Jorj X.Bushning prezidentligi - Presidency of George H. W. Bush

Uning o'g'li bilan adashtirmaslik kerak Jorj V.Bushning prezidentligi.
Ushbu mavzu bo'yicha xronologik qo'llanma uchun qarang Jorj H. V. Bush prezidentligi davri.

Jorj H. V. Bush prezidentlik portreti (kesilgan) .jpg
Jorj X.Bushning prezidentligi
1989 yil 20 yanvar - 1993 yil 20 yanvar
PrezidentJorj H. V. Bush
KabinetRo'yxatni ko'ring
PartiyaRespublika partiyasi
Saylov1988
O'rindiqoq uy
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidentining muhri.svg
Prezident muhri
Kutubxona veb-sayti
Jorj H. V. Bushning prezidentlik portreti (qirqilgan 2) .jpg
Ushbu maqola qismidir
haqida bir qator
Jorj H. V. Bush
Vitse-prezidentgacha
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining vitse-prezidenti
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti
Siyosatlar
Uchrashuvlar
Prezidentlik kampaniyalari
Prezidentlikdan keyingi lavozim

Jorj H. V. Bushning imzosi

The Jorj X.Bushning prezidentligi tushda boshlandi est 1989 yil 20 yanvarda, qachon Jorj H. V. Bush edi ochilish marosimi sifatida 41-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti, va 1993 yil 20 yanvarda tugagan. Bush, a Respublika dan Texas, katta ustunlik bilan g'alaba qozonganidan keyin lavozimiga kirishdi Demokrat Maykl Dukakis ichida 1988 yil prezident saylovi. Mag'lubiyatidan so'ng uning o'rnini Demokrat egalladi Bill Klinton, kim g'olib bo'ldi 1992 yilgi prezident saylovi.

Xalqaro ishlar Bush prezidentligini oxiriga etkazdi Sovuq urush va yangi davr AQSh-Sovet munosabatlari. Yiqilgandan keyin Berlin devori, Bush muvaffaqiyatli uchun itarib Germaniyani birlashtirish. U shuningdek an mamlakatlarning xalqaro koalitsiyasi majbur qilgan Iroq chekinmoq Quvayt ichida Ko'rfaz urushi va o'z zimmasiga oldi AQShning Panamaga harbiy bosqini. Garchi u prezident bo'lganidan keyin tasdiqlanmagan bo'lsa ham, Bush imzolagan Shimoliy Amerika erkin savdo shartnomasi, bu uch tomonlama yaratdi savdo bloki Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlaridan iborat, Kanada va Meksika. Ichki ishlarda Bush katta narsalarga duch keldi federal byudjet defitsiti 1980 yildan beri bu ko'rsatkich uch baravarga o'sdi. Bush soliqlarni oshirmaslikka va'da berganiga qaramay, soliqlarni oshiradigan va xarajatlarni kamaytiradigan Demokratlar nazorati ostidagi Kongress bilan byudjetga rozi bo'ldi. Bush ikkitasini tayinladi Oliy sud odil sudlovchilar, Devid Sauter, oxir-oqibat sudning liberal blokiga a'zo bo'lgan va Klarens Tomas, u o'z davrining eng konservativ sudyalaridan biriga aylandi.

Fors ko'rfazidagi urushda AQSh g'alaba qozonganidan so'ng, Bush qayta saylanishda g'alaba qozonishi mumkin degan fikr keng tarqalgan edi, ammo Klinton iqtisodiyotga e'tibor berib, Bushni ko'p jihatdan mag'lub etdi. Mag'lub bo'lishiga qaramay, Bush o'z lavozimini 56 foiz tasdiqlagan reytingini tark etdi va u 2018 yilda vafot etguniga qadar jamoatchilik orasida mashhur bo'lib qoldi. Tarixchilar odatda Bushni "tashqi aloqalarda muvaffaqiyat qozongan, ammo umidsizlikka uchragan passiv, prezident" deb bilishadi. ichki ishlarda. " Yilda tarixchilar va siyosatshunoslarning so'rovlari, Bush odatda o'rtacha yoki o'rtacha darajadan yuqori prezident sifatida tan olingan.

1988 yil prezident saylovi

Asosiy maqolalar: Jorj H. V. Bush 1988 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasi va 1988 yil AQSh prezident saylovi
Vitse-prezident Bush Sent-Luisdagi, Missuri shtatidagi kampaniyalar bilan Jon Ashkroft, 1988

Turli xil davlat lavozimlarida, xususan lavozimlarda ishlagan Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi direktori, Bush prezidentlikka nomzodni 1980 yil respublikachilarning dastlabki saylovlari. U mag'lub bo'ldi Ronald Reygan, Kaliforniyadagi konservativ sobiq gubernator. G'oyaviy mo''tadil, Reygan bilan chiptani muvozanatlashtirmoqchi tanlangan Bush uning sherigi sifatida. Reygan amaldagi prezident ustidan g'alaba qozondi Demokratik Prezident Jimmi Karter ichida 1980 yilgi prezident saylovi va Bush 1981 yilda vitse-prezident lavozimini egallagan. Bush Reygan bilan iliq munosabatlarda bo'lgan va vitse-prezident muhim maslahatchi bo'lib xizmat qilgan va Reygan ma'muriyati nomidan ko'plab ommaviy chiqishlarda bo'lgan.[1]

Bush kirdi 1988 yil respublikachilar uchun prezidentlik saylovi 1987 yil oktyabrda.[2] U "barqaror, tajribali etakchilikni" ta'minlashga va'da berdi va Reygan shaxsiy ravishda uning nomzodini qo'llab-quvvatladi.[3] Respublikachilar nomzodi uchun Bushning asosiy raqiblari Senat ozchiliklar etakchisi edi Bob Dole ning Kanzas, Kongress a'zosi Jek Kemp Nyu-York va nasroniylar teleangelist Pat Robertson.[4] Garchi bu nominatsiya bo'yicha birinchi pog'onani egallagan bo'lsa-da, Bush uchinchi o'rinni egalladi Ayova shtatidagi kongress, Dole va Robertson ortida.[5] Moliyaviy jihatdan Dulga nisbatan ustunligi tufayli Bush g'alaba qozondi Nyu-Xempshirda boshlang'ich saylov, keyin Janubiy Karolina va 16 shtatida g'olib chiqdi Super seshanba. Bushning raqobatchilari Super seshanbadan ko'p o'tmay poygadan chiqib ketishdi.[6]

Bush, vaqti-vaqti bilan Reygan bilan taqqoslaganda, uning notiqligi uchun tanqid qilinib, ma'ruzada yaxshi kutib olindi 1988 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani. "Nomi bilan tanilganming ball yorug'lik "nutqida Bushning Amerikaga bo'lgan qarashlari tasvirlangan: u ma'qullagan Sadoqat garovi, maktablarda namoz o'qish, o'lim jazosi va qurolga bo'lgan huquqlar.[7] Bush ham soliqlarni oshirmaslikka va'da bergan, bayonotida: "Kongress meni soliqlarni oshirishga undaydi va men yo'q deb aytaman, ular esa men itaraman, va men yo'q deb aytaman va yana itarishadi. Va ularga aytishim mumkin bo'lgan narsa: mening o'qish lablar. Yangi soliqlar yo'q. "[8] Bush tanlangan kam tanilgan senator Dan Kvayl ning Indiana uning sherigi sifatida. Quayle Kongressda ajoyib rekord yozgan bo'lsa-da, u ko'plab konservatorlar orasida mashhur edi va kampaniya Quayle yoshlari yosh saylovchilarga murojaat qiladi deb umid qildi.[9]

Bush respublikachilar orasida o'tkazilgan dastlabki saylovlarda tezkor g'alabani qo'lga kiritgan bo'lsa-da, matbuotda ko'pchilik Demokratik partiyadan prezidentlikka nomzodlarni "Etti mitti" deb atashdi, chunki bu sohada taniqli partiyalar rahbarlari yo'q edi. Senator Ted Kennedi va gubernator Mario Kuomo ikkalasi ham poyga ishtirok etishdan bosh tortdi, sobiq senatorning kampaniyalari esa Gari Xart va senator Jo Bayden ikkalasi ham qarama-qarshilik bilan yakunlandi. Oxir oqibat, gubernator Maykl Dukakis Massachusets shtatidagi iqtisodiy o'zgarishlarga rahbarlik qilgani bilan tanilgan va Demokratik partiyadan prezidentlikka nomzod sifatida g'olib chiqqan Jessi Jekson, Al Gor va yana bir nechta nomzodlar.[10] Ovoz berishlarda etakchi bo'lib, Dukakis xavfli bo'lmagan kampaniyani boshladi, bu esa samarasiz edi.[11] Strategist rahbarligida Li Atvoter, Bush kampaniyasi vatanparvar bo'lmagan liberal ekstremist sifatida Dukakisga hujum qildi. Kampaniya davom etdi Villi Xorton, Massachusets shtatidagi a ayolni zo'rlagan jinoyatchi qamoqxona; Bush kampaniyasi Dukakisga rahbarlik qildi "qaytib eshik "bu xavfli sudlangan jinoyatchilarning qamoqxonani tark etishiga imkon berdi.[12] Dukakis o'zining kampaniyasiga zarar etkazdi M1 Abrams tank va ikkinchi prezidentlik bahsidagi yomon ko'rsatkich.[13]

Bush demokratni mag'lubiyatga uchratdi Maykl Dukakis 1988 yilgi prezident saylovlarida.

