullangan[48] va faqat bilvosita mahalliy aholi bilan. Yer kengashlari (Landraden) fuqarolik ishlari va unchalik jiddiy bo'lmagan huquqbuzarliklar, mulkiy ajrashishlar va oilaviy nizolar bilan shug'ullangan. Mahalliy aholi o'zlariga bo'ysungan adat qonunlar va mahalliy regentslar va okrug sudlariga, agar ishlar Gollandiyalik sudyalar oldida ko'tarilmasa.[49][50] Indoneziya mustaqillikka erishgandan so'ng, Gollandiya huquqiy tizimi qabul qilindi va asta-sekin indoneziya qonunlari va adolat qoidalariga asoslangan milliy huquqiy tizim o'rnatildi.[51]

1920 yilga kelib gollandlar butun koloniyada 350 ta qamoqxona tashkil etishdi. The Meester Cornelis Batavia qamoqxonasi eng tartibsiz mahbuslarni qamoqqa oldi. Yilda Savah Loento Sumatra qamoqxonasi mahbuslari ko'mir konlarida qo'l mehnati bilan shug'ullanishlari kerak edi. Voyaga etmaganlar (G'arbiy Yava) va ayollar uchun alohida qamoqxonalar qurilgan. Ayolda Boeloe Semarangdagi qamoqxona mahbuslari hibsga olingan vaqtlarida tikuvchilik, to'quvchilik va tikuvchilik kabi kasblarni o'rganish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishdi batik. Ushbu trening katta hurmat bilan o'tkazildi va axloq tuzatish muassasasidan tashqarida bo'lganidan keyin ayollarni qayta ijtimoiylashtirishga yordam berdi.[49][52] 1926 yildagi kommunistik qo'zg'olonga javoban qamoq lageri Boven-Digoel yilda tashkil etilgan Yangi Gvineya. 1927 yilga kelib siyosiy mahbuslar, shu jumladan Indoneziyaning mustaqilligini qo'llab-quvvatlovchi mahalliy indoneziyaliklar tashqi orollarga "surgun qilingan".[53]

Ma'muriy bo'linmalar

Asosiy maqola: Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindistonning ma'muriy bo'linmalari

Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston uchga bo'lingan Gouvernementen - Groot Oost, Borneo va Sumatra - va uchta viloyatlar Java-da. Viloyatlar va Gouvernementen ikkalasi ham yashash joylariga bo'lingan, ammo viloyatlarga qarashli turar joylar yana ikkiga bo'lingan. regentschappen, Gouvermentenga qarashli turar joylarga bo'lingan Afdeelingen bo'linishidan oldin regentschappen.[54]

Qurolli kuchlar

Asosiy maqolalar: Niderlandiya qirolligi Sharqiy Hindiston armiyasi, Niderlandiya qirolligi Sharqiy Hindiston armiyasi havo kuchlari va Hukumat floti
The Acheh urushi (1873-1914) Niderlandiya va Aceh Sultonligi

The Niderlandiya qirolligi Sharqiy Hindiston armiyasi (KNIL) va uning havo qo'li Niderlandiya qirolligi Sharqiy Hindiston armiyasi havo kuchlari (ML-KNIL), mos ravishda 1814 va 1915 yillarda tashkil etilgan. Dengiz kuchlari Niderlandiya qirollik floti asoslangan edi Surabaya, mustamlaka tomonidan to'ldirilgan Hukumat floti.

KNIL uning tarkibiga kirmagan Niderlandiya Qirollik armiyasi, ammo general-gubernator tomonidan boshqariladigan va mustamlaka byudjeti tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan alohida harbiy qo'l. KNILga Gollandiyalik chaqiriluvchilarni jalb qilishga ruxsat berilmagan va "Chet el legioni nafaqat Gollandiyalik ko'ngillilarni, balki boshqa ko'plab Evropa millatlarini (ayniqsa nemis, belgiyalik va shveytsariyalik yollanma askarlarni) jalb qilish.[55] Zobitlarning aksariyati evropaliklar bo'lsa, askarlarning aksariyati mahalliy indoneziyaliklar edi, ularning eng katta qismi Yava va Sunduzcha.[56]

Gollandiyaning 1870-yillarga qadar bo'lgan siyosati strategik punktlarni to'liq boshqarish va boshqa joylarda mahalliy rahbarlar bilan shartnomalar tuzish edi, shunda ular nazorat ostida va hamkorlik qilishlari kerak edi. Siyosat bajarilmadi Aceh, shimoliy Sumatrada, bu erda sulton savdo-sotiqni bosib olgan qaroqchilarga toqat qilgan Malakka bo'g'ozi. Buyuk Britaniya Acehning himoyachisi edi va u Gollandiyaga qaroqchilarni yo'q qilishga ruxsat berdi. Kampaniya tezda sultonni quvib chiqardi, ammo Aceh bo'ylab ko'plab mahalliy musulmonlar rahbarlari to'planib, Gollandiyaga qarshi qirq yillik juda qimmat bo'lgan partizan urushida jang qildilar, ikkala tomon ham shafqatsizlik darajalariga ega edilar.[57] Mustamlakachilik harbiy ma'murlari "qo'rquv strategiyasi" yordamida aholiga qarshi urushni to'xtatishga harakat qildilar. Partizan urushi boshlanganda gollandlar sekin, zo'ravonlik bilan bosib olish yoki yo'q qilish kampaniyasidan foydalanganlar.[58]

