Jon Sherman - John Sherman

Jon Sherman ismli boshqa odamlar uchun qarang Jon Sherman (ajralish).

Jon Sherman
John-Sherman-2.jpg
35-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari davlat kotibi
Ofisda
1897 yil 6 mart - 1898 yil 27 aprel
PrezidentUilyam Makkinli
OldingiRichard Olney
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam R. Day
Senatning respublika konferentsiyasining raisi
Ofisda
1884 yil 2 sentyabr - 1885 yil dekabr
OldingiGenri B. Entoni
MuvaffaqiyatliJorj F. Edmunds
Ofisda
1891 yil dekabr - 1897 yil 4 mart
OldingiJorj F. Edmunds
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam B. Allison
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Senatining tempore prezidenti
Ofisda
1885 yil 7 dekabr - 1887 yil 26 fevral
OldingiJorj F. Edmunds
MuvaffaqiyatliJon Jeyms Ingalls
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari senatori
dan Ogayo shtati
Ofisda
1881 yil 4 mart - 1897 yil 4 mart
OldingiAllen G. Turman
MuvaffaqiyatliMark Xanna
Ofisda
1861 yil 21 mart - 1877 yil 8 mart
OldingiSalmon P. Chase
MuvaffaqiyatliStenli Metyus
32-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari G'aznachilik kotibi
Ofisda
1877 yil 10 mart - 1881 yil 3 mart
PrezidentRezerford B. Xeyz
OldingiLot M. Morrill
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam Vindom
A'zosi AQSh Vakillar palatasi
dan Ogayo shtati "s 13-chi tuman
Ofisda
1855 yil 4 mart - 1861 yil 21 mart
OldingiUilyam D. Lindsli
MuvaffaqiyatliSemyuel T. Vorester
Shaxsiy ma'lumotlar
Tug'ilgan(1823-05-10)1823 yil 10-may
Lankaster (Ogayo shtati), BIZ.
O'ldi1900 yil 22 oktyabr(1900-10-22) (77 yosh)
Vashington, Kolumbiya, BIZ.
Siyosiy partiyaWhig (1854 yilgacha)
Muxolifatchi (1854–1858)
Respublika (1858–1900)
Turmush o'rtoqlarMargaret Styuart
Imzo

Jon Sherman (1823 yil 10-may - 1900 yil 22-oktabr) AQSh shtatidan bo'lgan siyosatchi edi Ogayo shtati davomida Amerika fuqarolar urushi va o'n to'qqizinchi asrning oxiriga kelib. A'zosi Respublika partiyasi, u ikkala uyda ham xizmat qilgan AQSh Kongressi. U shuningdek xizmat qilgan G'aznachilik kotibi va Davlat kotibi. Sherman Respublikachilar partiyasidan prezidentlikka nomzodni uch marta qidirib topdi va eng yaqinlashdi 1888, lekin hech qachon partiya tomonidan tanlanmagan. Uning akalari ham kiritilgan Umumiy Uilyam Tekumseh Sherman; Charlz Teylor Sherman, Ogayo shtatidagi federal sudya; va Xoyt Sherman, Ayova shtatidagi bankir.

Tug'ilgan Lankaster (Ogayo shtati), Sherman keyinchalik ko'chib o'tdi Mensfild, u erda siyosatga kirishdan oldin yuridik faoliyatini boshladi. Dastlab a Whig, Sherman ular orasida edi qullikka qarshi kurash Respublikachilar partiyasini tashkil etgan faollar. Vakillar palatasida uch muddat ishlagan. Uyning a'zosi sifatida Sherman sayohat qildi Kanzas tergov qilish notinchlik u erdagi qullikka qarshi tarafdorlar va partizanlar o'rtasida. U partiya rahbarligida ko'tarilib, deyarli saylandi Spiker yilda 1859. Sherman Senatda ko'tarilgan 1861. Senator sifatida u moliyaviy masalalarda etakchi bo'lib, Qo'shma Shtatlarni qayta tuzishda yordam berdi. pul tizimi fuqarolar urushi tufayli parchalanib ketgan xalqning ehtiyojlarini qondirish. Urushdan keyin u chet elda millatning kreditini tiklaydigan va barqaror ishlab chiqaradigan qonunchilikni ishlab chiqishda ishladi, oltin bilan ta'minlangan valyuta uyda.

Ma'muriyatida G'aznachilik kotibi sifatida xizmat qilish Rezerford B. Xeyz, Sherman moliyaviy barqarorlik va to'lov qobiliyati uchun sa'y-harakatlarini davom ettirdi, urush davrining tugashini nazorat qildi inflyatsion chora-tadbirlar va oltin bilan ta'minlangan pulga qaytish. Muddati tugaganidan keyin u Senatga yana o'n olti yil xizmat qilib qaytdi. Shu vaqt ichida u moliyaviy qonunchilik, shuningdek qonunlarni yozish va muhokama qilish bo'yicha ishlarini davom ettirdi immigratsiya, biznes raqobati to'g'risidagi qonun va tartibga solish davlatlararo savdo. Sherman ning asosiy muallifi edi Sherman antitrestlik qonuni 1890 yil Prezident tomonidan imzolangan Benjamin Xarrison. 1897 yilda Prezident Uilyam Makkinli uni davlat kotibi etib tayinladi. Sog'lig'i yomonlashishi va fakultetlarning pasayishi uni ishning og'irligini ko'tara olmadi va 1898 yilda ish boshida nafaqaga chiqdi. Ispaniya-Amerika urushi. Sherman o'z uyida vafot etdi Vashington, Kolumbiya 1900 yilda.

Dastlabki hayot va ta'lim

Sherman 19 yoshda

Sherman tug'ilgan Lankaster (Ogayo shtati), ga Charlz Robert Sherman va uning rafiqasi Meri Xoyt Sherman, 11 farzandining sakkizinchisi.[1] Jon Shermanning bobosi, Teylor Sherman, Konnektikut advokati va sudyasi, birinchi bo'lib o'n to'qqizinchi asrning boshlarida Ogayo shtatiga tashrif buyurib, Konnektikutga qaytishdan oldin bir nechta er uchastkalariga egalik huquqini qo'lga kiritdi.[2] 1815 yilda Teylor vafot etganidan so'ng, uning o'g'li Charlz, Meri Xoytga yangi uylangan, oilani g'arbiy tomon Ogayo shtatiga ko'chirgan.[2] Tez orada Shermanning yana bir necha qarindoshlari ergashdilar va Charlz Lankasterda advokat sifatida tanildi.[2] Jon Sherman tug'ilgan paytga kelib, Charlz sudyalar sudyasi etib tayinlangan edi Ogayo shtati Oliy sudi.[3]

Shermanning otasi 1829 yilda to'satdan vafot etdi va onasini 11 bolani boqish uchun qoldirdi.[4] Eng katta bolalarning bir nechtasi, shu jumladan Shermanning akasi Uilyam, yaqin qarindoshlari tomonidan tarbiyalangan, ammo Jon va uning ukasi Xoyt onasi bilan Lankasterda 1831 yilgacha bo'lgan.[4] O'sha yili Shermanning otasining amakivachchasi (u ham Jon Sherman deb nomlangan) Shermanni uyiga olib kirdi Vernon tog'i, Ogayo shtati, u maktabga yozilgan. Ikkinchisi Jon Sherman ism-shariflari u erda o'qishga tayyor bo'lguncha u erda o'qishni niyat qilgan Kenyon kolleji, lekin Sherman maktabni yoqtirmasdi va o'z so'zlari bilan aytganda "bezovta qiluvchi bola" edi.[5] 1835 yilda u qaytib keldi onasining uyi Lankasterda.[6] Sherman u erda mahalliy akademiyada o'qishni davom ettirdi, u erda o'qituvchiga musht tushirgani uchun qisqa muddat haydab chiqarilganidan keyin u ikki yil o'qidi.[7]

Margaret Sesiliya Styuart

1837 yilda Sherman maktabni tark etdi va kichik yoshdagi ish topdi o'lchovchi ga yaxshilanishlarni qurish to'g'risida Muskingum daryosi.[8] Chunki u bu ishni qo'lga kiritgan Whig partiyasi homiylik, saylov a Demokratik gubernator 1838 yilda Sherman va uning boshqa tadqiqot guruhi 1839 yil iyun oyida ishdan bo'shatilganligini anglatadi.[8] Keyingi yil u ko'chib keldi Mensfild ga huquqni o'rganish akasining idorasida, Charlz Teylor Sherman.[9] U qabul qilindi bar 1844 yilda va akasining firmasiga qo'shildi.[10] Sherman huquqshunoslik amaliyotida tezda muvaffaqiyat qozondi va 1847 yilga kelib 10000 AQSh dollarilik mol-mulk to'pladi va bir nechta mahalliy korxonalarda sherik bo'ldi.[11] O'sha paytga kelib, Sherman va uning akasi Charlz onalari va ikkita turmushga chiqmagan opa-singillarini boqishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi, ular endi Shermanning Mensfilddan sotib olgan uyiga ko'chib ketishdi.[12] 1848 yilda Sherman mahalliy sudyaning qizi Margaret Sesiliya Styuartga uylandi.[13] Er-xotin hech qachon biologik farzand ko'rmagan, ammo 1864 yilda Maryam ismli qizni asrab olgan.[13]

Xuddi shu davrda Sherman siyosatda katta rol o'ynay boshladi. 1844 yilda u o'sha yili Whig prezidentligiga nomzod nomidan siyosiy mitingda nutq so'zlagan, Genri Kley.[14] To'rt yil o'tib, Sherman The delegatsiyasi bo'ldi Whig milliy konventsiyasi qaerda yakuniy g'olib Zakari Teylor nomzodi ko'rsatildi[14] Ko'pgina konservativ Whigs singari, Sherman ham qo'llab-quvvatladi 1850 yilgi murosaga kelish tobora o'sib boruvchi qismlarga bo'linishning eng yaxshi echimi sifatida.[15] 1852 yilda Sherman yana delegatning vakili bo'ldi Whig milliy konventsiyasi, u erda u nomzodni qo'llab-quvvatladi, Uinfild Skott, raqiblarga qarshi Daniel Uebster va amaldagi prezident Millard Fillmor, Teylorning o'limidan keyin prezident bo'lgan.[14]

Vakillar palatasi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Jon Shermanning saylov tarixi