Bush Dukakisni 426 dan 111 gacha ustunlik bilan mag'lub etdi Saylov kolleji va u umumxalq ovozining 53,4 foizini oldi.[14] Bush mamlakatning barcha yirik mintaqalarida yaxshi yugurdi, lekin ayniqsa Janubiy.[15] O'shandan beri u prezident etib saylangan birinchi o'tirgan vitse-prezident bo'ldi Martin Van Buren 1836 yilda, shuningdek, o'z partiyasidan prezident lavozimiga saylovlar orqali saylov orqali o'tgan birinchi shaxs Gerbert Guver 1929 yilda.[2][A] Bir vaqtning o'zida Kongress saylovlari, Demokratlar Kongressning ikkala palatasi ustidan nazoratni saqlab qolishdi.[17]

Inauguratsiya

Asosiy maqola: Jorj X.Bushning inauguratsiyasi
Bosh sudya Uilyam Renxist Inauguratsiya marosimlarida Prezident Bushga qasamyod qilish Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kapitoliy, 1989 yil 20-yanvar.

Bush edi ochilish marosimi 1989 yil 20-yanvarda Ronald Reyganning o'rnini egalladi. U dunyodagi o'zgarishlar davrida lavozimga kirdi; ning qulashi Berlin devori va qulashi Sovet Ittifoqi uning prezidentligi davrida erta keldi.[18] O'zining ochilish marosimida Bush shunday dedi:

Men sizning oldingizga kelib, va'dalarga boy bir lahzada Prezidentlik lavozimini egallayman. Biz tinch, farovon zamonda yashayapmiz, ammo uni yanada yaxshiroq qilishimiz mumkin. Chunki yangi shabada esmoqda va erkinlik bilan yangilangan dunyo qayta tug'ilganga o'xshaydi; chunki inson yuragida, aslida bo'lmasa ham, diktatorning kuni tugadi. The totalitar davr o'tmoqda, uning eski g'oyalari qadimgi, jonsiz daraxt barglari singari uchib ketdi. Yangi shabada esib, erkinlik bilan tetiklashgan xalq oldinga intilishga tayyor. Buzilishi kerak bo'lgan yangi zamin va amalga oshiriladigan yangi harakatlar mavjud.[19]

Ma'muriyat

Bush kabineti
IdoraIsmMuddat
PrezidentJorj H. V. Bush1989–1993
Vitse prezidentDan Kvayl1989–1993
Davlat kotibiJeyms Beyker1989–1992
Lourens Eagleburger1992–1993
G'aznachilik kotibiNicholas F. Brady1988–1993
Mudofaa vaziriDik Cheyni1989–1993
Bosh prokurorDik Tornburg1988–1991
Uilyam Barr1991–1993
Ichki ishlar kotibiManuel Lujan Jr.1989–1993
Qishloq xo'jaligi kotibiKleyton Yutter1989–1991
Edvard Rell Madigan1991–1993
Savdo kotibiRobert Mosbaxer1989–1992
Barbara Franklin1992–1993
Mehnat kotibiElizabeth Dole1989–1990
Lin Morli Martin1991–1993
Sog'liqni saqlash kotibi va
Inson xizmatlari		Lui Veyd Sallivan1989–1993
Ta'lim bo'yicha kotibLauro Kavazos1988–1990
Lamar Aleksandr1991–1993
Uy-joy kotibi va
Shaharsozlik		Jek Kemp1989–1993
Transport kotibiSamuel K. Skinner1989–1991
Endryu Kard1992–1993
Energetika kotibiJeyms D. Uotkins1989–1993
Veteranlar ishlari bo'yicha kotibEd Dervinskiy1989–1992
Prezidentning maslahatchisiyo'q1989–1992
Kleyton Yutter1992–1993
Ofisi direktori
Menejment va byudjet		Richard Darman1989–1993
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining savdo vakiliKarla Anderson Xills1989–1993

Bushning birinchi yirik tayinlanishi shu edi Jeyms Beyker davlat kotibi sifatida; Beyker Bushning eng yaqin do'sti edi va Reygan kabi xizmat qilgan Oq uy apparati rahbari.[20] Bush Mudofaa vaziri uchun birinchi tanlovi, Jon minorasi, Senat tomonidan rad etildi va rad etilayotgan kelayotgan prezidentning birinchi vazir nomzodiga aylandi. Mudofaa vazirligining rahbariyati buning o'rniga ketdi Dik Cheyni, ilgari xizmat qilgan Jerald Ford Bosh shtab boshlig'i va keyinchalik uning ostida vitse-prezident bo'lib ishlaydi Jorj V.Bush.[21] Kemp ma'muriyatga uy-joy va shaharsozlik kotibi sifatida qo'shildi Elizabeth Dole, Bob Doulning rafiqasi va transportning sobiq kotibi, Bush davrida mehnat kotibi bo'ldi.[22] Bush Reyganning bir qancha amaldorlarini, shu jumladan G'aznachilik kotibini saqlab qoldi Nicholas F. Brady, Bosh prokuror Dik Tornburg va Ta'lim kotibi Lauro Kavazos.[23]

O'shandan beri o'tgan ko'pchilik kabi Richard Nikson, Bush ijro etuvchi hokimiyatni Prezidentning ijro etuvchi devoni.[24] Nyu-Xempshir gubernatori Jon H. Sununu, 1988 yilgi kampaniya paytida Bushning kuchli tarafdori bo'lib, shtab boshlig'i bo'ldi.[20] Sununu 1991 yilda iste'foga chiqqunga qadar ma'muriyatning ichki siyosatini nazorat qilib turardi.[25] Richard Darman, ilgari G'aznachilik bo'limida ishlagan, direktori bo'ldi Boshqarish va byudjet idorasi.[26] Brent Skoukroft sifatida tayinlandi Milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchi, Fordda ham u rol o'ynagan.[27] Reygan davridan keyin Eron-Kontra ishi, Bush va Skoukroft qayta tashkil etildi Milliy xavfsizlik kengashi, unda muhim siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchi organ sifatida vakolat berish. Skoukroftning o'rinbosari, Robert Geyts, Milliy Xavfsizlik Kengashining nufuzli a'zosi sifatida paydo bo'ldi.[28] Yana bir muhim tashqi siyosat bo'yicha maslahatchi general edi Kolin Pauell, Bush tanlagan sobiq milliy xavfsizlik bo'yicha maslahatchisi Shtab boshliqlarining birlashgan raisi 1989 yilda.[29]

1991 yil may oyining o'rtalaridan boshlab Sununu haqida bir nechta zararli hikoyalar paydo bo'ldi, ularning aksariyati soliq to'lovchilar tomonidan havo kuchlari samolyotlarida sayohat qilish bilan bog'liq. 1991 yil dekabrda Sununu iste'foga chiqishga majbur bo'lgunga qadar Bush Sununu ishdan bo'shatishni istamadi. Transport kotibi Samuel K. Skinner, bilan ishlash uchun plaudits kasb qilgan Exxon Valdez neft to'kilishi, Sununu o'rnini shtab boshlig'i etib tayinladi. Kleyton Yutter a sifatida ma'muriyatga qo'shildi Prezidentning maslahatchisi ichki siyosat uchun.[30] Beyker 1992 yil avgust oyida shtab boshlig'i bo'ldi va davlat kotibi lavozimini egalladi Lourens Eagleburger.[iqtibos kerak ]

Vitse-prezident Kvayl Bush bilan iliq munosabatlarga ega edi va u Kongressning konservativ a'zolari bilan aloqada bo'lib xizmat qildi. Biroq, uning ta'siri Baker va Sununu kabi etakchi xodimlar va kabinet a'zolari bilan raqobatlashmadi. Quayle tez-tez og'zaki nutqlari uchun masxara qilingan va 1992 yil o'rtalarida o'tkazilgan ommaviy so'rovnomalar uni eng mashhur vitse-prezident ekanligini ko'rsatdi. Spiro Agnew. Ba'zi respublikachilar Bushni 1992 yilda Kvaylni chiptadan olib tashlashga undashgan, ammo Bush yangi turmush o'rtog'ini tanlash xato deb qaror qildi.[31]