1927 yil, mahalliy KNIL askarlari bezatilgan

1900 yilga kelib arxipelag "tinchlangan" deb hisoblangan va KNIL asosan harbiy politsiya vazifalari bilan shug'ullangan. KNILning tabiati 1917 yilda mustamlakachilik hukumati majburiy bo'lganida o'zgardi harbiy xizmat Evropa yuridik sinfidagi barcha chaqiriluvchi erkaklar uchun[59] va 1922 yilda qo'shimcha qonuniy hujjat "Uy qo'riqchisi" ni yaratishni boshladi (Golland: Dovul) 32 yoshdan katta bo'lgan evropalik chaqiriluvchilar uchun.[60] Indoneziyalik millatchilarning mahalliy aholi uchun harbiy xizmatni tashkil etish to'g'risidagi iltimosnomalari rad etildi. 1941 yil iyulda Volksraad 43 dan 4 gacha ko'pchilik ovozi bilan 18 ming kishilik mahalliy militsiyani tashkil qiluvchi qonunni qabul qildi, faqat mo''tadil Buyuk Indoneziya partiyasi qarshi chiqdi. Yaponiya bilan urush e'lon qilingandan so'ng, 100,000 dan ortiq mahalliy aholi ko'ngilli.[61] KNIL ularni shoshilinch va etarli darajada zamonaviy harbiy kuchga aylantirishga urinib ko'rdi, ular Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistonini Yaponiya imperatorlik bosqinidan himoya qilishga qodir. 1941 yil dekabrda Yaponiya bosqini arafasida Sharqiy Hindistondagi Gollandiyaning doimiy qo'shinlari 1000 ga yaqin ofitser va 34000 kishidan iborat bo'lib, ulardan 28000 nafari mahalliy aholi edi. Davomida Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston kampaniyasi 1941–42 yillarda KNIL va Ittifoq kuchlari tezda mag'lubiyatga uchradi.[62] Amalda barcha mehnatga layoqatli hindu-evropalik erkaklarni o'z ichiga olgan barcha Evropa askarlari yaponlar tomonidan internirlangan Asir. Asirlarning 25 foizi o'zlarining ichki ishlaridan omon qolishmadi.

Ikkinchi Jahon urushidan so'ng, qayta tiklangan KNIL Gollandiya armiyasi qo'shinlari bilan qo'shilib, mustamlakachilik "qonun va tartibini" tikladi. Shunga qaramay ikkita muvaffaqiyatli harbiy yurish 1947 va 1948 yillarda Gollandiyaning o'z mustamlakasini tiklash bo'yicha harakatlari muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi va Niderlandiya 1949 yil dekabrida Indoneziya suverenitetini tan oldi.[63] KNIL 1950 yil 26 iyulda tarqatib yuborilgan edi, uning mahalliy xodimlariga demobilizatsiya qilish yoki qo'shilish imkoniyati berildi. Indoneziya harbiylari.[64] Tarqatib yuborish paytida KNIL 65000 edi, shundan 26000 yangi Indoneziya armiyasiga qo'shildi. Qolganlari demobilizatsiya qilingan yoki Niderlandiya armiyasiga topshirilgan.[65] Asosiy xodimlar Indoneziya milliy qurolli kuchlari sobiq KNIL askarlari bo'lganlar: Suxarto Indoneziyaning ikkinchi prezidenti, A.H. Nasution, komandiri Silivangi divizioni va Indoneziya armiyasining bosh shtabi boshlig'i va A.E.Kavilarang elita maxsus kuchlarining asoschisi Kopass.

Demografiya

Shuningdek qarang: Gollandiyalik axloqiy siyosat
Volksraad 1918 yildagi a'zolar: D. Birni (golland), Kan Xok Xoyi (Xitoy ), R. Sastro Vidjono va M.N. Dvidjo Sewojo (Yava )

1898 yilda Java aholisi 28 million kishini tashkil etdi, yana 7 million kishi Indoneziyaning tashqi orollarida.[66] 20-asrning birinchi yarmida gollandiyaliklar va boshqa yevropaliklar mustamlakaga keng ko'lamli ko'chib o'tdilar, u erda ular hukumatda yoki xususiy sektorda ishladilar. 1930 yilga kelib koloniyada Evropaning huquqiy maqomiga ega bo'lgan 240 mingdan ortiq odamlar bor edi, bu umumiy aholining 0,5 foizidan kamrog'ini tashkil etdi.[67] Ushbu evropaliklarning deyarli 75% aslida asl evrosiyoliklar edi Hind-evropaliklar.[68]