Sherman shimol tomonga harakat qildi Klivlend 1853 yilda u erda ikkita sherigi bilan yuridik idorasini tashkil etdi.[16] Tez orada voqealar Shermanning yangi yuridik firma tuzish rejalarini to'xtatdi Kanzas-Nebraska qonuni 1854 yilda uni (va boshqa ko'plab qullikka qarshi shimoliylarni) siyosatda ko'proq ishtirok etishga ilhomlantirdi. Ushbu qonun, Illinoys Demokratining ishi Stiven A. Duglas, ismli ikkitasini ochdi hududlar qullikka, yashirincha bekor qilish Missuri murosasi 1820 yil[17] Qarorni mahalliy ko'chmanchilarga o'tkazish orqali qullik to'g'risida jimgina milliy qo'zg'alishni maqsad qilgan Duglas qonuni shimolda qullikning o'ttiz yil davomida erkin tuproq sifatida saqlanib qolgan hududlarga kengayish imkoniyatini berib, qullikka qarshi kayfiyatni kuchaytirdi.[17] Qonun qabul qilinganidan ikki oy o'tgach, Sherman nomzod bo'ldi Ogayo shtatining 13-kongress okrugi.[18] Mahalliy anjuman Shermanni boshqa ikki nomzod ustidan ilgari nomlangan nomzodni ilgari surdi Muxolifat partiyasi (keyinroq bo'lish Respublika partiyasi ). Yangi partiya, birlashma Bepul tuproqlar, Whigs va qullikka qarshi demokratlar ko'plab kelishmovchiliklarga ega edilar va sobiq guruhning ba'zilari Shermanni qullik masalasida juda konservativ deb o'ylashadi.[18] Shunga qaramay, ular uni amaldagi demokratga qarshi qo'llab-quvvatladilar, Uilyam D. Lindsli. O'sha yili Ogayo shtati bo'ylab demokratlar mag'lubiyatga uchradi va Sherman 2823 ovoz bilan saylandi.[19]

Kongress a'zosi Jon Sherman

Kanzas o'lkasi

Qachon Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining 34-kongressi 1855 yil dekabrda chaqirilgan,[a] Demokratik Prezidentga qarshi bo'lgan a'zolar Franklin Pirs (ularning aksariyati shimolliklar) palatada ko'pchilikni, demokratlar esa senatda ko'pchilikni saqlab qolishdi. Ammo bu palataning aksariyati to'liq birlashtirilmagan edi, ayrim a'zolari yangi Nebraska partiyasiga, boshqalari esa yangi nativistga sodiq edilar. Amerika (yoki "Hech narsa bilmaslik") ziyofati. Know Nothings ham tarqoq edi, ularning ba'zilari sobiq Whiglar va ba'zilari sobiq Erkin Tuproqchilar edi.[20] Natijada ikki oy davomida Spikerni saylay olmaydigan uy paydo bo'ldi. Ular nihoyat saylov to'g'risida kelishib olganlarida Nataniel Banks Massachusets shtatidan uy tezda Kanzas masalasiga murojaat qildi.[21] Oldini olish Kanzasga qullikning kengayishi Banklarning zaif ko'pchiligini birlashtirgan bitta masala edi va Palata ushbu hududdagi vaziyatni tekshirish uchun uchta a'zoni yuborishga qaror qildi; Sherman tanlangan uch kishidan biri edi.[22]

Sherman ushbu hududda ikki oy yashagan va 1856 yil aprelida qaytib kelganlarida u erda shartlar bilan yozilgan 1188 betlik hisobotning asosiy muallifi bo'lgan.[23] Hisobotda ma'muriyatga qarshi a'zolarning nimadan qo'rqayotganliklari tushuntirildi: mahalliy nazorat tamoyili jiddiy buzilayotganligi messuriyaliklarning bosqini u erda yashashni xohlamagan bo'lsa-da, zo'rlik ishlatib, Kansanlarni qullik tarafdorlarini hududiy qonunchilik organiga saylashga majbur qildi.[24] Uy hisobotlar bo'yicha hech qanday choralar ko'rmadi, ammo ular saylov kampaniyasi hujjatlari sifatida keng tarqatildi.[25] O'sha iyul oyida Sherman armiyani ajratish to'g'risidagi aktni Kanzas hududiy qonun chiqaruvchi organining qonunlarini bajarish uchun federal qo'shinlardan foydalanishni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi tuzatishni taklif qildi.[26] Tuzatish palatadan ozgina o'tib ketdi, ammo Senat tomonidan olib tashlandi; oxir-oqibat palataning o'zgarishiga rozi bo'ldi.[26] Ammo bu mag'lubiyatga qaramay, Sherman birinchi kurs vakili uchun katta e'tiborga sazovor bo'ldi.[26]

Lekompton va moliyaviy islohot

Sherman 1856 yilda Demokratik raqibini mag'lubiyatga uchratib, qayta saylandi. Herman J. Brumbak, 2861 ovoz bilan.[27] Respublikachilar partiyasidan prezidentlikka nomzod, Jon C. Front, Ogayo shtatini olib bordi milliy ovozni yo'qotish demokratga, Jeyms Byukenen. Qachon 35-kongress 1857 yil dekabrda yig'ilgan Nebraska qarshi koalitsiyasi - hozirda rasmiy ravishda respublikachilar - Palatani boshqarish huquqidan mahrum bo'lishdi va Sherman ozchilikni tashkil qildi.[28] O'tgan yili bo'lim inqirozi yanada chuqurlashdi. 1857 yil mart oyida Oliy sud o'z qarorini chiqardi Dred Skott va Sandford Kongress hududlarda qullikning oldini olish uchun hech qanday kuchga ega emasligini va ozodlik yoki qullik bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, qora tanlilar Qo'shma Shtatlar fuqarosi bo'la olmasligini ta'kidladi.[29] O'sha yilning dekabrida erkin shtat partizanlari tomonidan boykot qilingan saylovlarda Kanzas qullikni qo'llab-quvvatladi Lekompton konstitutsiyasi va quldor davlat sifatida qabul qilish to'g'risida Kongressga murojaat qildi.[30] Byukenen Kongress bu masalani ko'rib chiqishga chaqirdi va Senat Kanzasni qabul qilish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasini ma'qulladi.[31] Sherman Palatadagi Kanzas qonun loyihasiga qarshi chiqib, u yerdagi saylovlarda soxtalashtirilganlik dalillariga ishora qildi.[31] Shimoliy demokratlarning ba'zilari ushbu tadbirni engish uchun bir ovozdan respublikachilar guruhiga qo'shilishdi.[30] Kongress Lekompton konstitutsiyasi bo'yicha navbatdagi referendumdan so'ng Kanzas qabul qilinadigan kelishuv choralariga rozi bo'ldi.[31] Saylovchilar qullikni rad etishdi va hudud bo'lib qolishdi, keyinchalik Sherman bu qarorni "qullik nizosining burilish nuqtasi" deb ataydi.[32]

Shermanning ikkinchi davri, shuningdek Kongressda mamlakatning moliyaviy ahvoliga zarar etkazgan birinchi chiqishlarini ko'rdi 1857 yilgi vahima.[33] Kamaytirilgan daromadlar nuqtai nazaridan keraksiz xarajatlarni kamaytirish zarurligini aytib, Sherman, ayniqsa janubiy senatorlarni Vakillar palatasiga mablag 'qo'shganligi uchun tanqid qildi.[33] Uning nutqi diqqatni tortdi va Shermanning uzoq siyosiy faoliyati davomida davom etadigan moliyaviy masalalarga e'tiborini qaratdi.[34]

Uy rahbariyati

Sherman bilan ishlagan Jastin Smit Morril 1860 yilda tarif qonunchiligini qabul qilish.

Saylovchilar Shermanni 1858 yilda uchinchi muddatga o'z lavozimiga qaytarishdi.[35] 1859 yil mart oyida bo'lib o'tgan qisqa maxsus sessiyadan so'ng 36-kongress tanaffusni to'xtatdi va Sherman va uning rafiqasi Evropaga ta'tilga chiqishdi.[36] O'sha dekabrga qaytib kelishganida, vaziyat to'rt yil oldingi holatga o'xshash edi: hech bir partiyada mutlaq ko'pchilik bo'lmagan. Respublikachilar 109, Demokratlar 101 va ularning kombinatsiyasiga ega edilar Muxolifatchilar va Nothingsni biling 27.[b][37][38] Shunga qaramay, Kongress ta'tilda bo'lganida, bu safar tufayli qismli keskinlik oshdi Jon Braun "s Virjiniya shtatidagi Harpers Ferriga reyd.[38] Palata Spikeri uchun saylov munozarali o'tishini va'da qildi.[37] Bu safar Sherman etakchi nomzodlar qatoriga kirdi, birinchi saylov byulletenida ikkinchi o'rinni egalladi, hech bir nomzod ko'pchilik ovozini olmadi.[39] Spikerlik saylovi qullikka qarshi kitob tufayli g'azab bilan darhol chetlab o'tildi, Janubning yaqinlashib kelayotgan inqirozi, tomonidan yozilgan Hinton Rowan yordamchisi va ko'plab respublika a'zolari tomonidan ma'qullangan.[40] Janubliklar Shermanni kitobni ma'qullaganlikda aybladilar, u esa u faqat uni tashviqot vositasi sifatida foydalanishni ma'qullaganiga va uni hech qachon o'qimaganiga e'tiroz bildirdi.[41] Ikki oylik ovoz berishdan so'ng biron qarorga kelinmadi.[42] Ko'plik qoidasini qabul qilishga urinishlari muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganidan so'ng, Sherman u saylana olmasligini qabul qildi va orqaga qaytdi.[42] Shundan keyin respublikachilar qo'llab-quvvatlashga o'tishdi Uilyam Pennington, qirq to'rtinchi byulletenda saylangan.[43]