Sud tayinlovlari

Oliy sud

Asosiy maqola: Jorj H. V. Bush Oliy sudga nomzodlar

Bush sudyaga ikkita sudyani tayinladi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi. 1990 yilda Bush deyarli noma'lum davlat apellyatsiya sudyasini tayinladi, Devid Sauter, liberal belgini almashtirish uchun Uilyam Brennan.[32] Sauter Nyu-Xempshirda tug'ilgan hamkasbi Sununi shtab boshlig'i sa'y-harakatlari bilan Oliy sud vakansiyasini ko'rib chiqmoqda.[33] Sauter osonlikcha tasdiqlandi va 2009 yilgacha xizmat qildi, ammo sudning liberal blokiga qo'shilib, Bushning ko'nglini qoldirdi.[32] 1991 yilda Bush konservativ federal sudyani tayinladi Klarens Tomas muvaffaqiyat qozonmoq Thurgood Marshall, uzoq vaqtdan beri liberal soqchi. Sobiq rahbari Tomas Teng ish bilan ta'minlash bo'yicha teng komissiya (EEOC), og'ir qarshiliklarga duch keldi Senatda, shuningdek tanlovni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi guruhlar va NAACP. Uning nomzodi yana bir qiyinchilikka duch keldi Anita tepaligi Tomasni EEOC rahbari sifatida jinsiy zo'ravonlikda ayblagan. Tomas kichik 52-48 ovoz bilan tasdiqni qo'lga kiritdi; 43 respublikachi va 9 demokrat Tomasning nomzodini tasdiqlash uchun ovoz bergan bo'lsa, 46 demokrat va 2 respublikachi tasdiqlashga qarshi ovoz berishdi.[34] Tomas o'z davrining eng konservativ sudyalaridan biriga aylandi.[35]

Boshqa sudlar

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Jorj H. V. Bush sud tayinlashlari va Jorj H. V. Bush sud tayinlash bilan bog'liq qarama-qarshiliklar

Ikkisidan tashqari Oliy sud tayinlashlar, Bush 42 sudyani tayinladi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining apellyatsiya sudlari va 148 sudya Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tuman sudlari. Ushbu tayinlashlar orasida bo'lajak Oliy sud sudyasi ham bor edi Samuel Alito, shu qatorda; shu bilan birga Vaughn R. Walker, keyinchalik u eng qadimgi gey federal sudyasi ekanligi aniqlandi.[36] Bush, shuningdek, bir qator tajribaga ega sud tayinlash qarama-qarshiliklar, 10 ga 11 nomzod sifatida federal apellyatsiya sudyalari Demokratik nazorat ostida ishlov berilmagan Senat Adliya qo'mitasi.[37] Shunga qaramay, Bush davrining oxiriga kelib, respublika tomonidan tayinlanganlar o'n uchta federal apellyatsiya sudlari a'zolarining ko'pchiligini tashkil qildilar.[38]

Tashqi ishlar

Bush telefonda "General bilan shunchaki sabab" operatsiyasi to'g'risida gaplashmoqda Brent Skoukroft va shtab boshlig'i Jon H. Sununu, 1989
Asosiy maqola: Jorj H. V. Bush ma'muriyatining tashqi siyosati

Panama: Operatsiya shunchaki sabab

Asosiy maqola: Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining Panamaga bosqini

1980-yillar davomida AQSh yordam ko'rsatdi Manuel Noriega, giyohvand moddalar savdosi bilan shug'ullangan Panamaning anti-kommunistik diktatori. 1989 yil may oyida Noriega demokratik prezidentlik saylovlari natijalarini bekor qildi. Bush saylovlarning bekor qilinishiga qarshi chiqdi va uning maqomidan xavotirda Panama kanali Noriega hali ham lavozimida.[39] Noriega ommaviy ommaviy noroziliklarni va davlat to'ntarishiga urinishni engib, hokimiyatni saqlab qoldi.[40] 1989 yil dekabr oyida Noriega kuchlari tomonidan amerikalik harbiy xizmatchi o'ldirilgandan so'ng, Bush Noriega hokimiyatdan chetlatish maqsadida mamlakatga 24000 qo'shinni buyurdi. The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining Panamaga bosqini "Just Cause Operation" nomi bilan tanilgan, bu Sovuq Urush bilan bog'liq bo'lmagan 40 yildan ortiq vaqt ichida Amerika miqyosidagi birinchi harbiy operatsiya edi. Amerika kuchlari tezda Panama kanali zonasini va Panama shahri. Noriega 3 yanvarda taslim bo'ldi va tezda AQShda sudga etkazildi. Amaliyotda 23 amerikalik halok bo'ldi, yana 394 kishi yaralandi. Noriega 1992 yil aprelida reket va giyohvand moddalar savdosida ayblanib sudlangan va qamoqqa tashlangan. Tarixchi Styuart Breverning ta'kidlashicha, bosqin "Amerika tashqi siyosatida yangi davr edi", chunki Bush bosqinni oqlamadi. Monro doktrinasi yoki kommunizm tahdidi, aksincha bu AQSh manfaatlariga javob beradi degan asosda.[41]

Sovuq urushning oxiri

Sharqiy blokning qulashi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: 1989 yilgi inqiloblar
Ning bo'linishini ko'rsatadigan xarita Sharq va G'arbiy Germaniya 1990 yilgacha, bilan G'arbiy Berlin sariq rangda.

Reygan va Sovet Bosh kotibi Mixail Gorbachyov Reyganning ikkinchi davrida Sovuq Urushdagi keskinlikni yumshatgan edi, ammo Bush dastlab Sovet niyatlariga shubha bilan qaragan.[42] Ishining birinchi yilida Bush Sovetlar deb atagan narsalarga ergashdi pauza, Reyganning dentente siyosatidagi tanaffus.[43] Bush uni amalga oshirar edi pauza 1989 yildagi siyosat, Sharqiy Evropadagi Sovet sun'iy yo'ldoshlari Sovet hukmronligiga qarshi chiqdi.[44] 1989 yilda kommunistik hukumatlar qulab tushdi Polsha, Vengriya, Chexoslovakiya, hukumatlari esa Bolgariya va Ruminiya katta islohotlarni amalga oshirdi. 1989 yil noyabrda hukumat Sharqiy Germaniya ochdi Berlin devori va keyinchalik u quvonchli Berlinliklar tomonidan buzib tashlandi.[45] Sovet Ittifoqining ko'plab rahbarlari Gorbachevni Sharqiy Evropadagi dissidentlarni tor-mor qilishga undaydilar, ammo Gorbachev Sovet harbiylarini yuborishdan bosh tortdi va amalda ulardan voz kechdi. Brejnev doktrinasi.[46] AQSh bu g'alayonlarda bevosita ishtirok etmagan, ammo Bush ma'muriyati halok bo'lganidan xursand bo'lish ko'rinishidan qochgan. Sharqiy blok keyingi demokratik islohotlarga putur etkazmaslik uchun.[45] Bush shuningdek Polsha rahbarlarini demokratik saylovlarga ruxsat berishga ishontirishga yordam berdi va Vengriyaga tashrif buyurgan birinchi AQSh prezidenti bo'ldi.[47]

1989 yil o'rtalariga kelib, notinchlik Sharqiy Evropani qamrab olganligi sababli, Bush Gorbachev bilan uchrashishni iltimos qildi va ikkalasi 1989 yil dekabrni o'tkazishga kelishib oldilar Malta sammiti.[46] Maltadagi sammitdan so'ng, Bush Sovet Ittifoqi rahbari Sharqiy Evropada Sovet hukmronligini tinch yo'l bilan tugatish garovi edi, deb hisoblab, Gorbachev bilan uning qolgan muddati davomida hamkorlik aloqalarini izladi.[48] Malta sammitidagi asosiy masala salohiyat edi Germaniyani birlashtirish.[49] Angliya va Frantsiya qayta birlashgan Germaniyadan ehtiyot bo'lishganida, Bush Germaniyani birlashtirish bilan birga harakat qildi G'arbiy Germaniya Kantsler Helmut Kol.[50] Gorbachyov, shuningdek, qayta birlashtirilgan Germaniya g'oyasiga qarshi turdi, ayniqsa, agar u tarkibiga kirsa NATO, lekin o'tgan yilgi g'alayonlar uning kuchini ichki va chet elda yo'qotdi.[51] Gorbachyov AQSh, Sovet Ittifoqi, Frantsiya, Angliya, G'arbiy Germaniya va Sharqiy Germaniya o'rtasida 1990 yilda boshlangan "Ikki plyus-to'rt" muzokaralarini o'tkazishga rozilik berdi. Keng muzokaralardan so'ng Gorbachev oxir-oqibat birlashgan Germaniya bo'lishiga rozi bo'ldi NATOning bir qismi. Imzosi bilan Germaniyaga nisbatan yakuniy hisob-kitob to'g'risida Shartnoma, Germaniya 1990 yil oktyabr oyida rasman birlashdi.[52]