1930 yil Gollandiya Sharqiy Hindistondagi aholini ro'yxatga olish[69]
RankGuruhRaqamFoiz
1Mahalliy orolliklar (Pribumi)59,138,06797.4%
2Xitoy1,233,2142.0%
3Gollandiyaliklar va evrosiyonlar240,4170.4%
4Boshqa xorijiy sharqliklar115,5350.2%
Jami60,727,233100%

Gollandiyalik mustamlakachilar askarlar, ma'murlar, menejerlar, o'qituvchilar va kashshoflarning imtiyozli yuqori ijtimoiy qatlamini shakllantirdilar. Ular "mahalliy aholi" bilan birga yashashgan, ammo qat'iy ijtimoiy va irqiy yuqori qismida kast tizimi.[70][71] Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindistondagi fuqarolarning ikkita huquqiy tabaqasi mavjud edi; Evropa va mahalliy aholi. Uchinchi sinf, Chet ellik sharqchilar, 1920 yilda qo'shilgan.[72]

1901 yilda gollandlar o'zlari deb atagan narsani qabul qildilar Axloqiy siyosat mustamlakachi hukumat sog'liqni saqlash va ta'lim sohasida Indoneziya xalqining farovonligini oshirishga majbur bo'lgan. Siyosat bo'yicha boshqa yangi tadbirlar qatoriga sug'orish dasturlari, transmigratsiya, aloqa, suv toshqinlarini yumshatish, sanoatlashtirish va mahalliy sanoatni himoya qilish.[73] Sanoatlashtirish indoneziyaliklarning aksariyatiga sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatmadi va Indoneziya qishloq xo'jaligi koloniyasi bo'lib qoldi; 1930 yilga kelib aholisi 50 mingdan oshgan 17 shahar mavjud edi va ularning umumiy aholisi koloniyaning 60 million kishidan 1,87 millionini tashkil etdi.[27]

Ta'lim

Talabalari Maktab Tot Opleiding Van Indische Artsen (STOVIA) aka Sekolax doktor Jawa

Gollandiyalik maktablar tizimi indoneziyaliklarga, shuningdek, Gollandiyalik va Indoneziyaning yuqori sinf o'quvchilarini qabul qiladigan eng obro'li maktablarga tatbiq etildi. Maktabning ikkinchi pog'onasi etnik kelib chiqishga asoslangan bo'lib, indoneziyaliklar, arablar va xitoyliklar uchun alohida maktablar golland tilida va gollandiyalik o'quv dasturida o'qitilgan. Oddiy indoneziyaliklar ta'lim olgan Malaycha rim alifbosida "bog'lanish" maktablari bilan yorqin indoneziyalik o'quvchilarni golland tilidagi maktablarga kirish uchun tayyorlaydilar.[74] Hindiston hukumati tomonidan mahalliy indoneziyaliklarni mustamlaka iqtisodiyotida aniq rollarni bajarish uchun tayyorlash uchun kasb-hunar maktablari va dasturlari tashkil etildi. Rasmiy ravishda "xorijiy sharqliklar" deb nomlangan xitoylar va arablar na kasb-hunar maktablariga va na boshlang'ich maktablarga o'qishga kira olishdi.[75]

Gollandiyalik maktablarning bitiruvchilari nasroniy missionerlari, Tsefofik Jamiyatlar va Indoneziya madaniy uyushmalari singari Gollandiya maktablari tizimida o'z maktablarini ochdilar. Maktablarning ko'payishiga G'arb mamlakatlarida dunyoviy fanlarni taklif qiladigan yangi musulmon maktablari yanada kuchaytirdi.[74] 1930 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish bo'yicha Indoneziyaliklarning 6% savodli bo'lgan, ammo bu raqam faqat G'arb maktablarini bitirganlarni va Rim alifbosidagi tilda o'qish va yozishni biladiganlarni tan olgan. Unga g'arbiy maktablarning bitiruvchilari yoki arab, malay yoki golland tillarida o'qiy oladigan, ammo yozishni bilmaydiganlar yoki rim bo'lmagan alifbolarda yozadiganlar kirmagan. Batak, Yava, Xitoy yoki arab.[74]

Ochilish marosimida Gollandiyalik, Evroosiyo va Yavalik huquqshunos professorlar Rechts Hogeschool 1924 yilda