Pennington Shermanni rais sifatida ishlashni tayinladi Yo'llar va vositalar qo'mitasi, bu erda u ko'p vaqtini hamkasbi bilan hamkorlik qilib, mablag 'ajratmalariga sarf qildi Jastin Smit Morril nomi bilan tanilgan narsaning o'tish joyida Morril tariflari.[44] Morrill tarifi ko'tarildi vazifalar Daromadlarning pasayishi natijasida yuzaga kelgan defitsitni yopish uchun import bo'yicha.[45] Bu, shuningdek, respublika partiyasidagi sobiq vigilarga murojaat qilgan mahalliy sanoatni rag'batlantirish ta'siriga ega edi.[45] Sherman qonun loyihasini ma'qulladi va u 105 ovoz bilan 64 ga qarshi ovoz bilan palatadan o'tdi.[45] Tariflar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi, ehtimol Senatda vafot etgan bo'lar edi, ammo fuqarolar urushi boshlanganda janubiy a'zolarning chekinishi, bunga yo'l qo'ydi dumg'aza Senatni qonunni 36-kongressning yakuniy sessiyasida qabul qilish uchun Senat va Prezident Byukenen 1861 yil fevralda uni imzoladi.[45] Xuddi shu tarzda, Sherman Kanzasni 1861 yilda qabul qilingan erkin davlat sifatida qabul qilish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasini qo'llab-quvvatladi.[46]

Sherman 1860 yilda Kongressga nomzod qilib ko'rsatilgan va faol bo'lgan Avraam Linkoln bir nechta shtatlarda uning nomidan nutq so'zlab, Prezident uchun saylov kampaniyasi.[47] Ikkalasi ham saylandi, Sherman raqibini mag'lub etdi, Barnabas Berns, 2.864 ovoz bilan. U Vashingtonga qaytib keldi oqsoq o'rdak seansi 36-Kongressning. 1861 yil fevralga qadar Linkolnning saylanishiga etti shtat munosabat bildirdi ajratish ittifoqdan. Bunga javoban Kongress Vakil tomonidan taklif qilingan konstitutsiyaga o'zgartirish kiritdi Tomas Korvin Ogayo shtati.[48] Bugungi kunda Korvinni o'zgartirish, Ittifoqdagi qolgan qullik davlatlarini saqlab qolish va ajratilgan davlatlarni qaytishga majbur qilish uchun murosaga kelish uchun qilingan urinish edi.[49] Korvin qonunchiligi saqlanib qolgan bo'lar edi joriy vaziyat qullik to'g'risida va shtatlarda qullikka aralashish uchun Kongress vakolatini beradigan kelgusida tuzatishni taqiqladi.[49] Sherman Kongressning har ikki palatasidan o'tgan va ratifikatsiya qilish uchun shtatlarga yuborilgan tuzatish uchun ovoz berdi.[50] Uni ozgina shtatlar ratifikatsiya qilgan va uning o'tishi O'n uchinchi tuzatish 1865 yilda qullikni bekor qilib, murosaga kelish choralarini ko'rdi.

Senat

Linkoln 1861 yil 4 martda ish boshlagan. Uning birinchi harakatlari orasida senator nomzodi ko'rsatilgan Salmon P. Chase Ogayo shtati bo'lishi kerak G'aznachilik kotibi. Chase 7 mart kuni Senatdagi lavozimidan iste'foga chiqdi va ikki hafta davom etgan qarorsiz ovoz berish natijasida Ogayo qonun chiqaruvchisi bo'sh turgan o'ringa Shermanni sayladi.[c][51] Senat chaqirilgandek, u 1861 yil 23 martda o'z o'rnini egalladi maxsus sessiya ajralib chiqish inqirozi bilan shug'ullanish.[52] Boshida yig'ilgan Senat 37-kongress birinchi marta respublikachilar ko'pchiligiga ega edi, aksariyat janubiy a'zolar iste'foga chiqarilishi yoki chiqarib yuborilishi bilan o'sdi.[53] Aprel oyida Shermanning ukasi Uilyam armiyaga qo'shilish uchun Vashingtonga tashrif buyurdi va aka-ukalar Linkoln bilan uchrashish uchun birgalikda Oq uyga borishdi.[54] Tez orada Linkoln 75000 kishini isyonni bostirish uchun uch oyga chaqirishga chaqirdi, bu Uilyam Sherman juda oz va juda qisqa muddat deb o'ylagan.[54] Uilyamning urush haqidagi fikrlari uning akasiga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi va Jon Sherman harbiy xizmatga chaqirishni rag'batlantirish uchun Ogayo shtatiga qaytib keldi va qisqa vaqt ichida to'lanmagan bo'lib xizmat qildi. polkovnik Ogayo ko'ngillilari.[55]

Fuqarolar urushini moliyalashtirish

A Talab eslatmasi (tepada) va a Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari eslatmasi (pastki)

The Fuqarolar urushi xarajatlar tezda hukumatning allaqachon zaif bo'lgan moliyaviy ahvolini va Shermanga tayinlangan Senatning moliya qo'mitasi, daromadni oshirish jarayonida ishtirok etgan.[56] 1861 yil iyulda Kongress hukumatga chiqarishga vakolat berdi Talab eslatmalari, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari hukumati tomonidan chiqarilgan qog'oz pullarning birinchi shakli.[57] Eslatmalar qotishmalarda ishlatilishi mumkin edi (ya'ni, oltin yoki kumush tanga), lekin Shermanning esdaliklarida ta'kidlaganidek, ular daromadlar muammosini hal qilmaganlar, chunki hukumatda ularning hammasi to'lov uchun taqdim etilishi kerak bo'lsa, notalarni qaytarib beradigan tanga yo'q edi.[58] Ushbu muammoni hal qilish uchun Chase so'radi va Kongress 150 million dollar chiqarishga ruxsat berdi obligatsiyalar, bu (banklar ularni oltin bilan sotib olgani kabi) xazinani to'ldirgan.[57] Kongress shuningdek, ular o'tganidan keyin daromadni oshirishga intildi 1861 yilgi daromad to'g'risidagi qonun, bu birinchi federalni tayinlagan daromad solig'i Amerika tarixida. Sherman ushbu chorani ma'qulladi va hattoki Qonunda belgilangan soliqqa nisbatan yuqori soliqni (800 AQSh dollaridan yuqori daromadga nisbatan 3%) qo'llab-quvvatladi va daromadni qarz olishdan ko'ra soliq solish yo'li bilan oshirishni afzal ko'rdi.[59][d] Avgust oyida maxsus sessiya yopildi va Sherman yana harbiy xizmatga chaqirish uchun Mensfildga uyiga qaytdi.[61]

Kongress Vashingtonga 1861 yil dekabrda qaytib kelganida, Sherman va Moliya qo'mitasi urush oqibatida kelib chiqqan chuqurlashib borayotgan moliyaviy inqirozni bartaraf etishga urinishlarini davom ettirdilar. Moliyaviy ahvol yomonlashishda davom etdi, natijada o'sha oy banklarda turlarni to'lashni to'xtatib qo'yishdi, ya'ni ular o'z mablag'larini qaytarishdan bosh tortdilar. banknotalar oltin uchun.[62] Oltin muomaladan yo'qolishni boshladi.[63] 500 ming askar dalada bo'lganida, hukumat o'sha paytlarda eshitilmagan summani kuniga 2 million dollar sarf qilar edi. Sherman "bizning valyutamizga tegishli amaldagi qonunlarga tubdan o'zgartirish kiritilishi kerak, aks holda ... Ittifoqning yo'q qilinishi muqarrar bo'lar edi ..." deb tushundi.[64] Kotib Chayz rozi bo'ldi va buni taklif qildi G'aznachilik boshqarmasi nashr Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari eslatmalari bu turlari emas, balki 6 foizli davlat zayomlari bilan sotib olingan.[62] Xarajatlar "qonuniy pul va barcha qarzlarni to'lashda qonuniy vosita" bo'ladi.[62] Oltin va kumush tangalardan boshqa hech narsa Qo'shma Shtatlarda qonuniy to'lov vositasi bo'lmagan, ammo Kongress urush davri ehtiyojlarini qondirdi va natijada Birinchi qonuniy tanlov to'g'risidagi qonun Palatadan ham, Senatdan ham o'tdi.[e][65] Ushbu Qonunda notalar (keyinchalik "yashil pullar" nomi bilan tanilgan) 150 million dollargacha cheklangan edi, ammo o'sha yili bo'lib o'tgan ikkita Tender Hujjatlari ushbu limitni 450 million dollarga kengaytirdi.[66] Qog'oz pulni qonuniy vositani yaratish g'oyasi munozarali edi va Uilyam Pitt Fessenden Senatning moliya qo'mitasi raisi Meyn ushbu taklifga qarshi chiqqanlar orasida edi.[67] Sherman bu fikrga qo'shilmadi va bu fikrni qo'llab-quvvatladi. U o'z esdaliklarida o'z pozitsiyasini zarurat sifatida himoya qilib, "isyonni bostirishda mamlakat boyliklaridan foydalanish, urush to'lqini bizning foydamizga aylantirilgan vositalar bilan ta'minlangan qonuniy to'lov akti qabul qilinganidan".[67]

Moliya tizimini isloh qilish 1863 yilda davom etishi bilan davom etdi 1863 yildagi Milliy bank to'g'risidagi qonun. Dastlab 1861 yilda Chase tomonidan taklif qilingan va ikki yildan so'ng Sherman tomonidan kiritilgan ushbu Qonun bir qator milliy xartiyali xususiy banklarni yaratdi. banknotalar o'rniga (to'liq bo'lmasa ham) G'aznachilik bilan kelishilgan holda davlat tomonidan ijaraga olingan banklar tizimi keyin mavjudotda.[68] Garchi bevosita maqsad urushni moliyalashtirish bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Milliy bank to'g'risidagi qonun doimiy ravishda ishlab chiqilishi kerak edi va 1913 yilgacha qonun bo'lib qoldi.[69] Milliy bank tizimiga o'tishni rag'batlantirish uchun 1865 yilda qabul qilingan davlat banknotalariga 10% soliq.[68] Sherman Chase bilan chin dildan rozi bo'ldi va davlat banki yo'q qilinishiga umid qildi.[70] Sherman, har bir davlat tomonidan tartibga solish tizimi tartibsiz va zamonaviy millat talab qilishi mumkin bo'lgan qarz olish darajasini osonlashtira olmasligiga ishongan.[71] Shuningdek, u davlat banklari konstitutsiyaga zid deb hisoblagan.[72] Hamma respublikachilar ham Shermanning nuqtai nazariga qo'shilmadilar va Qonun oxir-oqibat Senatdan o'tgach, u tor 23-21 ovoz bilan qabul qilindi.[70] Linkoln qonun loyihasini 1863 yil 25 fevralda imzoladi.[73][f]