Sovet Ittifoqining tarqatib yuborilishi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Sovet Ittifoqining tarqatib yuborilishi va Sovuq Urushdan keyingi davr
Bush va Mixail Gorbachyov da Xelsinki sammiti 1990 yilda

Gorbachev Sovet yo'ldosh davlatlarini demokratlashtirishga rozi bo'lsa ham, u Sovet Ittifoqining o'zida millatchi harakatlarni bostirdi.[53] Sovet Ittifoqi edi egallab olingan va qo'shib qo'ydi Boltiqbo'yi davlatlari ning Litva, Latviya va Estoniya 1940-yillarda va bu millatlarning ko'plab fuqarolari hech qachon Sovet hokimiyatini qabul qilmaganlar. Litva 1990 yil mart mustaqillikni e'lon qilish Gorbachevning qattiq qarshiligiga uchragan, agar u Litva mustaqilligiga yo'l qo'ysa, Sovet Ittifoqi qulashi mumkin deb qo'rqardi. Qo'shma Shtatlar Sovet Ittifoqining Boltiqbo'yi davlatlari tarkibiga qo'shilishini hech qachon tan olmagan va Litvadagi inqiroz Bushni qiyin ahvolda qoldirgan. Bush Gorbachyovning Germaniyani birlashtirishda hamkorligiga muhtoj edi va u Sovet Ittifoqi qulashi bilan yadro qurolini xavfli qo'llarga topshirishidan qo'rqardi. Bush ma'muriyati Gorbachevning Litvaning mustaqillik harakatini bostirganiga yumshoq norozilik bildirdi, ammo to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aralashish uchun hech qanday choralar ko'rmadi.[54] Bush mustaqillik harakatlarini Sovet Ittifoqi tarkibidan chiqib ketishi mumkin bo'lgan tartibsizlik haqida ogohlantirdi; 1991 yilgi murojaatida tanqidchilar "Tovuq Kiev nutqi "," o'z joniga qasd qilish millatchiligi "dan ogohlantirdi.[55]

1991 yil iyulda Bush va Gorbachyov imzoladilar Strategik qurollarni qisqartirish to'g'risidagi Shartnoma (START I) shartnoma, 1987 yildan beri birinchi yirik qurol kelishuvi O'rta masofadagi yadroviy kuchlar to'g'risidagi shartnoma.[56] Ikkala mamlakat ham strategik yadro qurollarini 30 foizga qisqartirishga rozi bo'ldi va Sovet Ittifoqi uni qisqartirishga va'da berdi qit'alararo ballistik raketa majburiyat 50 foizga.[57] 1991 yil avgust oyida qattiqqo'l kommunistlar a to'ntarish Gorbachyovga qarshi; to'ntarish tezda qulab tushganda, Gorbachev va markaziy Sovet hukumatining qolgan kuchini sindirdi.[58] O'sha oyning oxirida Gorbachyov iste'foga chiqdi kommunistik partiyaning bosh kotibi va Rossiya prezidenti Boris Yeltsin sovet mulkini olib qo'yishni buyurdi. Gorbachyov hokimiyatga yopishib olgan Sovet Ittifoqi Prezidenti Sovet Ittifoqi bo'lgan 1991 yil dekabrgacha eritilgan.[59] O'n besh shtat Sovet Ittifoqidan va bu davlatlardan paydo bo'lgan, Rossiya eng katta va aholi eng ko'p bo'lgan. Bush va Yeltsin 1992 yil fevral oyida uchrashib, "do'stlik va sheriklik" ning yangi davrini e'lon qilishdi.[60] 1993 yil yanvar oyida Bush va Yeltsin bunga rozi bo'lishdi Boshlash II Dastlabki START shartnomasi asosida yadro qurollarini yanada qisqartirishni nazarda tutgan.[61]

Sovet Ittifoqi 1991 yilda o'n beshta mustaqil respublikaga tarqaldi

Sovet Ittifoqi va Qo'shma Shtatlar odatda ikkalasi deb hisoblangan super kuchlar Sovuq urush davri; Sovet Ittifoqi qulashi bilan ba'zilar Qo'shma Shtatlarni "yuqori quvvat ". Siyosatshunos Frensis Fukuyama taxmin qilishicha, insoniyat "tarixning oxiri "o'sha liberal, kapitalistik demokratiya doimiy ravishda kommunizm ustidan g'alaba qozongan va fashizm.[62] Biroq, Sovet Ittifoqi va boshqa kommunistik hukumatlarning qulashi mojarolarga olib keldi Markaziy Evropa, Sharqiy Evropa, Markaziy Osiyo va Afrika.[63] The Yugoslaviya urushlari 1991 yilda bir nechta respublikalar tarkibiga kirgan Yugoslaviya mustaqillikka intildi va Bush ma'muriyati tinchlik vositachiligi uchun qilingan sa'y-harakatlar va Evropaning boshchiligidagi harakatlarini qo'llab-quvvatladi.[64]

Ko'rfaz urushi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Ko'rfaz urushi
Prezident Bush Saudiya Arabistonidagi Amerika qo'shinlariga tashrif buyurdi Shukur kuni, 1990
Iroq (yashil) 1990 yilda Quvaytga (to'q sariq) bostirib kirdi

Iroqning Quvaytga bosqini

Rahbarligida Saddam Xuseyn, Iroq bosib olgan edi Eron 1980 yilda boshlangan Eron-Iroq urushi nihoyat 1988 yilda yakunlandi.[65] The AQSh Iroqni qo'llab-quvvatlagan edi o'sha urush paytida AQShning Eronga nisbatan dushmanligi tufayli, lekin Bush Xuseynning norozilikni shafqatsizlarcha bostirgani va uning hujum qilish tahdidi tufayli Iroqqa qarz berishni uzilmaslikka qaror qildi. Isroil. Katta miqdordagi qarzlar va arzon neft narxlari bilan duch kelgan Xuseyn Iroqning janubiy chegarasida joylashgan kichik, neftga boy mamlakat Kuvayt davlatini bosib olishga qaror qildi.[66][67]

Iroqdan keyin bosqinchi Kuvayt 1990 yil avgustda Bushni majbur qildi iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar Iroqda va yig'ilgan a ko'p millatli koalitsiya bosqinga qarshi.[65] Ma'muriyat hujumga javob bermaslik Xuseynni hujum qilishga undashidan qo'rqardi Saudiya Arabistoni yoki Isroil va boshqa mamlakatlarni shu kabi tajovuzlardan qaytarishni xohladi.[68] Xalqaro hamjamiyatda ko'pchilik rozi bo'ldi; Margaret Tetcher "agar Iroq g'alaba qozonsa, hech bir kichik davlat xavfsiz emas" deb ta'kidlagan.[69] Shuningdek, Bush neftga doimiy kirishni ta'minlashni xohladi, chunki Iroq va Kuvayt birgalikda dunyodagi neft qazib olishning 20 foizini, Saudiya Arabistoni esa dunyodagi neft ta'minotining yana 26 foizini ishlab chiqardi.[70]

Iroqqa qarshi harbiy operatsiyaga tayyorgarlik ko'rish uchun AQSh minglab askarlarini Saudiya Arabistoniga va generalga o'tkazdi Norman Shvartskopf kichik. bosqinchilik rejasini ishlab chiqdi.[71] Bir necha hafta davomida Bush ma'muriyati Iroqqa qarshi kuch ishlatish imkoniyatini ko'rib chiqdi, chunki iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar va xalqaro bosim Xuseynni Kuvaytdan chiqib ketishga ishontiradi.[72] Bushning talabiga binoan 1990 yil noyabrda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Xavfsizlik Kengashi agar Iroq 1991 yil 15 yanvargacha Kuvaytdan chiqmasa, kuch ishlatishga ruxsat beruvchi qarorni tasdiqladi.[25] Gorbachyovning qo'llab-quvvatlashi, shuningdek, Xitoyning betarafligi BMT rezolyutsiyasining qabul qilinishini ta'minlashga yordam berdi.[73] Bush Angliya, Frantsiya va boshqa davlatlarni Iroqqa qarshi operatsiyaga askarlarni topshirishga ishontirdi va u Germaniya, Yaponiya, Janubiy Koreya, Saudiya Arabistoni va Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari.[74]