Ba'zi oliy o'quv yurtlari ham tashkil etildi. 1898 yilda Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindiston hukumati o'qitish uchun maktab tashkil etdi tibbiyot shifokorlari, nomi berilgan Artland shahridagi Opleiding van maktab (STOVIA). Keyinchalik ko'plab STOVIA bitiruvchilari muhim rol o'ynadilar Indoneziyaning milliy harakati mustaqillik sari va Indoneziyada tibbiy ta'limni rivojlantirishda, masalan, asos solgan doktor Vohidin Soedirohoesodo Budi Utomo siyosiy jamiyat. De Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung 1920 yilda Gollandiyaning mustamlaka ma'muriyati tomonidan o'z koloniyasidagi texnik resurslarga bo'lgan ehtiyojni qondirish uchun tashkil etilgan. Bittasi Technische Hogeschool bitiruvchisi Sukarno keyinchalik kim rahbarlik qiladi Indoneziya milliy inqilobi. 1924 yilda mustamlaka hukumati yana yangi uchinchi darajali o'quv muassasasini ochishga qaror qildi Rechts Hogeschool (RHS), fuqarolik ofitserlari va xizmatchilarini o'qitish. 1927 yilda STOVIA maqomi uchinchi darajali institut maqomiga o'zgartirildi va uning nomi o'zgartirildi Geneeskundige Hogeschool (GHS). GHS xuddi shu asosiy binoni egallagan va hozirgi tibbiyot fakulteti bilan bir xil o'quv shifoxonasidan foydalangan Indoneziya universiteti. Niderlandiya va Indoneziya o'rtasidagi eski aloqalar hanuzgacha bo'lgan texnologik sohalarda aniq ko'rinib turibdi sug'orish dizayn. Bugungi kunga qadar Gollandiyalik mustamlakachilik sug'orish muhandislarining g'oyalari Indoneziyaning dizayn amaliyotiga kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatishda davom etmoqda.[76]Bundan tashqari, Indoneziyaning xalqaro miqyosdagi eng yuqori ikkita universitet Indoneziya universiteti est.1988 va Bandung Texnologiya Instituti est.1920, ikkalasi ham mustamlaka davrida tashkil etilgan.[77][78]

Ta'lim sohasidagi islohotlar va mo''tadil siyosiy islohotlar natijasida natijada Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistondagi xilma-xil mahalliy guruhlarini birlashtiradigan mustaqil va birlashgan "Indoneziya" g'oyasini ilgari surgan yuqori darajadagi mahalliy indoneziyaliklar elitasi paydo bo'ldi. Davr deb nomlangan Indoneziya milliy tiklanishi, 20-asrning birinchi yarmida millatchilik harakati kuchli rivojlandi, ammo Gollandiya zulmiga duch keldi.[15]

Iqtisodiyot

Shuningdek qarang: Kultivatsiya tizimi va Liberal davr (Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston)

Koloniyaning iqtisodiy tarixi ona mamlakatning iqtisodiy salomatligi bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi.[79] Gollandiyalik er solig'i tizimidan ortib borayotgan daromadlarga qaramay, Gollandiya moliya xarajatlari jiddiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi Java urushi va Padri urushi va 1830 yilda Belgiyaning Gollandiyadagi yo'qotilishi Gollandiyani bankrotlik yoqasiga keltirdi. 1830 yilda yangi General-gubernator, Yoxannes van den Bosch, hindlarning Gollandiyadagi boyliklarini ekspluatatsiya qilish yo'li bilan to'lashlari uchun tayinlangan. Gollandiyaliklar 1830 yilda birinchi marta Java bo'ylab siyosiy hukmronlikka erishgan holda,[80] hukumat nazorati ostida majburiy etishtirishning qishloq xo'jaligi siyosatini joriy etish mumkin edi. Muddatli kultuurstelsel (etishtirish tizimi) golland tilida va tanam paksa (majburiy ekish) Indoneziyada dehqonlar soliq shakli sifatida belgilangan miqdordagi ekinlarni, masalan, shakar yoki kofe etkazib berishlari shart edi.[81] Yavaning katta qismi Gollandiyaning plantatsiyasiga aylandi va daromad 19-asrga kelib doimiy ravishda oshib bordi, uni bankrotlikdan qutqarish uchun Gollandiyaga qayta kiritildi.[15][81] 1830-1870 yillarda 840 million gilden (2018 yilda 8 million evro)[82] ) o'rtacha yillik Gollandiya byudjetining uchdan bir qismini tashkil qiluvchi Sharqiy Hindistondan olingan.[83][84] Biroq, Dehqonchilik tizimi 1840 yillarda ochlik va epidemiyalarni boshdan kechirgan Yava dehqonlariga katta iqtisodiy qiyinchiliklar keltirdi.[15]