Qullik va qayta qurish

Senator Jon Sherman

Sherman moliyaviy masalalardagi rolidan tashqari, urushni olib borish va urushdan keyingi davlatning maqsadlari to'g'risidagi munozaralarda ham qatnashgan. Sherman ovoz berdi 1861 yildagi musodara qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, bu hukumatni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun foydalaniladigan har qanday mulkni musodara qilishga imkon berdi Konfederatsiya urush harakati (shu jumladan qullar) va qilmish uchun Kolumbiya okrugida qullikni bekor qilish.[75] U shuningdek ovoz bergan 1862 yildagi musodara qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, bu qullarga aniqlik kiritdi "musodara qilingan "1861 yil qonuni bo'yicha ozod qilindi.[76] 1864 yilda Sherman ovoz berdi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasiga o'n uchinchi o'zgartirish, qullikni bekor qilish.[77] Bir oz harakatlardan so'ng, Kongressdan o'tdi va keyingi yil shtatlar tomonidan tasdiqlandi.[77]

Sessiya tugagandan so'ng, Sherman Indiana va Ogayo shtatlarida saylov kampaniyasini o'tkazdi Linkolnning qayta saylanishi.[78] 1865 yilda u ishtirok etdi Linkolnning ikkinchi inauguratsiyasi, keyin Jorjia shtatining Savanna shahriga o'z armiyasidan keyin kelgan ukasi Uilyam bilan uchrashish uchun yo'l oldi dengizga yurish.[79] Sherman uyiga aprel oyida Mansfildga qaytib keldi va u erda bilib oldi Linkolnning o'ldirilishi[79] bir necha kundan keyin Taslim bo'lish. U yana Vashingtonda edi Armiyalarning katta sharhi va keyin dekabrga qadar uyga qaytib keldi, qachon 39-kongress yig'ilgan.[80] O'sha yozda va Prezidentning maxsus sessiyasi bo'lmagan Endryu Jonson, Linkolnning vorisi, etakchilikni o'z zimmasiga olgan edi Qayta qurish Fath qilingan Janubning, Kongressda ko'pchilikni hayratda qoldirgan.[81] Sherman va Jonson do'stona munosabatda bo'lishgan va ba'zi kuzatuvchilar Sherman Jonson va partiyaning "Radikal" qanoti o'rtasida aloqa o'rnatuvchi bo'lishi mumkin deb umid qilishgan.[82] Biroq 1866 yil fevralga kelib, Jonson ommaviy ravishda ularga hujum qildi Radikal respublikachilar, isyonchilarni qattiq jazolashni va ozodliklarga yordam berish uchun federal harakatlarni talab qilgan. Keyingi oy Jonson ushbu taklifga veto qo'ydi 1866 yildagi fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi qonun Kongressni juda ko'p sonlar bilan o'tgan.[83] Sherman qonunni Jonsonning vetosi bo'yicha qayta qabul qilishga qo'shildi.[83] O'sha yili Sherman ovoz berdi O'n to'rtinchi o'zgartirish bu qonunlarning erkinlarga teng himoya qilinishini kafolatladi.[84] Bu 1868 yilda qonun bo'ldi.

O'sha paytgacha Jonson o'zini Kongressdagi aksariyat respublikachilarga, shu jumladan Shermanga dushman qildi.[85] Mo''tadil Sherman, uchun ovoz berishda Radikallar tarafini oldi Ofis qonuni muddati 1867 yilda Jonsonning vetosidan o'tgan, ammo munozarada Birinchi qayta qurish to'g'risidagi qonun, u qo'zg'olonda qatnashgan janubiy erkaklar huquqini bekor qilishga qarshi bahs yuritdi.[83] Ushbu qonunni olib tashlash uchun o'zgartirilgan so'nggi qonun loyihasi Jonsonning vetosidan ham o'tdi.[86] Jonson va Kongress o'rtasidagi davom etgan mojaro avjiga chiqdi Jonsonning impichmenti Uy tomonidan 1868 yilda.[84] Senatda o'tkazilgan sud jarayonidan so'ng Sherman hukm qilish uchun ovoz berdi, ammo umumiy ovozlar talab qilingan uchdan ikki qismdan kam bo'lib qoldi va Jonson o'z lavozimida davom etdi.[84] Keyinchalik yozgan Sherman "garchi u Prezidentni shaxsan o'zi yoqtirgan va unga nisbatan boshqalarning xushomadgo'yligi va adovatini yashirmagan" bo'lsa-da, u Jonson "Ofis muddati" to'g'risidagi qonunni buzgan deb hisoblagan va shunga muvofiq uni lavozimidan chetlatishga ovoz bergan.[87]

Bilan Uliss S. Grant Prezidentlikka saylangan 1868 yilda, Kongressning Qayta qurishda ko'proq tayyor sherigi bor edi. The 40-kongress Cho'loq o'rdak sessiyasi o'tdi O'n beshinchi o'zgartirish bu irq tufayli ovoz berish huquqini cheklab bo'lmasligini kafolatlagan; Sherman uning o'tishi uchun ovoz berganlarning uchdan ikki qismiga qo'shildi.[88] The 41-kongress o'tdi 1870 yildagi ijro to'g'risidagi qonun o'zlarining fuqarolik huquqlariga oid tuzatishlarni dushman Janubiy aholi o'rtasida amalga oshirish. Ushbu qonun, tomonidan yozilgan Jon Bingem O'n to'rtinchi tuzatishni aks ettirish uchun Ogayo shtati, boshqa shaxsning konstitutsiyaviy huquqlarini buzganlik uchun jazolarni yaratdi.[88] Keyingi yil Kongress o'tdi Ku-Kluks-Klan to'g'risidagi qonun federal sudlar va federal qo'shinlardan foydalanishga ruxsat berish orqali ijro qonuni kuchaytirildi.[89] Sherman Grant tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan ikkala Qonun uchun ham ovoz berdi.[88]

Urushdan keyingi moliya

Moliyaviy inqiroz pasayib ketganligi sababli, Kongressda ko'pchilik "yashil pullar" muomaladan chiqarilishini xohlashdi.[90] Jamiyat hech qachon "yashil" larga o'xshash ranglarni ko'rmagan edi va 1866 yilga kelib ular sezilarli chegirma bilan muomalada bo'lishdi, garchi ularning qiymati urush tugaganidan beri o'sgan bo'lsa ham.[g][92] Xyu Makkulx, Linkoln va Jonson boshchiligidagi G'aznachilik kotibi, bu yozuvlarni faqat favqulodda choralar deb hisoblashgan va ularni asta-sekin qaytarib olish kerak deb o'ylashgan.[90] Makkullox qonun loyihasini taklif qildi Shartnoma to'g'risidagi qonun, ba'zi bir zaxira pullarni obligatsiyalarda qaytariladigan kupyuralardan tangada qaytariladigan foizli kupyuralarga aylantirish uchun.[92] Senatning moliya qo'mitasining aksariyat a'zolari e'tiroz bildirmadilar va Sherman bunga qarshi o'zini yolg'iz deb topdi, chunki muomaladan yashil pullarni olib qo'yish pul massasini qisqartiradi va iqtisodiyotga zarar etkazadi.[92] Buning o'rniga Sherman mavjud notalarni muomalada qoldirishni va aholi sonining o'sishi pul massasi o'sishiga mos kelishini ma'qul ko'rdi.[93] U hukumatning qarzdorlik xarajatlari kamayganligi sababli, G'aznachilikka past foizli obligatsiyalar uchun yozuvlarni qaytarib olishga imkon beradigan o'zgartirish kiritishni taklif qildi.[92] Shermanning tuzatishlari rad etildi va Shartnoma to'g'risidagi qonun qabul qilindi; "greenbacks" asta-sekin qaytarib olinishi kerak edi, ammo aylanayotgan pullar ilgari bo'lgani kabi yuqori foizli obligatsiyalar uchun qaytarib berilishi mumkin edi.[90] O'zining xotiralarida Sherman ushbu qonunni "Kongress tomonidan qabul qilingan eng zararli va eng qimmat moliyaviy chora" deb atadi, chunki yuqori foizli to'lovlarni davom ettirish talab qilinadigan "foizlarga to'liq 300000000 dollar qo'shilgan". milliy qarz.[94]

Ogayo shtati qonun chiqaruvchisi o'sha yili Shermanni yana olti yillik muddatga sayladi va (Evropada uch oylik ta'tildan so'ng) o'z o'rnini davom ettirganda, u yana "yashil pul" masalasiga murojaat qildi. Yashil pulni jamoatchilik tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlash, ayniqsa, pulni qaytarib olish narxlarni pasayishiga olib keladi deb o'ylagan ishbilarmonlar orasida o'sdi.[95] Vakillar palatasi tomonidan Shartnoma to'g'risidagi qonunga binoan "qora pullarni" iste'foga chiqarish vakolatlarini to'xtatib turuvchi qonun loyihasi qabul qilinganda, Sherman Senatda uni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[95] Senat 33–4 dan o'tdi va 1868 yilda qonun bo'ldi.[95]

Yilda keyingi Kongress, uyni qabul qilgan birinchi qonun loyihalari orasida 1869 yildagi davlat krediti to'g'risidagi qonun, bu esa hukumatdan obligatsiyalar egalariga zbekistonga emas, oltindan to'lashni talab qiladi.[95] 1868 yilgi saylov kampaniyasida Demokratlar zayom egalariga (asosan Ittifoqning urush harakatlari tarafdorlari) qog'ozda pul to'lashni taklif qilishgan edi; Respublikachilar oltini afzal ko'rishdi, chunki obligatsiyalar oltin bilan sotib olindi.[95] Sherman boshqa respublikachilarning fikriga qo'shildi va ular bilan qonun loyihasini 42-13 qabul qilish uchun ovoz berdi.[96] "Sherman" ovozini berganida, "greenback" ning keng tarqalishini qo'llab-quvvatlashni davom ettirdi 1870 yildagi valyuta to'g'risidagi qonun Qo'shma Shtatlarning eslatmalarida qo'shimcha $ 54 mln.[95] Sherman, shuningdek, munozarada qatnashgan 1870 yilgi moliyalashtirish to'g'risidagi qonun. Sherman "ushbu Kongressning eng muhim moliyaviy chorasi" deb atagan "Moliya to'g'risida" gi qonun milliy qarzni qaytarib berdi.[97] Shermanning yozishicha, qonun 1,2 milliard dollarlik past foizli obligatsiyalarni urush paytida chiqarilgan yuqori foizli obligatsiyalarni sotib olishga, Ittifoq g'alabasidan keyin kelib chiqqan tinchlik va xavfsizlik tufayli qarz olish xarajatlarining pastligidan foydalanish uchun foydalanishga ruxsat berdi. .[97] Qonun aniq stavkalar va miqdorlar to'g'risida jiddiy bahs-munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi, ammo kelishmovchiliklar bartaraf etilgandan so'ng, u ikkala palatadagi ko'pchilik tomonidan qabul qilindi.[97] Sherman murosaga kelganidan norozi bo'lsa-da (ayniqsa, zayomlar muddati 30 yilgacha uzaytirildi, bu esa u juda uzoq vaqt ishondi), u qonun loyihasini mavjud sharoitlarni yaxshilash deb bildi va uni qabul qilishga undadi.[97]