"Cho'l bo'roni" operatsiyasi

1991 yil yanvar oyida Bush Kongressdan Iroqqa qarshi urushga ruxsat beruvchi qo'shma rezolyutsiyani tasdiqlashni so'radi.[75] Bush BMT rezolyutsiyasi unga Iroqqa qarshi harbiy operatsiya boshlash uchun zarur vakolatni allaqachon bergan deb ishongan, ammo u xalq harbiy harakatlar ortida birlashganligini ko'rsatmoqchi edi.[76] Kongressning havo va quruqlikdagi hujumlarga ruxsat berish masalalari bo'yicha qo'shma majlisidan oldin so'zga chiqib, Bush zudlik bilan to'rtta maqsadni qo'ydi: "Iroq Kuvaytdan to'liq, zudlik bilan va shartsiz chiqib ketishi kerak. Kuvaytning qonuniy hukumati tiklanishi kerak. Xavfsizlik va barqarorlik Fors ko'rfaziga ishonch hosil qilish kerak va chet eldagi Amerika fuqarolari himoya qilinishi kerak. " Keyin u beshinchi, uzoq muddatli maqsadni ta'kidlab o'tdi: "Ushbu notinch davrdan bizning beshinchi maqsadimiz - yangi dunyo tartibi paydo bo'lishi mumkin: yangi davr - terror tahdididan ozod, adolat yo'lida kuchliroq va boshqalar. tinchlik izlashda xavfsiz dunyo dunyosi, Sharq va G'arb, Shimoliy va Janubiy davlatlar gullab-yashnashi va hamjihatlikda yashashi mumkin bo'lgan davr .... Qonun ustuvorligi o'rmon hukmronligini bekor qiladigan dunyo. A davlatlar erkinlik va adolat uchun umumiy mas'uliyatni tan oladigan dunyo. Kuchlilar kuchsizlarning huquqlarini hurmat qiladigan dunyo. "[77] Ham palatada ham, senatda ham demokratlarning aksariyati qarshi bo'lganiga qaramay, Kongress ularni ma'qulladi Iroqning 1991 yilgi qaroriga qarshi harbiy kuch ishlatishga ruxsat.[75]

Bush bilan uchrashadi Robert Geyts, General Kolin Pauell, Kotib Dik Cheyni va boshqalar Fors ko'rfazidagi vaziyat va operatsiya to'g'risida Cho'l qalqoni, 1991 yil 15-yanvar

15 yanvar kuni Iroq Quvaytdan chiqmasdan o'tib ketganidan so'ng, AQSh va koalitsiya kuchlari Iroq poytaxtini 39 kunlik bombardimon qilishni boshladilar. Bag'dod va Iroqning boshqa pozitsiyalari. Bomba Iroqning elektr tarmog'i va aloqa tarmog'ini vayron qildi va 100 mingga yaqin iroqlik askarlarning qochib ketishiga olib keldi. Qasos sifatida Iroq ishga tushirildi Skud Isroil va Saudiya Arabistonidagi raketalar, ammo raketalarning aksariyati ozgina zarar ko'rdi. 23 fevralda koalitsiya kuchlari 27 fevralning oxiriga kelib Iroq kuchlarini quvib chiqarib, Kuvaytga quruqlikdan bostirib kirishni boshladilar. Harbiy harakatlar paytida 300 ga yaqin amerikaliklar, shuningdek boshqa koalitsiya davlatlaridan taxminan 65 nafar askar halok bo'ldi.[78] 3 mart kuni sulh bitimi tuzildi va BMT rezolyutsiyasini qabul qildi tinchlikparvar kuch Kuvayt va Iroq o'rtasidagi qurolsizlangan zonada.[79] 1991 yil mart Gallup So'rov shuni ko'rsatdiki, Bushning ma'qullash darajasi 89 foizni tashkil etdi, bu Gallup so'rovi tarixidagi eng yuqori prezident reytingini tasdiqladi.[80]

Harbiy harakatlar paytida koalitsiya kuchlari chegara bo'ylab Iroq kuchlarini ta'qib qilmadi, Xuseyn va uning elitasi qoldi Respublika gvardiyasi Iroq ustidan nazorat.[78] Bush Iroq hukumatini ag'darish buyrug'ini bermaganligi bilan izohladi, chunki bu "behisob insoniy va siyosiy xarajatlarga olib kelishi mumkin edi .... Biz Bag'dodni egallab olishga majbur bo'ldik va aslida Iroqni boshqaramiz".[81] Uning hujumni bosmaslik haqidagi qarori bahsli bo'lib qolmoqda.[82] Mudofaa vaziri Cheyni ta'kidlaganidek, "Bir marta biz yaxlitlashdik Xuseyn O'rnidan turib, uning hukumatidan qutuldi, keyin uning o'rniga nima qo'yasiz degan savol tug'iladi. "[83] Urushdan keyin Bush ma'muriyati Iroqqa qarshi qo'zg'olonlarni rag'batlantirdi va Kurdlar va Shia arablar ikkalasi ham Husaynga qarshi ko'tarildi. AQSh isyonga aralashishdan bosh tortdi va Xuseyn qo'zg'olonlarni zo'ravonlik bilan bostirdi.[84] 1991 yildan keyin BMT Iroqqa qarshi iqtisodiy sanktsiyalarni davom ettirdi va Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining maxsus komissiyasi Iroq uni qayta tiklamasligini ta'minlash uchun tayinlangan ommaviy qirg'in qurollari dasturi.[85]

Xitoy

Bushning ustuvor yo'nalishlaridan biri AQSh va AQSh o'rtasidagi munosabatlarni mustahkamlash edi Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi (XXR) va Bush Xitoy rahbari bilan iliq munosabatlarni o'rnatgan Den Syaoping lavozimga kirishidan oldin. Bush va Deng o'rtasidagi shaxsiy munosabatlarga qaramay, inson huquqlari bilan bog'liq muammolar Bushning Xitoy siyosatiga jiddiy muammo tug'dirdi.[86] 1989 yil o'rtalarida talabalar va boshqa shaxslar ularning foydasiga norozilik bildirishdi demokratiya XXRning ikki yuz shahri bo'ylab intellektual erkinlik. 1989 yil iyun oyida Xalq ozodlik armiyasi namoyishni zo'ravonlik bilan bostirdi Pekin deb nomlangan narsada Tiananmen maydonidagi qirg'in. Bush XX asrning 70-yillaridan beri AQShga tobora yaqinlashib kelayotgan XXR bilan yaxshi munosabatlarni davom ettirishga intilgan edi, ammo u XXRning noroziliklarni ko'rib chiqishidan g'azablandi. Tiananmen maydonidagi qirg'inga javoban Qo'shma Shtatlar iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar kiritdi va harbiy aloqalarni uzdi.[87] Biroq, Bush Tyananmen Xitoy-AQSh munosabatlarini to'xtatmasligi kerak degan qarorga ham keldi. Shu tariqa u maxfiy ravishda maxsus vakil yubordi Brent Skoukroft Deng bilan uchrashish uchun Pekinga va Xitoyga qarshi qo'llanilgan iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar bekor qilindi.[88] Jorj Vashington universiteti 1989 yil 30 iyunda yuqori darajadagi maxfiy kanallar orqali AQSh hukumati Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi hukumatiga Tyananmen maydonidagi norozilik namoyishlari atrofidagi voqealar "ichki ish" ekanligini etkazganligini ma'lum qildi.[89] Fang Lizhi va uning rafiqasi 1990 yil 25 iyungacha AQSh elchixonasida bo'lib, xitoylik hukumat tomonidan ularga elchixonadan chiqib ketishga va AQSh havo kuchlarining C-135 transport samolyotiga Britaniyaga borishga ruxsat berilgunga qadar.[90] Ushbu qaror qisman o'zaro maxfiy muzokaralardan so'ng paydo bo'ldi Genri Kissincer, AQSh prezidenti Bush va Deng nomidan ish yuritgan.[91] Boshqa omillar a yolg'on tan olish Fang tomonidan, Scowcroftning aralashuviga urinish va Yaponiya hukumatining "Fang Lizhi muammosi" ni hal qilish evaziga XXRga kreditlarni qayta boshlash taklifi.[92]

NAFTA

Asosiy maqola: Shimoliy Amerika erkin savdo shartnomasi
Chapdan o'ngga: (tik turgan holda) Prezident Karlos Salinas, Prezident Bush, Bosh vazir Brayan Myulroni; (o'tirgan) Xayme Serra Puche, Karla Xills va Maykl Uilson NAFTA-ni ishga tushirish marosimida, 1992 yil oktyabr

1987 yilda AQSh va Kanada a erkin savdo shartnomasi bu ikki mamlakat o'rtasidagi ko'plab tariflarni bekor qildi. Prezident Reygan buni Qo'shma Shtatlar, Kanada va Meksika.[93] Meksika o'sha paytda kelishuvga aralashishga qarshilik ko'rsatgan edi, ammo Karlos Salinas de Gortari 1988 yilda ish boshlaganidan keyin erkin savdo shartnomasi bo'yicha muzokaralar olib borishga tayyorligini bildirdi.[94] Bush ma'muriyati Progressiv konservativ Kanada bosh vaziri Brayan Myulroni, muzokaralarga rahbarlik qildi Shimoliy Amerika erkin savdo shartnomasi (NAFTA) Meksika bilan. Tariflarni pasaytirishdan tashqari, taklif qilinayotgan shartnoma patentlar, mualliflik huquqlari va savdo belgilarini cheklashi mumkin edi.[95]