Bosh qarorgohi Deli kompaniyasi yilda Medan taxminan 1925 yil

Niderlandiyadagi tanqidiy jamoatchilik fikri "Liberal davr" agrar islohotlari natijasida Dehqonchilik tizimidagi ortiqcha narsalarning ko'p qismi yo'q qilinishiga olib keldi. Gollandiyalik xususiy kapital 1850 yildan keyin, ayniqsa, qalay qazib olish va plantatsiyalar mulkchilik qishloq xo'jaligiga kirib keldi. Sharqiy Sumatra sohilidagi Marktavious kompaniyasining qalay konlari Gollandiyalik tadbirkorlar, shu jumladan ukasi singari sindikat tomonidan moliyalashtirildi. Qirol Uilyam III. Konchilik 1860 yilda boshlandi 1863 yilda Jeykob Nienxuys dan imtiyoz oldi Deli Sultonligi (Sharqiy Sumatra ) yirik tamaki mulki uchun (Deli kompaniyasi.[85] 1870 yildan hindlar xususiy tadbirkorlik uchun ochildi va gollandiyalik ishbilarmonlar katta daromad keltiradigan plantatsiyalar yaratdilar. Shakar ishlab chiqarish 1870 yildan 1885 yilgacha ikki baravarga oshdi; choy va cinchona kabi yangi ekinlar rivojlandi va kauchuk ishlab chiqarildi, bu Gollandiya foydasining keskin o'sishiga olib keldi. O'zgarishlar faqat Java yoki qishloq xo'jaligi bilan cheklanmagan; Sumatra va Kalimantan Evropani sanoatlashtirish uchun qimmatli manbaga aylandi. Gollandiyaning tijorat manfaatlari Java-dan tashqi orollarga kengayib bordi va tobora ko'proq hududlar 19-asrning ikkinchi yarmida Gollandiyaning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri nazorati yoki hukmronligi ostiga o'tdi.[15] Biroq, natijada guruch etishtirish uchun erlarning etishmasligi va aholi sonining ko'payishi bilan, ayniqsa Java-da, keyingi qiyinchiliklarga olib keldi.[15]

De Javasche banki Banjarmasin

Indoneziyaning boyliklarini mustamlaka tomonidan ekspluatatsiya qilish Niderlandiyani sanoatlashtirishga hissa qo'shdi, shu bilan birga Indoneziyani sanoatlashtirishga asos yaratdi. Gollandiyaliklar kofe, choy, kakao, tamaki va kauchukni olib kirishdi va katta Java maydonlari Yava dehqonlari tomonidan etishtiriladigan, xitoylik vositachilar tomonidan yig'ilgan va evropalik savdogarlar tomonidan chet el bozorlarida sotiladigan plantatsiyalarga aylandi.[15] 19-asrning oxirida iqtisodiy o'sish dunyodagi choy, kofe va xinhonaga bo'lgan katta talabga asoslangan edi. Hukumat temir yo'l tarmog'iga katta mablag 'kiritdi (1873 yilda 240 km yoki 150 milya, 1900 yilda 1900 km yoki 1200 mil), shuningdek telegraf liniyalari va tadbirkorlar banklar, do'konlar va gazetalarni ochdilar. Gollandiyaning Sharqiy Hindistoni dunyodagi xinin va qalampirning katta qismini, kauchukning uchdan bir qismini, kokos mahsulotlarining to'rtdan bir qismini va choy, shakar, qahva va yog'ning beshdan bir qismini ishlab chiqarardi. Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindistondagi foyda Gollandiyani dunyodagi eng muhim mustamlakachi davlatlardan biriga aylantirdi.[15] The Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij transport liniyasi mustamlaka iqtisodiyotining birlashishini qo'llab-quvvatladi va orollararo kemalarni Singapur orqali emas, balki Bataviya orqali olib o'tdi va shu bilan Java-da ko'proq iqtisodiy faoliyatni yo'naltirdi.[86]

Ishchilar 1910 yilda tog'larda qurilayotgan temir yo'l tunnelining o'rnida suratga tushishdi

The 1880-yillarning oxiri va 1890-yillarning boshlarida butun dunyo bo'ylab turg'unlik koloniya qulashiga bog'liq bo'lgan tovarlarning narxlarini ko'rdi. Jurnalistlar va davlat xizmatchilari, Hindiston aholisining aksariyat qismi avvalgi tartibga solingan Dehqonchilik tizimi iqtisodiyotiga qaraganda yaxshiroq emasligini va o'n minglab odamlar ochlikdan aziyat chekayotganini kuzatdilar.[87] Tovarlarning narxi turg'unlikdan tiklanib, koloniyaga sarmoyalar ko'payishiga olib keldi. Shakar, qalay, kopra koloniya qurilgan kofe savdosi rivojlanib, kauchuk, tamaki, choy va moy asosiy eksportga aylandi.[88] Siyosiy islohot mahalliy mustamlaka ma'muriyatining avtonomiyasini kuchaytirib, markaziy boshqaruvdan Niderlandiyadan uzoqlashdi, hokimiyat esa markaziy Bataviya hukumatidan ko'proq mahalliylashtirilgan boshqaruv bo'linmalariga tarqaldi.