1873 yildagi tangalar to'g'risidagi qonun

A kumush dollar Shermanning aytishicha, u hech qachon muomalada ko'rmagan

Ogayo qonun chiqaruvchisi Shermanni 1872 yilda o'sha paytdagi gubernatordan keyin uchinchi muddatga sayladi Rezerford B. Xeyz bir nechta qonun chiqaruvchilarning Shermanga qarshi chiqish taklifini rad etdi.[98] Sherman Moliya qo'mitasi rahbariyatiga qaytdi va yashil pullar, oltin va kumush masalalari keyingi bir necha kongresslarda davom etdi. Respublikaning dastlabki kunlaridanoq Qo'shma Shtatlar ham oltin, ham kumush tangalarni zarb qilar edi va o'nlab yillar davomida ular o'rtasidagi qiymat nisbati qonun bilan 16: 1 darajasida o'rnatilgandi.[99] Ikkala metal ham "erkin tanga" ga bo'ysungan; ya'ni har kim istagan miqdorda kumush yoki oltin olib kelishi mumkin Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari zarbxonasi va u tangaga aylantirilsin.[100] Bu nisbat nomukammal bo'lishi shart edi, chunki qazib olingan oltin va kumush miqdori va unga bo'lgan talab dunyo bo'yicha yildan-yilga o'zgarib turardi; metallning bozor narxi qonuniy narxidan oshib ketganligi sababli, ushbu metalning tangalari muomaladan yo'qoladi (bu hodisa Gresham qonuni ).[100] Fuqarolar urushidan oldin, oltin erkin muomalada bo'lib, kumush g'oyib bo'ldi va kumush dollarlar qonuniy to'lov vositasi bo'lganida, Sherman shunday deb yozgan edi: "Men biznesda ancha faol bo'lganman ... O'sha paytlarda men kumushni ko'rmagan edim dollar ".[101] Ikkala metalning tangalari yangi tijorat qog'ozlari foydasiga xalq tijoratidan g'oyib bo'layotgani sababli, yashil pullarning chiqarilishi oltin-kumush nisbati fonida munozaralarni ikkinchi darajaga surib qo'ydi, ammo tinchlik davrida dollar kuchayib, milliy qarzni to'lash kafolatlandi. Kongress tangalar to'g'risidagi qonunlarni yangilash zarurligini ko'rdi.[102]

Grantning moliya kotibi, Jorj S. Butvell, Shermanga (hozirda Senatning moliya qo'mitasi raisi bo'lgan) nima bo'lishini loyihasini yubordi 1873 yildagi tangalar to'g'risidagi qonun. Yuridik tangalar ro'yxati avvalgi tanga aktining nusxasini takrorlab, faqat kumush dollar va ikkita kichik tanga qoldirgan.[102] Loyiha loyihasi bilan birga bo'lgan G'aznachilik hisobotida keltirilgan mantiqiy asos shundaki, oltin va kumush dollarlarni turli xil ichki qiymatlarga ega zarb qilish muammoli edi; kumush dollar muomalada bo'lmagani va oltin aylantirilgani kabi, ishlatilmagan tangani tushirish mantiqan to'g'ri keldi.[h][104] Keyinchalik qonun loyihasining muxoliflari bu kamchilikni "73-yilgi jinoyat" deb atashadi va buni ma'noda, chet el agentlari tomonidan kongressmenlarning keng miqyosda poraxo'rligi haqidagi rivoyatlar tarqalishini anglatadi.[105] Sherman esdaliklarida ushbu qonun loyihasi bir necha yil davomida ochiq muhokama qilinganligini va har ikkala palatada ham katta qo'llab-quvvatlash bilan o'tganini va shu bilan 16: 1 nisbatda kichikroq kumush tangalarning muomalada bo'lishini hisobga olgan holda, uning raqiblari singari hech narsa "demonetizatsiya qilinmaganligini" ta'kidladi. da'vo qilingan.[104] Kumush hali ham qonuniy to'lov vositasi edi, ammo atigi besh dollargacha. Boshqa tomondan, keyingi olimlar Sherman va boshqalar kumushni yillar davomida demonetizatsiya qilishni va mamlakatni faqat oltin standarti valyuta - bu ba'zi bir buzuq daromad uchun emas, balki ular kuchli va xavfsiz valyutaga yo'l ekanligiga ishonganliklari uchun.[106]

Aslida oltin standart bo'lgan narsaga o'tishda, Qo'shma Shtatlar o'z valyutalarini faqat oltinga asoslangan dunyodagi ko'plab davlatlarga qo'shildi. Ammo buni amalga oshirishda ushbu davlatlar oltinga bo'lgan talabni kumushga nisbatan kuchaytirdilar, bu esa ko'proq kumush qazib olinishi bilan oltinning narxini pasayishiga va kumushning pasayishiga olib keldi.[107] Natija tanga to'g'risidagi qonun qabul qilinganidan keyin darhol sezilmadi, ammo 1879 yilga kelib oltin va kumush narxi o'rtasidagi nisbat 16,4: 1 dan 18,4: 1 gacha ko'tarildi; 1896 yilga kelib bu 30: 1 edi.[107] Pirovard natijada oltin qimmatroq bo'lib, bu boshqa tovarlarga narxlarning pasayishi va deflyatsiyani anglatadi.[108] Deflyatsiya ta'sirini qildi 1873 yilgi vahima yomoni, valyuta unchalik qadrli bo'lmagan paytda qarzdorlarga shartnoma tuzgan qarzlarini to'lashni qimmatlashtirmoqda.[109] Dehqonlar va mardikorlar, ayniqsa, pullarning ko'payishi ish haqi va mulk qiymatlarini tiklaydi, deb hisoblaydilar va kumushga qarshi kuchlar o'rtasidagi bo'linma keyingi o'n yilliklarda o'sib boradi.[110] 1895 yilda yozgan Sherman qonunni himoya qilib, butun dunyoni a ga o'zgartirishga qaratilgan xalqaro shartnomani taqiqlaganini aytdi bimetalik standart, Qo'shma Shtatlar dollari oltin bilan ta'minlangan valyuta bo'lib qolishi kerak.[111]

Namunaviy to'lovlarni qayta boshlash

1870 yil 9-aprel sonidagi multfilm Harper haftaligi kutmoqda qimmatbaho metall tangalardagi davlat to'lovlarini tiklash.

U tanga pulini isloh qilishga intilayotgan bir paytda, Sherman "qayta boshlash" uchun harakat qildi - barcha bank yozuvlarida, shu jumladan "yashil" pullarda ham turlar to'lovini tiklash siyosati. Yashil pullarni muomaladan butunlay olib tashlash g'oyasi 1866 yilda sinab ko'rilgan va tezda rad etilgan; yozuvlar, Sherman aytganidek, "xalqning eng sevimlisi" edi.[112] 1873 yildagi Panikadagi iqtisodiy notinchlik, pul massasini qisqartirish oddiy amerikalikka zarar etkazishini yanada aniqroq ko'rsatdi.[113] Shunga qaramay, Sherman (va boshqalar) oxir-oqibat bitta aylanma vositaga: oltinga qaytishni xohlashdi. U 1874 yilgi nutqida aytganidek, "qandolat standarti barcha qadriyatlarning eng yaxshi va yagona haqiqiy standartidir, bu bizning avlodimizning barcha tsivilizatsiyalashgan xalqlari tomonidan tan olingan".[114] Agar "greenbacks" muomaladan chiqarilmasa, ular oltin dollarga tenglashtirilishi kerak.

Sherman qo'shimcha zbekistonlarni bosib chiqarishga qarshi bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, 1872 yil oxirlarida u zaxira qog'ozlari bilan ta'minlangan mavjud zbekistonlarni muomalada saqlash tarafdori bo'lib qoldi.[115] Keyingi ikki yil ichida Sherman nima bo'lganini rivojlantirish uchun harakat qildi To'lovni qayta tiklash to'g'risidagi qonun.[116] Qonun murosaga keldi. Buning uchun muomalada bo'lishga ruxsat berilgan yashil pullarning maksimal qiymatini bosqichma-bosqich 300 million dollarga kamaytirish kerak edi[men] va ilgari tuzilgan loyihalar G'aznachilikka obligatsiyalar yoki tanga bilan to'lashni tanlash imkoniyatini bergan bo'lsa-da, 1879 yildan boshlab Qonunning oxirgi versiyasi turlarda to'lovni talab qildi.[117] Qonun loyihasining oqsoq o'rdak sessiyasida partiyaviy ovoz berish orqali qabul qilindi 43-Kongress va Prezident Grant uni 1875 yil 14-yanvarda imzoladi.[118]

1876 ​​yilgi saylov

Sessiya yopilgandan so'ng, Sherman Ogayo shtatiga qaytib, u erdagi respublikachi nomzod, sobiq gubernator Rezerford B. Xeyz uchun saylov kampaniyasini o'tkazdi.[119] Kampaniyada turlarni to'lash masalasi muhokama qilindi, Xeyz Sherman va uning demokrat raqibi, amaldagi gubernatorni qo'llab-quvvatladi. Uilyam Allen, obligatsiyalarda qaytariladigan yashil pullarning muomalasini ko'paytirish foydasiga.[119] Xeys kichik g'alabani qo'lga kiritdi va tez orada 1876 yilda prezidentlikka nomzod sifatida qayd etildi.[120] Qayta tiklanish to'g'risidagi qarama-qarshiliklar prezident saylovlariga sabab bo'ldi. The Democratic platform that year demanded repeal of the Resumption Act, while the Republicans nominated Hayes, whose position in favor of a gold standard was well known.[121] The 1876 ​​yilgi saylov was very close, and the electoral votes of several states were ardently disputed until mere days before the new president was to be inaugurated.[122] Louisiana was one of the states in which both parties claimed victory, and Grant asked Sherman and a few other men to go to Yangi Orlean and ensure the party's interests were represented.[123]

Sherman, by this time thoroughly displeased with Grant and his administration, nonetheless took up the call in the name of party loyalty, joining Jeyms A. Garfild, Stenli Metyus, and other Republican politicians in Louisiana a few days later.[123] The Democrats likewise sent their politicos, and the two sides met to observe the elections return board arrive at its decision that Hayes should be awarded their state's electoral votes.[124] This ended Sherman's direct role in the matter, and he returned to Washington, but the dispute carried over until a bipartisan election commission was convened in the capital.[122] A few days before Grant's term would end, the commission narrowly decided in Hayes's favor, and he became the 19th President of the United States.