1991 yilda Bush izladi tezkor trek hokimiyat, bu prezidentga xalqaro savdo shartnomasini o'zgartirish kiritish imkoniyatisiz Kongressga taqdim etish vakolatini beradi. Kongressning ko'pchilik etakchisi rahbarligidagi qarama-qarshiliklarga qaramay Dik Gefardt Kongressning ikkala palatasi ham Bushga tezkor vakolat berishga ovoz berdi. NAFTA 1992 yil dekabrda, Bush qayta saylovda yutqazgandan so'ng,[94] ammo Prezident Klinton 1993 yilda NAFTA tomonidan ratifikatsiya qilingan.[96] NAFTA ish haqi, ish joylari va umumiy iqtisodiy o'sishga ta'sir ko'rsatishi uchun ziddiyatli bo'lib qolmoqda.[97]

Ichki ishlar

Bir nechta muammolarga duch kelgan Bush, ish paytida katta mahalliy dasturlarni taklif qilishdan tiyildi.[98] Biroq u prezident vetosidan tez-tez foydalangan va qonunchilikka ta'sir o'tkazish uchun veto tahdididan foydalangan.[99]

Iqtisodiyot

Federal moliya va Yalpi ichki mahsulot Jorj H. V. Bush prezidentligi davrida (YaIM)[a]
YilDaromad[b]Xarajatlar[b]Ortiqcha /
Kamomad[b]		YaIMQarz% sifatida
YaIMning[b][c]
1989991.11143.7-152.65570.039.3
19901032.01253.0-221.05914.640.8
19911055.01324.2-269.26110.144.0
19921091.21381.5-290.36434.746.6
19931154.31409.4-255.16794.947.8
Manbalar:[100][101][102]
Izohlar:
  1. ^ Qarz foizlaridan tashqari barcha ko'rsatkichlar milliardlab dollarlarda ko'rsatilgan.
  2. ^ a b v d moliyaviy yil, Oktyabrdan keyingi sentyabrgacha.
  3. ^ Jamiyatning milliy qarzini YaIMga nisbatan foiz sifatida ifodalaydi.

AQSh iqtisodiyoti paydo bo'lganidan beri umuman yaxshi natijalarga erishgan edi 1982 yil oxirida tanazzul, lekin nihoyat yumshoq narsaga o'tib ketdi 1990 yilda turg'unlik. Ishsizlik darajasi 1989 yildagi 5,9 foizdan 1991 yil o'rtalarida 7,8 foizga ko'tarildi. Kabi kompaniyalar tomonidan yuqori darajada e'lon qilingan bir nechta erta ishdan bo'shatishlar Aetna ba'zilar buni "oq yoqadagi turg'unlik" deb atashga olib keldi.[103][104] Darhaqiqat, 1991 yil oxiriga kelib, milliondan ortiq ko'k rangli ish joylari 5 dan 1 gacha bo'lgan ish uchun yo'qolgan 200 mingga yaqin oq rangli ish joylariga nisbatan yo'qolgan. Shunga qaramay, bu 1980-yillarning boshlarida ikki marta tanazzulga uchragandan ko'ra taqqoslaganda ko'proq "oq yoqadagi" tanazzulga aylandi.[103][105][106][107] Iqtisodiy pasayishning izohlari har xil edi; Bushni ba'zi tarafdorlari ayblashdi Federal rezerv raisi Alan Greinspan foiz stavkalarini tushirmaganligi uchun.[108]

Katta federal defitsit davomida tug'iladi Reygan yillari, 1989 yildagi 152,1 milliard dollardan oshdi[109] 1990 yil uchun 220 milliard dollargacha;[110] 220 milliard dollarlik defitsit 1980 yildan beri uch baravar ko'payganligini anglatadi.[99] Federal defitsitni 1991 yilga ko'tarilishiga turtki bo'lgan asosiy omillar bu zaif iqtisodiyot bo'lib, u ham korporativ foyda, ham uy xo'jaliklarining daromadlarini pasaytirib yubordi va bu pulni qutqarish jamg'arma va kreditlar sohasi,[110] bir necha yillar davomida 100 milliard dollardan ko'proq mablag 'sarflandi.[111] 1991 yil oxiriga kelib, so'rovnomalar Bushning iqtisodiyotga munosabati bo'yicha jamoatchilikning katta noroziligini ko'rsatdi.[112] Jamiyat iqtisodiyot va boshqa ichki ishlardan tobora ko'proq xavotirlana boshlagach, Bushning tashqi ishlar bilan yaxshi munosabatda bo'lishi ko'pchilik saylovchilar uchun kamroq muammo bo'lib qoldi. Bir nechta Kongress respublikachilari va iqtisodchilari Bushni turg'unlikka javob berishga chaqirishdi, ammo ma'muriyat iqtisodiy rejani ishlab chiqa olmadi.[113]

1990 yilgi byudjetni taqqoslash jarayoni

U mudofaa xarajatlarini katta qisqartirishga qarshi bo'lganligi sababli[114] va soliqlarni oshirmaslikka va'da bergan prezident byudjetni muvozanatlashda katta qiyinchiliklarga duch keldi.[111] Bush va Kongress rahbarlari byudjetga katta o'zgartirishlar kiritmaslik to'g'risida kelishib oldilar moliyaviy yil 1990 yil 1989 yil oktyabrda boshlangan. Ammo har ikkala tomon ham xarajatlarni qisqartirish yoki yangi soliqlar kelgusi yil byudjetida zarur bo'lishi kerakligini bilar edilar, chunki ichki xarajatlarni keskin ravishda avtomatik ravishda kamaytirish Gramm-Rudman-Hollings muvozanatli byudjet to'g'risidagi qonun.[115]

Ma'muriyat 1991 moliyaviy yil byudjetini qabul qilish bo'yicha uzoq muzokaralar olib bordi. 1990 yil yanvar oyida Bush 1991 moliya yili uchun byudjetini taqdim etdi; byudjetga mudofaa xarajatlarini qisqartirish va kapitaldan olinadigan soliq kiritildi. Mart oyida kongressmen Dan Rostenkovskiy o'sishini o'z ichiga olgan Demokratik qarshi taklifni ilgari surdi benzin solig'i.[116] 1990 yil iyun oyi oxirida e'lon qilingan bayonotda Bush xarajatlarni qisqartirish, iqtisodiy o'sishni rag'batlantirish, byudjet jarayonini isloh qilish va soliqlarni oshirishni o'z ichiga olgan defitsitni kamaytirish dasturiga tayyor bo'lishini aytdi.[117][118] Kimga fiskal konservatorlar Respublikachilar partiyasida Bushning bayonoti xiyonatni anglatadi va ular uni muzokaralarda juda erta murosaga kelgani uchun qattiq tanqid qildilar.[119]

1990 yil sentyabr oyida Bush va Kongress Demokratlari majburiy va ixtiyoriy dasturlarni moliyalashtirishni qisqartirish va shu bilan birga daromadlarni qisman yuqori gaz solig'i hisobiga qisqartirish bo'yicha kelishuvni e'lon qilishdi. Ushbu kelishuvga qo'shimcha ravishda a "borishing bilan to'la" amalga oshirish paytida yangi dasturlar uchun pul to'lashni talab qiladigan shart.[116] U ilgari qonun loyihasini qo'llab-quvvatlashga va'da bergan bo'lsa-da, House Minority Whip Nyut Gingrich konservativ muxolifatni qonun loyihasiga qarshi chiqishiga olib keldi. Liberallar, shuningdek, kelishuvdagi byudjetni qisqartirishni tanqid qildilar va oktyabr oyida Palata bu kelishuvni rad etdi, natijada hukumat qisqa muddat yopildi. Respublikachilar partiyasining kuchli qo'llab-quvvatlashisiz Bush demokratlar uchun yanada qulay bo'lgan yana bir kelishuv loyihasiga rozi bo'lishga majbur bo'ldi. The Omnibus 1990 yilgi byudjetni taqqoslash to'g'risidagi qonun (OBRA-90), 1990 yil 27-oktabrda qabul qilingan, benzin solig'i o'sishining katta qismini eng yuqori daromadga ega bo'lganlar uchun yuqori soliqlar foydasiga kamaytirdi. Bu ichki xarajatlarni qisqartirishni o'z ichiga olgan, ammo qisqartirishlar dastlabki kelishuvda taklif qilinganidek chuqur emas edi. Bushning qonun loyihasini imzolash to'g'risidagi qarori uning konservatorlar va keng jamoatchilikdagi mavqeiga putur etkazdi, ammo bu 1990-yillar oxiridagi byudjet profitsiti uchun zamin yaratdi.[120]