Jahon iqtisodiyoti 1890-yillarning oxirlarida tiklandi va farovonlik qaytdi. Chet el investitsiyalari, ayniqsa inglizlar tomonidan rag'batlantirildi. 1900 yilga kelib Niderlandiya Hindistondagi chet el aktivlari 750 million gilderni (300 million dollar) tashkil etdi, asosan Java.[89]

1900 yildan keyin portlar va yo'llarning infratuzilmasini yangilash gollandlar uchun eng muhim vazifa bo'lib, iqtisodiyotni modernizatsiya qilish, tijoratni rivojlantirish va harbiy harakatlarni tezlashtirish edi. 1950 yilga kelib Gollandiyalik muhandislar 12000 km asfaltlangan yuzasi, 41000 km metalllangan yo'l maydoni va 16000 km shag'al qoplamali yo'l tarmog'ini qurdilar va yangiladilar.[90] Gollandiyaliklar bundan tashqari, 7,5 ming kilometrlik temir yo'llar, ko'priklar, 1,4 million gektar maydonni (5400 kv. Mil) gektar sholi dalalarini, bir qancha portlarni va 140 ta jamoat ichimlik suv tizimlarini qamrab olgan sug'orish tizimlarini qurdilar. Vim Ravesteynn: "Gollandiyalik muhandislar ushbu jamoat ishlari bilan mustamlaka va mustamlakadan keyingi Indoneziya davlatining moddiy bazasini qurdilar", deb aytgan.[91]

Madaniyat

Til va adabiyot

Shuningdek qarang: Gollandiyalik hind adabiyoti
Perhimpunan Pelajar-Pelajar Indoneziya (Indoneziya talabalar ittifoqi) delegatlari Yoshlar garovi, qaerda muhim voqea Indonez tili milliy til bo'lishga qaror qilindi, 1928 y

Arxipelag bo'ylab yuzlab ona tillari ishlatiladi va Malaycha yoki Portugal kreol, mavjud savdo tillari qabul qilindi. 1870 yilgacha Gollandiyaning mustamlakachilik ta'siri asosan Java bilan cheklangan bo'lsa, Malay tili hukumat maktablarida va o'quv dasturlarida Java-ga ko'chib kelgan boshqa mintaqalardagi guruhlar bilan bog'lanishlari uchun ishlatilgan.[92] Mustamlaka hukumati Riau va Malakka versiyalari asosida malay tilini standartlashtirishga intildi va hukumat aloqasi uchun lug'atlar va mahalliy xalqlar uchun maktablar buyurtma qilindi.[93] In the early 20th century, Indonesia's independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called it Indoneziyalik. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard Malay" as the language of the colony.[94]

Golland was not made the official language of the colony and was not widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population.[95] The majority of legally acknowledged Dutchmen were bilingual Indo-Eurasians.[96] Dutch was used by only a limited educated elite, and in 1942, around two percent of the total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch, including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians.[97] A number of Dutch qarz so'zlari are used in present-day Indonesian, particularly technical terms (see List of Dutch loan words in Indonesian ). These words generally had no alternative in Malay and were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into which concepts are part of the Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier of the University of California says that about a fifth of the contemporary Indonez tili can be traced to Dutch.[98]

Dutch language literature has been inspired by both colonial and postcolonial Indies from the Gollandiyalik Oltin asr hozirgi kungacha. It includes Dutch, Indo-European, and Indonesian authors. Its subject matter thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era, but also includes postkolonial discourse. Masterpieces of this genre include Multatuli "s Max Havelaar: Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company, Louis Couperus "s Hidden Force, E. du Perron "s Ishlab chiqaruvchi mamlakat; ta'minotchi mamlakatva Mariya Dermoet "s The Ten Thousand Things.[99][100]

Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo-European authors. However, in the first half of the 20th century under the Ethical Policy, indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands to study and work. They wrote Dutch language literary works and published literature in literary reviews such as Het Getij, De Gemeenschap, Links Richtenva Forum. By exploring new literary themes and focusing on indigenous protagonists, they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous plight. Examples include the Javanese prince and poet Noto Soeroto, a writer and journalist, and the Dutch language writings of Soewarsih Djojopoespito, Anvar raisi, Kartini, Sutan Sjahrir va Sukarno.[101] Ko'p narsa postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the "avant garde visionary" Tjalie Robinson, who is the best-read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia,[102] and second generation Indo-European immigrants such as Marion Bloem.

Tasviriy san'at

The romantic depiction of De Grote Postweg yaqin Buitenzorg

The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of artists and painters, that mostly capture the romantic scenes of colonial Indies. Atama Mooi Indie (Dutch for "Beautiful Indies") was originally coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel's watercolor paintings which depicted the scene of East Indies published in Amsterdam in 1930. The term became famous in 1939 after S. Sudjojono used it to mock the painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies.[103] Mooi Indie later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanoes, rice paddies, river valleys, villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes bare-chested native women. Ayrimlari e'tiborga loyiq Mooi Indie painters are European artists: F.J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp, Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli; East Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers, Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters: Raden Solih, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, Basuki Abdullah, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also Chinese painters: Lee Man Fong, Oei Tiang Oen and Siauw Tik Kwie. These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal Kolff & Co and Hotel Des Indes.