G'aznachilik kotibi

Hayes's cabinet in 1877

Sherman's financial expertise and his friendship with Hayes made him a natural choice for Treasury Secretary in 1877.[125] Like Grant before him, Hayes had not consulted party leaders about his cabinet appointments, and the Senate took the then-unusual step of referring all of them to committee.[126] Two days later, senators approved Sherman's nomination after an hour of debate, and he began lobbying his former colleagues to approve the other nominations, which they eventually did.[126] Hayes and Sherman became close friends in the next four years, taking regular carriage rides together to discuss matters of state in private.[127] In the Treasury, as in the Senate, Sherman was confronted with two tasks: first, to prepare for specie resumption when it took effect in 1879; second, to deal with the backlash against the diminution of silver coinage.

Preparing for specie resumption

Sherman and Hayes agreed to stockpile gold in preparation for the exchange of greenbacks for specie.[128] The Act remained unpopular in some quarters, leading to four attempts to repeal it in the Senate and fourteen in the House—all unsuccessful.[129] By this time, public confidence in the Treasury had grown to the extent that a dollar in gold was worth only $1.05 in greenbacks.[130] Once the public was confident that they could redeem greenbacks for gold, few actually did so; when the Act took effect in 1879, only $130,000 out of the $346,000,000 outstanding dollars in greenbacks were redeemed.[131] Greenbacks were now at parity with gold dollars, and the nation had, for the first time since the Civil War, a unified monetary system.

Bland-Allison qonuni

G'aznachilik va bosmaxona byurosi Shermanning G'aznachilik kotibi sifatida
Zarbxona va matbaa byurosi portrait of Sherman as Secretary of the Treasury
Asosiy maqola: Bland-Allison qonuni

Sentiment against the Coinage Act of 1873 gained strength as the economy worsened following the Panic of 1873. Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill that would require the United States buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins, a system that would increase the money supply and aid debtors.[132] In short, silver miners would sell the government metal worth fifty to seventy cents and receive back a silver dollar. Pro-kumush g'oya partiya saflarini kesib o'tdi va Uilyam B. Allison, Ayova shtatidan respublikachi, Senatda harakatlarni boshqargan.[109] Allison Senatda oyiga ikki-to'rt million dollar kumush sotib olishni talab qiladigan o'zgartirish kiritishni taklif qildi, ammo kumushni zarbxonalarda shaxsiy depozitga qo'ymaslik kerak edi. Shunday qilib senyoraj, or the difference between the face value of the coin and the worth of the metal contained within it, accrued to the government's credit, not private citizens. The resulting Bland–Allison Act passed both houses of Congress in 1878.[132] Hayes feared that the act would cause inflyatsiya through the expansion of the money supply that would be ruinous to business.[128] Sherman's opinion was more complicated. He knew that silver was gaining popularity, and opposing it might harm the party's candidates in the 1880 elections, but he also agreed with Hayes in wanting to avoid inflation.[133]

Sherman pressured his friends in the Senate to defeat the bill, or to limit it to production of a larger silver dollar, which would actually be worth 1/16th its weight in gold.[134] These efforts were unsuccessful, but Allison's amendment made the bill less financially risky. Sherman thought Hayes should sign the amended bill but did not press the matter, and the President vetoed it.[135] "In view of the strong public sentiment in favor of the free coinage of the silver dollar", he later wrote, "I thought it better to make no objections to the passage of the bill, but I did not care to antagonize the wishes of the President."[136] Congress overrode Hayes's veto and the bill became law.[128] The effects of the Bland–Allison Act were limited: the premium on gold over silver continued to grow, and financial conditions in the country continued to improve.[137]

Sherman appointed Jon Jey to investigate corruption in the New York Custom House.

Civil service reform

Hayes took office determined to reform the system of civil service appointments, which had been based on the tizimni buzadi beri Endryu Jekson was president forty years earlier.[138] Sherman was not a civil service reformer, but he went along with Hayes's instructions.[139] The foremost enemy of reform—and Hayes—was New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, and it was to Conkling's spoilsmen that Hayes first turned his attention.[140] At Hayes's direction, Sherman ordered Jon Jey tergov qilish Nyu-York maxsus uyi, which was stacked with Conkling's appointees.[139] Jay's report suggested that the New York Custom House was so overstaffed with political appointees that 20% of the employees were expendable.[141]

Hayes issued an ijro buyrug'i that forbade federal office holders from being required to make campaign contributions or otherwise taking part in party politics.[141] Chester A. Artur, Nyu-York portining kollektsioneri, and his subordinates Alonzo B. Kornell va Jorj X. Sharpe, all Conkling supporters, refused to obey the president's order.[141] Sherman agreed with Hayes that the three had to resign, but he made clear in a letter to Arthur that he had no personal grudge against the Collector.[142] In September 1877, Hayes demanded the three men's resignations, which they refused to give.[143] He submitted appointments to the Senate for confirmation as their replacements but the Senate's Commerce Committee, which Conkling chaired, voted unanimously to reject the nominees.[143]

During a congressional recess in July 1878, Hayes finally sacked Arthur and Cornell (Sharpe's term had expired) and appointed replacements. When Congress reconvened, Sherman pressured his former Senate colleagues to confirm the President's replacement nominees, which they did after considerable debate.[144] Jay and other reformers criticized Sherman the next year when he traveled to New York to speak on Cornell's behalf in his hokim uchun kampaniya Nyu-York.[145] Sherman replied that it was important that the Republican party win the election there, despite their intra-party differences.[145] His friendliness may also have related, as Arthur's biographer Tomas C. Rivz suggests, to a desire to keep Conkling's New York mashina friendly to him as the 1880 presidential election approached.[146]

1880 yilgi saylov

Jeyms A. Garfild emerged the unexpected nominee at the 1880 Republican National Convention.
Asosiy maqola: United States presidential election, 1880

Hayes had pledged himself to a one-term presidency, and the Republican nomination in 1880 attracted many candidates, including Sherman. Hayes's preference was for Sherman to succeed him, but he made no official endorsement, and he did not think Sherman could win the nomination.[147] Among the early favorites for the nomination were former President Grant, Senator Jeyms G. Bleyn of Maine, and Senator George F. Edmunds Vermont.[148] Grant did not actively promote his candidacy, but his entry into the race energized his partisans, and when anjuman met in Chicago in June 1880, they instantly divided the delegates into Grant and anti-Grant factions, with Blaine the most popular choice of the latter group.[148] After Grant and Blaine had been nominated, James Garfield nominated Sherman with an eloquent speech, saying "You ask for his monuments, I point you to twenty-five years of national statutes. Not one great beneficent statute has been placed in our statute books without his intelligent and powerful aid."[149] The speech, while heartfelt, was not particularly stirring. Senator sifatida Jorj Frisbi Xoar later explained, "[t]here was nothing stimulant or romantic in the plain wisdom of John Sherman".[149]

After the other candidates had been nominated, the first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284; Sherman's 93 placed him in a distant third, and no candidate had the required majority of 379.[148] Sherman's delegates could swing the nomination to either Grant or Blaine, but he refused to release them through twenty-eight ballots in the hope that the anti-Grant forces would desert Blaine and flock to him.[148] By the end of the first day, it was clear that neither Grant nor Blaine could muster a majority; a compromise candidate would be necessary.[150] Sherman held out hope that he would be that compromise candidate, but while his vote tally reached as high as 120, he never commanded even all of Ohio's delegates.[148] His divided home-state support was likely fatal to his cause, as Blaine delegates, searching for a new champion, did not think Sherman would make a popular candidate.[151] After several days of balloting, Blaine's men found their compromise candidate, but instead of Sherman they shifted their votes to his fellow Ohioan, Garfield. By the thirty-sixth ballot, Garfield had 399 votes, enough for victory.[148]

Sherman was respected among his fellow Republicans for his intelligence and hard work, but there were always doubts about his potential as a national candidate. As one author described him, Sherman was "thin as a rail, over six feet high, with close cropped beard and possessed of bad teeth and a divine laugh, when he laughs".[152] His public speeches were adequate and informative, but never "of a sort to arouse a warm feeling for John Sherman, the man."[153] Unlike Blaine or Conkling, Sherman "communicated no colorful personality, no magnetic current".[153] His nickname, "the Ohio Icicle," deserved or not, hindered his presidential ambitions.

Garfield placated the pro-Grant faction by endorsing Chester A. Arthur as nominee for Vitse prezident. Despite his good relations with Arthur in 1879, Sherman thought the choice a bad one: "The nomination of Arthur is a ridiculous burlesque," he wrote in a letter to a friend, "and I am afraid was inspired by a desire to defeat the ticket ... His nomination attaches to the ticket all the odium of mashinasozlik siyosati, and will greatly endanger the success of Garfield."[154] He was nearly correct, as Garfield eked out a narrow victory over the Democratic nominee Uinfild Skot Xenkok. Sherman continued at the Treasury for the rest of Hayes's term, leaving office March 3, 1881.

Senatga qaytish

While serving in the Senate, Sherman lived in this house at 1323 K St. NW, Washington, D.C.