Ta'lim

Bush odatda yangi mahalliy dasturlar uchun katta takliflar berishdan tiyilgan bo'lsa-da, u ta'lim va atrof-muhit bo'yicha prezident bo'lish niyatini bildirdi.[121] 1983 yilda nomlangan hisobot Xavf ostida bo'lgan millat, Amerika ta'lim tizimining sifati haqida tashvish uyg'otdi.[122] Bush 1989 yildagi Ta'limning mukammalligi to'g'risidagi qonunni, yuqori natijalarga erishgan maktablarni federal grantlar bilan mukofotlash va uning tashkil etilishini qo'llab-quvvatlash rejasini taklif qildi. magnit maktablari. Bushning ta'lim platformasi, asosan, ochiq ro'yxatdan o'tish, o'qituvchilar uchun rag'batlantirish va kam ta'minlangan bolalar bilan ishlashni yaxshilaydigan maktablar uchun mukofotlar kabi turli xil yangiliklarni federal qo'llab-quvvatlashdan iborat edi.[123] Odatda federal hukumatning ta'limdagi rolini kamaytirishga intilgan konservatorlar qonun loyihasiga qarshi chiqdilar.[124] Liberallar taklif qilinganga qarshi chiqishdi yo'llanmalar xususiy maktablar uchun talabalarning yuqori ta'lim standartlarini ta'minlashga qaratilgan test sinovlaridan ehtiyot bo'lishdi va ozchiliklar va iqtisodiy jihatdan nochorlar uchun ta'lim dasturlari uchun federal xarajatlarning yuqori darajasini ma'qullashdi. Bush ta'lim xarajatlari birinchi navbatda shtat va mahalliy hukumat tomonidan qoplanishi kerak deb hisoblar edi va u ta'limni federal moliyalashtirishning umumiy darajasini keskin oshirishni ma'qullamadi.[122] Liberallar va konservatorlar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanmaganligi sababli Kongress uning ta'lim bo'yicha takliflariga amal qilmadi. Keyinchalik Bush ixtiyoriy ravishda "Amerika 2000" dasturini joriy qildi, u biznes rahbarlari va mahalliy hokimiyatni ta'lim islohoti atrofida to'plashga intildi.[124] Bush prezidentligi davrida ta'lim sohasidagi islohotlarning muhim to'plamidan o'tmagan bo'lsa ham, uning g'oyalari keyingi islohot harakatlariga, shu jumladan ta'sir ko'rsatdi Maqsadlar 2000 va Hech qanday bolani tashlab qo'ymaslik to'g'risidagi qonun.[125]

Inson huquqlari

Bush imzo qo'yadi 1990 yilgi nogironligi bo'lgan amerikaliklar to'g'risidagi qonun

The nogiron belgi ostida huquqiy himoya olmagan Fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi 1964 y Bush o'z lavozimini egallashi bilanoq, ko'pchilik kamsitishga va ajratishga duch keldi. 1988 yilda, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. va Toni Koelo nogironligi bo'lgan malakali shaxslarga nisbatan ish bilan diskriminatsiya qilishni taqiqlovchi amerikaliklarni nogironlik to'g'risidagi qonuni bilan tanishtirdi. Qonun loyihasi Senatdan o'tgan, ammo Vakillar palatasi tomonidan qabul qilinmagan va u 1989 yilda qayta tiklangan. Ba'zi konservatorlar ushbu qonun loyihasiga uning xarajatlari va biznesdagi potentsial og'irliklari sababli qarshi chiqishgan bo'lsa-da, Bush uni qattiq qo'llab-quvvatladi, qisman o'g'li, Nil, bilan kurashgan edi disleksiya. Qonun loyihasi Kongressning ikkala palatasini qabul qilgandan so'ng, Bush imzoladi 1990 yilgi nogironligi bo'lgan amerikaliklar to'g'risidagi qonun 1990 yil iyulda kuchga kirdi.[126] The act required employers and public accommodations to make "reasonable accommodations" for the disabled, while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an "undue hardship".[127]

After the Supreme Court handed down rulings that limited the enforcement of ish bilan kamsitish, Senator Ted Kennedy led passage of a civil rights bill designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits.[128] In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring.[129][130] Congress failed to override the veto, but re-introduced the bill in 1991.[131] In November 1991, Bush signed the 1991 yilgi Fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi qonun, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year.[128]

Atrof muhit

In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed a bill to amend the Toza havo to'g'risidagi qonun. Working with Senate Majority Leader Jorj J. Mitchell, the administration won passage of the amendments over the opposition of business-aligned members of Congress who feared the impact of tougher regulations.[132] The legislation sought to curb kislotali yomg'ir and smog by requiring decreased emissions of chemicals such as oltingugurt dioksidi.[133] The measure was the first major update to the Clean Air Act since 1977.[134] Bush also signed the 1990 yildagi neftning ifloslanishi to'g'risidagi qonun ga javoban Exxon Valdez neft to'kilishi. Biroq, Tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha saylovchilar ligasi criticized some of Bush's other environmental actions, including his opposition to stricter auto-mileage standards.[135]

Jamg'arma va kredit inqirozi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Jamg'arma va kredit inqirozi

In 1982, Congress had passed the Garn-St. Germain depozitar tashkilotlari to'g'risidagi qonun, which deregulated savings and loans associations and increased FDIC insurance for savings and loans associations. As the real estate market declined in the late 1980s, hundreds of savings and loans associations collapsed. In February 1989, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the saving and loans industry, the creation of the Tejamkorlik nazorati idorasi to regulate the industry, and establishment the Qaror ishonchli korporatsiyasi to liquidate the assets of insolvent companies. Kongress o'tdi 1989 yilgi moliyaviy institutlarni isloh qilish, tiklash va ijroga oid qonun, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.[136] In the wake of the savings and loan crisis, the Senatning axloq qo'mitasi investigated five senators, collectively referred to as the "Keating Besh ", for allegedly providing improper aid to Charlz Kiting, raisi Linkoln jamg'arma va kredit uyushmasi.[137]

Nur nuqtalari

Asosiy maqola: Nur nuqtalari

President Bush devoted attention to voluntary service as a means of solving some of America's most serious social problems. He often used the "thousand points of light " theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems. In his 1989 inaugural address, President Bush said, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good."[138] Four years later, in his report to the nation on The Points of Light Movement, President Bush said, "Points of Light are the soul of America. They are ordinary people who reach beyond themselves to touch the lives of those in need, bringing hope and opportunity, care and friendship. By giving so generously of themselves, these remarkable individuals show us not only what is best in our heritage but what all of us are called to become."[138]

In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of ko'ngillilik.[139] In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network with the goal of strengthening volunteerism, streamlining costs and services and deepening impact.[140] Nur nuqtalari, the organization created through this merger, has approximately 250 affiliates in 22 countries and partnerships with thousands of nonprofits and companies dedicated to volunteer service around the world. 2012 yilda Points of Light 4 million ko'ngillini 635 million dollarlik 30 million soatlik xizmatga safarbar qildi.[141]

Boshqa tashabbuslar

Bush signed the 1990 yilgi immigratsiya to'g'risidagi qonun,[142] which led to a 40 percent increase in legal Qo'shma Shtatlarga immigratsiya.[143] The bill more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills, and advocates of the bill argued that it would help fill projected labor shortages for various jobs.[144] Bush had opposed an earlier version of the bill that allowed for higher immigration levels, but supported the bill that Congress ultimately presented to him.[144]

Bush became a member of the Milliy miltiq uyushmasi early in 1988 and had campaigned as a "pro-gun" candidate with the NRA's endorsement during the 1988 election.[145] In March 1989, he placed a temporary ban on the import of certain semiautomatic rifles.[146] This action cost him endorsement from the NRA in 1992. In 1995, after leaving office, Bush publicly resigned his life membership in the organization after receiving a form letter from the NRA depicting agents of the Spirtli ichimliklar, tamaki va o'qotar qurollar byurosi as "jack-booted thugs".[147]

In the 1989 case of Texas va Jonsonga qarshi, the Supreme Court held that it was unconstitutional to criminalize burning the Amerika bayrog'i. In response, Bush introduced a constitutional amendment empower Congress to outlaw the desecration of the American flag. Congress did not pass the amendment, but Bush did sign the Bayroqlarni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun of 1989, which was later overturned by the Supreme Court.[148]

Bush tayinlandi Uilyam Bennet to serve as the first Director of the Giyohvand moddalarni nazorat qilish bo'yicha milliy siyosat idorasi, an agency that had been established by the Giyohvandlikka qarshi 1988 yilgi qonun. Like Bennett, Bush favored an escalation of the federal role in the "giyohvandlikka qarshi kurash ", including the deployment of the Milliy gvardiya to aid local law enforcement.[149]