Teatr va kino

Shuningdek qarang: Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston filmlari ro'yxati, List of film producers of the Dutch East Indies va List of film directors of the Dutch East Indies
Bioscoop Mimosa kino in Batu, Java, 1941

A total of 112 fictional films are known to have been produced in the Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony's dissolution in 1949. The earliest motion pictures, imported from abroad, were shown in late 1900,[104] and by the early 1920s imported seriallar and fictional films were being shown, often with localised names.[105] Dutch companies were also producing documentary films about the Indies to be shown in the Netherlands.[106] The first locally produced film, Loetoeng Kasaroeng, was directed by L. Heuveldorp and released on 31 December 1926.[107] Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released. During the mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the Katta depressiya.[108] The rate of production declined again after the Yapon istilosi beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio.[109] The majority of films produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts.[110] Keyingi Indoneziya mustaqilligining e'lon qilinishi in 1945 and during the ensuing inqilob several films were made, by both pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.[111][112]

Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with traditional stories or were adapted from existing works.[113] The early films were jim, bilan Karnadi Anemer Bangkong (Karnadi the Frog Contractor; 1930) generally considered the first talkie;[114] later films would be in Dutch, Malay, or an mahalliy til. Hammasi edi qora va oq. The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Xayder writes that all films from before 1950 are yo'qolgan.[115] Biroq, JB Kristantoning Katalog filmi Indoneziya (Indoneziya filmlari katalogi) bir nechtasini omon qolgan deb yozadi Sinematek Indoneziya arxivlari va Biranning yozishicha, Yaponiyaning bir qancha tashviqot filmlari saqlanib qolgan Niderlandiya hukumatining axborot xizmati.[116]

Theatre plays by playwrights such as Victor Ido (1869–1948) were performed at the Schouwburg Weltevreden, endi sifatida tanilgan Gedung Kesenian Jakarta. A less elite form of theatre, popular with both European and indigenous people, were the travelling Hind theatre shows known as Komediya Stamboel, made popular by Auguste Mahieu (1865–1903).

Ilm-fan

Museum and lab of the Buitenzorg Plantentuin

The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies attracted European intellectuals, scientists and researchers. Some notable scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies archipelago are Teijsmann, Junghuhn, Eykman, Dubois va Uolles. Many important art, culture and science institutions were established in Dutch East Indies. Masalan, Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, (Qirollik Batavian san'at va fan jamiyati ), oldingi Indoneziya milliy muzeyi, was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially tarix, arxeologiya, etnografiya va fizika. The Bogor botanika bog'lari bilan Herbarium Bogoriense va Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817, with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago.

Java Man tomonidan kashf etilgan Evgen Dubo in 1891. The Komodo ajdaho birinchi tomonidan tasvirlangan Piter Ouens in 1912, after an aeroplane crash accident in 1911 and rumours about living dinozavrlar yilda Komodo oroli 1910 yilda. B vitamini1 va uning aloqasi beriberi disease was discovered by Eykman during his work in the Indies.

With growing interest in scientific research, the government of the Dutch East Indies established Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch-Indië (Scientific Council of the Dutch East Indies) in 1928.[117] It operates as the country's main research organization until the outbreak of World War II in Asia Pacific in 1942. In 1948 the institute was renamed Organisatie voor Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Organisation for Scientific Research). This organization was the predecessor of the current Indoneziya Fanlar instituti.[118]

Oshxona

Shuningdek qarang: Indoneziya oshxonasi
Dutch family enjoying a large Rijsttafel dinner, 1936

The Dutch colonial families through their domestic servants and cooks were exposed to Indonesian cuisine, as the result they developed a taste for native tropical spices and dishes. A notable Dutch East Indies colonial dish is rijsttafel, the rice table that consists of 7 to 40 popular dishes from across the colony. More an extravagant banquet than a dish, the Dutch colonials introduced the rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide array of dishes at a single setting but also to impress visitors with the exotic abundance of their colony.[119]

Through colonialism the Dutch introduced European dishes such as non, pishloq, barbecued biftek va pancake. As the producer of cash crops; kofe and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies. Non, sariyog ' va margarin, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, nilufar, panekoek va Dutch cheeses were commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indos mustamlakachilik davrida. Some of the native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch influenced: they include selat solo (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), semur (golland tilidan smoor), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and sop buntut. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), pandan cake, lapis legit (spekkoek ), spiku (lapis Surabaya), klappertaart (coconut tart), and kaasstengels (cheese cookies). Kyu tirsak commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.[120]

Arxitektura

Asosiy maqola: Indoneziyaning mustamlaka me'morchiligi
Shuningdek qarang: Jakartadagi mustamlakachilik binolari va inshootlari ro'yxati

The 16th and 17th century arrival of European powers in Indonesia introduced devor construction to Indonesia where previously timber and its by-products had been almost exclusively used. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city.[121] For almost two centuries, the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical climate.[122] They built row houses which were poorly ventilated with small windows, which was thought as protection against tropical diseases coming from tropical air.[122] Years later the Dutch learnt to adapt their architectural styles with local building features (long eaves, verandalar, portikoslar, large windows and ventilation openings),[123] va 18-asr Gollandiya Hindistonidagi qishloq uylari was one of the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and adapt to the climate, the known as Indies Style.[124]