The Ohio legislature had elected Garfield to the Senate in 1880, and when he was elected President before taking his seat, they elected Sherman in his place.[155] Sherman's position in the Senate changed after his four-year absence. He rejoined the Finance Committee, but Justin Smith Morrill, his old House colleague, now held the chairmanship.[156] When Sherman re-entered the Senate in the 47th United States Congress, the Republicans were not in the majority. The Senate was divided among 37 Republicans, 37 Democrats, one independent (Devid Devis ) JSSV aloqador with the Democrats, and one Readjuster (Uilyam Mahone ), who caucused with the Republicans.[157] Arthur's tie-breaking vote as Vice President left the Republicans with a narrow hold on the chamber.[157] Even so, the special session convened in March 1881 remained deadlocked for two months over Garfield's nominations because of Conkling's opposition to some of them, resulting in the resignation of Conkling and the other Senator from New York, Tomas C. Platt, in protest of Garfield's continuing opposition to their faction.[158] Sherman sided with Garfield on the appointments and was pleased when the New York legislature declined to reelect Conkling and Platt, replacing them with two less troublesome Republicans.[159]

Garfield's assassination and the Pendleton Act

After the special session of Congress had adjourned, Sherman returned home to Mansfield.[160] He spoke on behalf of Ohio Governor Charlz Foster 's effort for a second term and went to Kenyon kolleji with ex-President Hayes, where he received an honorary degree.[160] Sherman looked forward to staying with his wife at home for an extended period for the first time in years, when news arrived that Garfield had been shot Vashingtonda.[160] Qotil, Charlz J. Giteo, was a deranged office-seeker who believed that Garfield's successor would appoint him to a patronage job.[161] After lingering for several months, Garfield died, and Arthur became president. After completing a long-planned visit to Yellowstone milliy bog'i and other Western sites with his brother William, Sherman returned to a second special session of Congress in October 1881.[162]

Garfield's assassination by an office-seeker amplified the public demand for civil service reform.[163] Both Democratic and Republican leaders realized that they could attract the votes of reformers by turning against the spoils system, and by 1882 a bipartisan effort began in favor of reform.[163] In the previous Congress, Sherman's fellow Ohio Senator, Democrat Jorj H. Pendlton, had introduced legislation that required selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by an imtihon, but Congress declined to act on it right away.[163] Republicans lost seats in the 1882 congressional elections, in which Democrats campaigned on the reform issue, and in the lame duck session were more amenable to civil service reform.[164] Sherman spoke in favor of merit selection and against removing employees from office without cause.[165] He was against the idea that civil servants should have unlimited terms of office but believed that efficiency, not political activity, should determine an employee's length of service.[165] Sherman voted in favor of Pendleton's bill, and the Senate approved it 38–5. The House concurred by a vote of 155–47. Arthur signed the Pendleton davlat xizmatini isloh qilish to'g'risidagi qonun into law on January 16, 1883.[166]

The Mongrel Tariff

Sherman in his Senate office, about 1894
Asosiy maqola: 1883 yilgi tarif

There was relatively little financial legislation in the 1880s.[167] By that time, fewer bonds were necessary, as the government now ran a consistent surplus which by 1882 reached $145 million.[168] Opinions varied on how to balance the budget; Democrats wished to lower tariffs to reduce revenues and the cost of imported goods, while Republicans believed that high tariffs ensured high wages in manufacturing and mining. They preferred the government spend more on ichki yaxshilanishlar va kamaytiring aktsiz soliqlar.[168] Congress passed a law creating a committee to study tariff reduction, but Arthur appointed mostly protectionists unga. In December 1882, the committee submitted a report to Congress calling for tariff cuts averaging between 20 and 25%. The commission's recommendations were ignored, however, as the Uy usullari va vositalari bo'yicha qo'mita, dominated by protectionists, provided a 10% reduction.[169] After conference with the Senate, the bill that emerged only reduced tariffs by an average of 1.47%, but it did remove or reduce many excise taxes.[169] Sherman supported the bill, more for the excise reduction than for the tariff changes.[170] The bill, known as the Tariff of 1883 (or, by detractors, as the "Mongrel Tariff") passed both houses narrowly on March 3, 1883, the last full day of the 47th Congress; Arthur signed the measure into law, but it had no effect on the surplus.[170]

Xitoy immigratsiyasi

Sherman paid greater attention to foreign affairs during the second half of his Senate career, serving as chairman of the Xalqaro aloqalar qo'mitasi. In 1868, the Senate had ratified the Burlingam shartnomasi with China, allowing unrestricted immigration from China. After the Panic of 1873, Chinese immigrants were blamed for depressing wages; in reaction, Congress in 1879 passed the Xitoyni istisno qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, but Hayes vetoed it.[171] Now, three years later, after China had agreed to treaty revisions, Congress tried again to exclude Chinese immigrants: Senator Jon F. Miller of California introduced another Exclusion Act that denied Chinese immigrants United States citizenship and banned their immigration for a twenty-year period.[172] Sherman opposed both the 1880 treaty revisions and the bill Miller proposed, believing that the Exclusion Act reversed the United States' traditional welcoming of all people and the country's dependence on foreign immigration for growth.[173] President Arthur vetoed the bill, and Sherman voted to sustain the veto.[173] A new Exclusion Act passed to conform to Arthur's objections. Sherman voted against this bill, too, but it passed, and Arthur signed it into law.[173] In 1885, Sherman voted in favor of the Alien Contract Labor Law, which barred engaging in a labor contract before immigrating or transporting a person under such a contract to the United States.[173] Sherman saw this Act as a more appropriate solution to depressed wages than Chinese exclusion: the problem, as he saw it, was not the national origin of Chinese immigrants, but their employment under serf-like conditions.[173]

Further presidential ambitions

An 1885 political cartoon accuses Sherman and Foraker of fanning section hatred for political gain.

In 1884, Sherman again ran for the Republican nomination, but his campaign never gained steam.[174] Blaine was considered the favorite and President Arthur also gathered delegates in an attempt to win the term in his own right.[175] Again, the Ohio delegation failed to unite behind Sherman, and he entered anjuman with only 30 total delegates pledged to him.[176] Former Cincinnati judge Jozef B. Foraker gave a speech nominating Sherman, but it drew little attention. Blaine gathered support the next day, and Sherman withdrew after the fourth ballot.[177] Blaine was duly nominated and went on to lose saylov Demokratga Grover Klivlend of New York, the Republicans' first loss in 28 years. Sherman returned to the Senate where, in 1885, he was elected Senat tempore prezidenti.[178] After the death of Vice President Tomas A. Xendriks later that year, Sherman was next in line to the presidency until February 26, 1887, when he resigned the position.[178]

In 1886, the Ohio legislature elected Sherman to a fifth term but, before long, he was considering another run for the presidency. To broaden his national image, he traveled to Neshvill to give a speech defending Republican principles. He encouraged fairness in the treatment of black Americans and denounced their mistreatment at the hands of the "sotib olingan " Southern state governments.[179] The tour had its effect, and Sherman's hopes were high. His old friend, ex-President Hayes, thought him the best candidate.[180] The early favorite for the nomination was again Blaine, but after Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination, his supporters divided among other candidates, including Sherman.[181] With no clear consensus going into the 1888 yilgi anjuman, delegates divided their support among an unusual number of sevimli o'g'illari.[174] Daniel H. Xastings of Pennsylvania placed Sherman's name in nomination, seconded by Foraker (who was, by then, Governor of Ohio).[182] Sherman, at last, had a unified Ohio delegation behind him and led on the first ballot with 229 votes—more than double his nearest competitor, but well short of the 416 needed for nomination.[183] Valter Q. Gresham of Indiana was in second place with 111, followed by Rassel A. Alger of Michigan with 84.[183] Sherman gained votes on the second ballot, but plateaued there; by the fifth ballot, it was clear that he would gain no more delegates.[183] He refused to withdraw, but his supporters began to abandon him; by the eighth ballot, the delegates coalesced around Benjamin Xarrison of Indiana and voted him the nomination.[183] Sherman thought Harrison was a good candidate and bore him no ill will, but he did begrudge Alger, whom he believed "purchased the votes of many of the delegates from the southern states who had been instructed by their conventions to vote for me".[184] A loyal Republican, Sherman gave speeches for Harrison in Ohio and Indiana and was pleased with his victory over Cleveland that November.[185] After 1888, Sherman, aware that he would be seventy-three years old when the nomination was next open, resolved that from then on "no temptation of office will induce me to seek further political honors" and did not run for president again.[186]

Davlatlararo savdo

For some time, there had been concern about the power of the railroads and the way they charged different rates for different customers.[187] In 1885, a bill to regulate the practice, authored by John Henninger Reagan of Texas passed the House. The Reagan bill forbade discrimination in railroad or pipeline freight rates, required that rates be reasonable, and fixed maximum charges allowed.[187] Sherman agreed with the general idea of the law, but objected to certain portions, especially a provision that gave state courts jurisdiction over enforcement disputes.[187] Sherman believed the law should allow for more nuance as well, insisting that competition against other forms of transit be considered.[188] These changes were adopted in the conference committee and the result, the 1887 yilgi davlatlararo tijorat to'g'risidagi qonun, owed much to Sherman's influence.[188] Cleveland signed it into law on February 4, 1887, and appointed members to the new Davlatlararo savdo komissiyasi. The act displeased the railroad industry, but was a boon to farmers and the oil industry.[189]

Sherman antitrest qonuni

An 1889 cartoon suggests that the monopolies held too much power over Congress.
Asosiy maqola: Sherman antitrest qonuni

By the late nineteenth century, businesses began to form combinations, known as ishonchlar, which claimed a larger and larger share of the market—large enough to dictate prices, their detractors claimed.[190] Members of both major parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies, and at the opening of the 51-kongress Sherman proposed what would become the Sherman Antitrust Act.[191] The bill Sherman proposed was largely derivative of a failed bill from the previous Congress written by Senator George F. Edmunds, which Sherman had amended during its consideration.[192] Until 1888, Sherman had shown little interest in the trust question but it was rising in the national consciousness, and Sherman now entered the fray.[193] The revised bill Sherman proposed was simple, stating that "[e]very contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal".[j] The bill further prescribed criminal penalties for any person who monopolizes trade.[k] In debate, Sherman praised the effects of corporations on developing industry and railroads and asserted the right for people to form corporations, so long as they were "not in any sense a monopoly".[194]

The bill passed the Senate by an overwhelming 52–1 vote and passed the House without dissent. President Harrison signed the bill into law on July 2, 1890.[191] When Harrison signed the Act, he remarked, "John Sherman has fixed General Alger."[195] Sherman was the prime mover in getting the bill passed and became "by far the most articulate spokesman for antitrust in Congress".[196] The Act was later criticized for its simple language and lack of defined terms, but Sherman defended it, saying that it drew on common-law language and precedents.[197] He also denied that the Act was anti-business at all, saying that it only opposed unfair business practices.[197] Sherman emphasized that the Act aimed not at lawful competition, but at illegal combination.[198] The later analysis was more generous: "The Sherman Act was as good an antitrust law as the Congress of 1890 could have devised."[199]