Kechirasiz

Asosiy maqola: Jorj X.Bush tomonidan afv etilgan odamlar ro'yxati

As other presidents have done, Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office. On December 24, 1992, he granted executive clemency to six former government employees implicated in the Eron-Kontra ishi of the late 1980s, most prominently former Secretary of Defense Kaspar Vaynberger.[150] Bush described Weinberger, who was scheduled to stand trial on January 5, 1993, for criminal charges related to Iran-Contra, as a "true American patriot".[150] In addition to Weinberger, Bush pardoned Duane R. Clarridge, Clair E. George, Robert C. McFarlane, Elliott Abrams va Alan Firs, all of whom had been indicted and/or convicted of criminal charges by an Mustaqil maslahatchi boshchiligidagi Lourens Uolsh.[151] The pardons effectively brought an end to Walsh's investigation of the Iran-Contra scandal.[152]

Elections during the Bush presidency

Republican seats in Congress
KongressSenatUy
101-chi[a]45175
102-chi44167
103-chi[a]43176

1990 mid-term elections

Asosiy maqola: 1990 yil AQSh saylovlari

1992 re-election campaign

Asosiy maqola: 1992 yil AQSh prezident saylovi
Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: 1992 yil AQSh saylovlari, 1992 yil Respublikachilar partiyasi prezidentlik saylovlari va 1992 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani
Demokrat Bill Klinton defeated Bush in the 1992 presidential election

Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, Bush's reelection initially looked likely.[153] Many pundits believed that Democrats were unlikely even to improve on Dukakis's 1988 showing. As a result, many leading Democrats, including Mario Kuomo, Dik Gefardt va Al Gor, declined to seek their party's presidential nomination.[154] However, Bush's tax increase had angered many conservatives, and he faced a challenge from the right in the 1992 yil respublika boshlang'ich saylovlari.[155] Conservative political columnist Pat Byukenen rallied the party's right-wing with attacks on Bush's flip-flop on taxes and his support for the Civil Rights Act of 1991.[156] Buchanan shocked observers by finishing a strong second in the New Hampshire Republican presidential primary.[157] Bush fended off Buchanan's challenge and won his party's nomination at the 1992 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, but the convention adopted a socially conservative platform strongly influenced by the Xristianlarning huquqi.[158]

As the economy grew worse and Bush's approval ratings declined, several Democrats decided to enter the 1992 Democratic primaries. Sobiq senator Pol Tsongas of Massachusetts won the New Hampshire primary, but Democratic Governor Bill Klinton of Arkansas emerged as the Democratic front-runner. A moderate who was affiliated with the Demokratik etakchilik kengashi (DLC), Clinton favored welfare reform, deficit reduction, and a tax cut for the middle class. Clinton withstood attacks on his personal conduct and defeated Tsongas, former California Governor Jerri Braun, and other candidates to win the Democratic nomination. Clinton selected Senator Al Gore of Tennessee, a fellow Southerner and bolalar boomeri, uning sherigi sifatida.[159] Polling taken shortly after the Democratic convention showed Clinton with a twenty-point lead.[160] Clinton focused his campaign on the economy, attacking the policies of Reagan and Bush.[161]

In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility.[162] Perot later bowed out of the race for a short time, then reentered.[163] Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses.[164] Perot dropped out of the race in July 1992, but rejoined the race in early October.[165]

Lost re-election and transition period

Clinton won the election, taking 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5 percent of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes.[166] Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls.[167] Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 yilgi saylov. Bush won a majority of the Southern states and also carried most of the Tog 'shtatlari va Tekisliklar davlatlar. In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate.[168]

Several factors were important in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either "not so good" or "poor".[169][170] On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984.[171] Bush's re-election campaign, which could no longer rely on Lee Atwater due to Atwater's death in 1991, may have been less effective than the 1988 Bush campaign.[172] The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party.[173]

Baholash va meros

Bush's approval ratings (red) compared to his disapproval ratings (blue) for his four-year presidency.

Bush was widely seen as a "pragmatic caretaker" president who lacked a unified and compelling long-term theme in his efforts.[174][175][176] Indeed, Bush's tovush ısırığı where he refers to the issue of overarching purpose as "the vision thing" has become a metonim applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties.[177][178][179] Facing a Democratic Congress and a large budget deficit, Bush focused much of his attention on foreign affairs.[180] His ability to gain broad international support for the Ko'rfaz urushi and the war's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph,[18] rousing bipartisan approval,[181] though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Xuseyn left mixed feelings, and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy.[182] Orasida 1990-yillarning boshlarida tanazzul, his image shifted from "conquering hero" to "politician befuddled by economic matters".[183][184]

Despite his defeat, Bush climbed back from low election day approval ratings to leave office in 1993 with a 56% job approval rating.[185] Bush's oldest son, George W. Bush, served as the country's 43rd president from 2001 to 2009. The Bushes were the second father and son pair to serve as president, following Jon Adams va Jon Kvinsi Adams.[186] By December 2008, 60% of Americans gave George H. W. Bush's presidency a positive rating.[187] In the 2010s, Bush was fondly remembered for his willingness to compromise, which contrasted with the intensely partisan era that followed his presidency.[188] Tarixchilar va siyosatshunoslarning so'rovlari umuman olganda tartiblangan Bush as an average president. 2018 yilgi so'rovnoma Amerika siyosiy fanlar assotsiatsiyasi ’s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 17th best president.[189] 2017 yil C-oralig'i poll of historians ranked Bush as the 20th best president.[190]

Richard Rose described Bush as a "guardian" president, and many other historians and political scientists have similarly described Bush as a passive, hands-off president who was "largely content with things as they were".[191] Historian John Robert Greene notes, however, that Bush's frequent threat of a veto allowed him to influence legislation.[192] Bush is widely regarded as a realist in international relations; Scowcroft labeled Bush as a practitioner of "enlightened realism". Greene argues that the Bush administration's handling of international issues was characterized by a "flexible response to events" influenced by Nixon's realism and Reagan's idealism.[193]

Evaluation of his foreign policy

According to Roger Harrison in reviewing Sparrow's biography of Scowcroft:

What the Bush administration achieved in its four years, as Sparrow reminds us, is perhaps without parallel in any similar period of our history: the peaceful demise of the Soviet Union and the emergence of independent states from what had been its empire, the reunification of Germany and its integration within NATO, and the creation of a broad coalition that expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait and crippled Iraq as a disruptive force in the Middle East. None of this was preordained, and much might have gone wrong without the adept diplomacy and level-headed policy of President Bush and his aides.[194]

David Rothkopf argues:

In the recent history of U.S. foreign policy, there has been no president, nor any president’s team, who, when confronted with profound international change and challenges, responded with such a thoughtful and well-managed foreign policy....[the Bush administration was] a bridge over one of the great fault lines of history [that] ushered in a ‘new world order’ it described with great skill and professionalism.”[195]

Maykl Beschloss va Strob Talbott praise Bush's handling of the USSR, especially how he prodded Gorbachev in terms of releasing control over the satellites and permitting German unification--and especially a united Germany in NATO. However Bush had an exaggerated view of Gorbachev as the best leader of a new Russia, and missed the more important role of Boris Yeltsin as the true spokesman for public opinion in Russia in its disdain for Gorbachev and his unyielding devotion to Communism.[196]

Endryu Bacevich judges the Bush administration was “morally obtuse” in the light of its “business-as-usual” attitude towards China after the massacre in Tiananmen Square and the uncritical support of Gorbachev as the Soviet Union disintegrated.[197]

Summing up assessments of Bush's presidency, Knott writes:

George Herbert Walker Bush came into the presidency as one of the most qualified candidates to assume the office. He had a long career in both domestic politics and foreign affairs, knew the government bureaucracy, and had eight years of hands-on training as vice president. Still, if presidential success is determined by winning reelection, Bush was unsuccessful because he failed to convince the American public to give him another four years in office. Generally the Bush presidency is viewed as successful in foreign affairs but a disappointment in domestic affairs. In the minds of voters, his achievements in foreign policy were not enough to overshadow the economic recession, and in 1992, the American public voted for change.[180]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ The 1988 presidential election remains the only presidential election since 1948 in which either party won a third consecutive term.[16]
  1. ^ a b A small portion of the 101st Congress (January 3, 1989 – January 19, 1989) took place under President Reagan, and only a small portion of the 103rd Congress (January 3, 1993 – January 19, 1993) took place during Bush's single term.

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Bibliografiya

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Jorj H. V. Bush § Qo'shimcha o'qish

Birlamchi manbalar

  • Beyker, Jeyms A. Diplomatiya siyosati: inqilob, urush va tinchlik, 1989-1992 yillar. (1995)
  • Bush, Jorj H. V. va Brent Skoukroft. Dunyo o'zgargan (2011).
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  • Pauell, Kolin L. va Jozef Persiko. Mening Amerika sayohatim: Avtobiografiya (2003) parcha
  • Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidentlarining ommaviy hujjatlari: Jorj Bush 1989 y (1989) qarz olish uchun onlayn ravishda bepul