Ceremonial Hall, Bandung Texnologiya Instituti, Bandung, designed by architect Henri Maclaine-Pont

From the end of the 19th century, significant improvements to technology, communications and transportation brought new wealth to Java. Modernistic buildings, including train stations, business hotels, factories and office blocks, hospitals and education institutions, were influenced by international styles. The early 20th century trend was for zamonaviyist influences—such as art-deko —being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian trim. Practical responses to the environment carried over from the earlier Indies Style, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and ventilation in the walls, which gave birth to the Yangi hind uslubi.[125] The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang va Surabaya. Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers, Tomas Karsten, Anri Maklen Pont, J. Gerber and C.P.W. Scheemaker.[126] In the first three decades of the 20th century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.[127]

A lack of development in the Katta depressiya, the turmoil of the Ikkinchi jahon urushi va Indonesia's independence struggle of the 1940s, and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 1960s, meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades.[128] Colonial homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites, however the styles were often rich and creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought after into the 21st century.[124] Native architecture was arguably more influenced by the new European ideas than colonial architecture was influenced by Indonesian styles; and these Western elements continue to be a dominant influence on Indonesia's built environment today.

Moda

Javanese nobles adopted and mixed some aspects of European fashion, such as this couple in 1890.

Within the colony of the Dutch East Indies, fashion played an important role to define ones' status and social class. The European colonials wore European fashion straight out of the Netherlands, or even Paris, while the natives wore their traditional clothings that are distinct in every regions. As the years progressed and the Dutch influence became stronger, many natives began mixing European styles within their traditional clothing. High-ranking natives within the colony as well as nobility, would wear European style suits with their batik sarongs for special occasions and even for everyday use. More and more native Indonesians began to dress more European. This of course came with the idea that those who wore European clothing were more progressive and open towards a European society and the etiquette that came with it. More and more the European influence was gaining precedence within native Indonesians. This probably stems from the fact that many natives were treated better if they wore European clothing. Their European counterparts acknowledged them, and that in turn was most likely a catalyst for adoption western clothing into traditional Indonesian clothing.[129]

Dutch colonial couple in the early 20th century wearing native batik va kebaya moda

The fashion influences between colonials and natives was a reciprocal phenomenon. Just as the Europeans influences the natives, the natives too influenced the European colonials. For example, the thick European fabrics was considered too hot to wear in tropical climate. Thus, the light clothing of thin kebaya fabrics and the comfortable and easy to wear batik sarong are considered quite suitable for everyday clothing in hot and humid climate of the East Indies.

Later on in the history of the Dutch East Indies, as a new wave of Europeans were brought into the colony, many adopted the Indonesian styles, many even went so far as to wear traditional Javanese kebaya uyda.[130] Batik was also a big influence for the Dutch. The technique was so fascinating to them that they took the technique to their colonies in Africa where it was adopted with African patterns.[131] For the most part, Europeans in the Dutch East Indies, stuck to traditional European styles of dressing. Fashion trends from Paris were still highly regarded and considered the epitome of style. Women wore dresses and skirts and men wore pants and shirts.

Colonial heritage in the Netherlands

Dutch imperial imagery representing the Dutch East Indies (1916). The text reads "Our most precious jewel."

Qachon Gollandiya Qirollik oilasi was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.[132]

Universities such as the Royal Leyden universiteti founded in the 16th century have developed into leading knowledge centres about Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies.[133] Leiden University has produced academics such as Colonial adviser Kristiya Snuk Xurgronje who specialised in native oriental (Indonesian) affairs, and it still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leyden universiteti va xususan KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuzey, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.[76]

The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz zamonaviy Niderlandiya Qirollik armiyasi and the dedicated Bronbeek Muzey, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem shu kungacha.

Dutch newsreel dated 1927 showing a Dutch East Indian fair in the Netherlands featuring Hind and Indigenous people from the Dutch East Indies performing traditional dance and music in traditional attire[134]

Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who moved back to the Netherlands after independence tended to look back on the colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the colony, with such items as the 1970s book Tempo Doeloe (Old times) by author Rob Nyuvenxuys, and other books and materials that became quite common in the 1970s and 1980s.[135] Moreover, since the 18th century Dutch literature has a large number of established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration.[136] In fact one of the great masterpieces of Golland adabiyoti is the book "Maks Xeylaar " tomonidan yozilgan Multatuli 1860 yilda.[137]

The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Hind (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community.[138] Yilda Golland ular deb nomlanadi Hind (short for Indo-European). Of the 296,200 so called Dutch 'repatriants' only 92,200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands.[139]

Including their second generation descendants, they are currently the largest foreign born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS)[140] registered 387,000 first and second generation Indos living in the Netherlands.[141] Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'Repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture. Practically each town in the Netherlands will have a 'Toko' (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or Indonesian restaurant[142] and many 'Pasar Malam ' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year.

Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Golland oshxonasi. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as nasi goreng va sateh are still very popular in the Netherlands.[120]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

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Qo'shimcha o'qish

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Tashqi havolalar

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