Silver Purchase Act

A $100 Treasury Note, authorized by the Sherman kumush sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonun, redeemable in gold or silver coin
Asosiy maqola: Sherman kumush sotib olish to'g'risidagi qonun

Since the passage of the Bland–Allison Act in 1878, there had been little discussion of gold versus silver coinage. Silver had been hardly mentioned in the 1888 campaign, and Harrison's exact position on the issue was initially unclear, but his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary, Uilyam Vindom, encouraged the bepul kumush tarafdorlari.[200] Silver supporters' numbers had grown in Congress with the addition of new Western states. The drop in agricultural prices, which made farmers' debts harder to pay, broadened their cause's appeal. Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions, advocating a free coinage of silver, but at its own value, not at a fixed ratio to gold.[201] This served only to disappoint both factions. Windom suggested keeping the Bland–Allison system, but doubling the amount of silver allowed to be coined.[202] The intrinsic value of the silver dollar had fallen to 72.3 cents, but Windom believed (though gold supporters doubted) that coining more silver would increase demand and raise its value.[203] Harrison was willing to sign whatever bill would satisfy the largest group of people, as long as it did not make the currency unsound.[201]

Both Houses of Congress were majority-Republican, but their solutions differed. The House passed a bill in June 1890 requiring the government to purchase 4.5 million ounces of silver each month (in addition to the $2 – $4 million required to be coined under Bland–Allison).[201] The Senate passed a bill by Republican Preston B. Plumb of Kansas for free coinage of silver at the legal (16:1) ratio.[204] Sherman voted against Plumb's bill, but was appointed to the conference committee to produce a compromise bill that, now called the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, passed that July. The Treasury would buy 4.5 million ounces of silver and would issue Xazina eslatmalari to pay for it, which would be redeemable in gold or silver. The law also provided that the Treasury could coin more silver dollars if the Secretary believed it necessary to redeem the new notes.[201] Sherman thought the bill was the least harmful option.[205] Harrison believed it would end the controversy, and he signed it into law. The effect of the bill, however, was the increased depletion of the nation's gold supply.[201]

In 1893, a moliyaviy vahima struck the stock market, and the nation soon faced an acute iqtisodiy tushkunlik. The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and President Cleveland, who had replaced Harrison that March, called Congress into session and demanded repeal of the part of the Act requiring the government to purchase silver.[206] The effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repeal; even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin.[207] In the Senate, the repeal of silver purchase was equally contentious, but Cleveland convinced enough Democrats to stand by him that they, along with eastern Republicans, formed a 48–37 majority.[208] Sherman voted for repeal of "his" bill.[209] After repeal, depletion of the Treasury's gold reserves continued, but at a lesser rate and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold.[210] Academic debate continues over the efficacy of the bond issues, but the consensus is that the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act was, at worst, unharmful and, at best, useful in restoring the nation's financial health.[210]

Final years in the Senate

Caricature by Mecachis yilda nashr etilgan Blanco y Negro (March 21, 1896) depicting Sherman, then Chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and the suggestion for the kind of diplomacy that should be enacted by Spain.

Sherman was elected in 1892 to a sixth term, easily defeating the Democratic candidate in the state legislature.[211] The more difficult fight had been for the Republican caucus's vote, as many preferred Foraker to Sherman.[212] With assistance from Cleveland businessman Mark Hanna, and after four days of balloting, the caucus agreed to support Sherman over Foraker, and he was reelected by the full legislature on January 12, 1893.[213] In 1894, Sherman surpassed Thomas Hart Benton 's record for longest tenure in the Senate.[l][214] Uning xotiralari, Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate and Cabinet, were published the following year. In 1896 he gave speeches on behalf of fellow Ohioan Uilyam Makkinli in his campaign for the presidency, but took a lesser role than in previous campaigns because of his advanced age.[215] McKinley was elected over Democrat Uilyam Jennings Bryan. Wishing to see the appointment of Hanna, his friend and political manager, to the Senate, McKinley created a vacancy by appointing Sherman to his cabinet as Davlat kotibi.[216]

Davlat kotibi

An 1897 political cartoon depicts Sherman as a young woman attempting to answer major U.S. diplomatic questions by playing the game He loves me ... he loves me not.

In January 1897, McKinley offered Sherman the Secretary of State position, which Sherman, facing a difficult re-election campaign in 1898, quickly accepted.[217] His appointment was swiftly confirmed when Congress convened that March.[218] The appointment was seen as a good one, but many in Washington soon began to question whether Sherman, at age 73, still had the strength and intellectual vigor to handle the job; rumors circulated to that effect, but McKinley did not believe them.[219] Asked for advice on the inaugural address, Sherman offered a draft threatening intervention in Kuba, keyin in rebellion against Spain; the suggestion was ignored.[217]

Both Sherman and McKinley sought a peaceful resolution to the Cuban War, preferably involving an independent Cuba without American intervention.[220] The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.[221] In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American konsul Fitsxu Li reported riots in Havana, McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Meyn there to protect American lives and property.[222] On February 15, the Meyn exploded and sank with 266 men killed.[223]

War fever ran high, and by April, McKinley reported to Congress that efforts at diplomatic resolution had failed; a week later, Congress urush e'lon qildi.[224] By this time, McKinley had begun to rely on Assistant Secretary of State Uilyam R. Day for day-to-day management of the State Department, and was even inviting him to cabinet meetings, as Sherman had stopped attending them.[224] Day, a McKinley associate of long standing, superseded his boss as the real power in the State Department.[225] Sherman, sensing that he was being made a mere figurehead and recognizing, at last, his declining health and worsening memory, resigned his office on April 25, 1898.[226]

Pensiya, o'lim va meros

Sherman's home in Mansfield, Ohio

Sherman retired from public life after resigning as Secretary of State. Except for one day,[m] Sherman had spent the previous forty-two years, four months, and twenty-two days in government service.[227] He gave a few interviews in which he disagreed with the administration's policy of annexing Puerto Rico va Filippinlar.[228] Later that year, his wife, Margaret, had a stroke; she died two years later on June 5, 1900.[228] Sherman continued to alternate between houses in Mansfield and Washington. He mostly remained out of politics, except for a letter he wrote endorsing Jorj K. Nash for Governor of Ohio in 1899.[229] Sherman died at his Washington home on October 22, 1900, in the company of his daughter, relatives and friends.[228] Dafn marosimidan so'ng Avliyo Ioann episkopal cherkovi in Washington, he was interred in Mansfield City Cemetery with his wife.[230]

Sherman was not unmindful of his legacy and left $10,000 in his will for a biography to be written "by some competent person".[231] Two biographies were published shortly after that, but neither mentions the bequest. In 1906, Congressman Theodore E. Burton of Ohio published a biography; two years later, former Representative Uinfild S. Kerr of Mansfield published another. Both were very favorable to Sherman. A scholarly biography was said to be in preparation in Allan Nevins's "American Political Leaders" series of the 1920s and 1930s, to be written by Roy Franklin Nikols and his wife, Jeanette Paddock Nichols, but the work was never completed.[232] Jeanette Nichols later published several articles on Sherman in the next few decades, but he still awaits a full-length scholarly biography. He is most remembered now for the antitrust act that bears his name. Burton, in summing up his subject, wrote:

It is true that there was much that was prosaic in the life of Sherman, and that his best efforts were not connected with that glamour which gains the loudest applause; but in substantial influence upon those characteristic features which have made this country what it is, and in the unrecognized but permanent results of efficient and patriotic service for its best interests, there are few for whom a more beneficial record can be claimed.[233]

Ijtimoiy tashkilotlar

Sherman was a charter member of the District of Columbia Society of the Amerika inqilobining o'g'illari. He served as one of the Society's vice presidents from 1891 to 1893.

Izohlar

  1. ^ At that time, Congress did not convene as soon as they took office (March), but usually waited until the end of the year.
  2. ^ Sherman and his biographer, Burton, give these figures, but other references give different breakdowns of party membership. Qarang, masalan., "Congress Profiles: 36th Congress (1859–1861)". Tarix, san'at va arxivlar. Vakillar palatasi. This illustrates the difficulty in assigning party designations to a time of shifting loyalties and creation of a new party system.
  3. ^ O'tishidan oldin Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Konstitutsiyasiga o'n ettinchi o'zgartirish in 1913, Senators were chosen by their states' legislatures.
  4. ^ The income tax was collected until 1870, when it was repealed.[60]
  5. ^ The Senate did amend the bill to provide that interest on the national debt would continue to be paid in specie.
  6. ^ The 1863 Act was followed a year later by the National Banking Act of 1864, which made various technical fixes and added a tax on state banks' deposits.[74]
  7. ^ During the war, it had taken up to $2.80 in greenbacks to buy one gold dollar. By 1866, the greenback had gained value, but it still took almost $1.50 in notes to equal the purchasing power of one dollar in gold.[91]
  8. ^ The Act did introduce a new silver dollar, the Savdo dollari, that was intended for overseas trade only, but was legal tender domestically for sums up to five dollars.[103]
  9. ^ The Act required that for every $100 increase in the circulation of gold-backed national bank notes, $80 in greenbacks should be withdrawn.[117]
  10. ^ Endi kodlangan 15 AQSh  § 1.
  11. ^ Endi kodlangan 15 AQSh  § 2.
  12. ^ Sherman's record was broken by Uilyam B. Allison in 1905. The current record for longest Senate service tomonidan o'tkaziladi Robert Berd.
  13. ^ March 3, 1881, after his resignation as Treasury Secretary but before his swearing-in as Senator

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ Berton, 1-5 betlar.
  2. ^ a b v V. Sherman, 9-10 betlar.
  3. ^ VSherman, 11-12 betlar.
  4. ^ a b J. Sherman, 26-29 betlar.
  5. ^ Berton, 5-6 betlar; J. Sherman, p. 30.
  6. ^ J. Sherman, p. 32.
  7. ^ J. Sherman, 33-34 betlar.
  8. ^ a b Berton, p. 7.
  9. ^ J. Sherman, 47-51 betlar.
  10. ^ Berton, p. 16.
  11. ^ Berton, p. 17.
  12. ^ J. Sherman, p. 78.
  13. ^ a b Berton, 18-19 betlar.
  14. ^ a b v Berton, p. 31.
  15. ^ J. Sherman, p. 94.
  16. ^ J. Sherman, p. 91.
  17. ^ a b Frizling 1990 yil, 554-565 betlar.
  18. ^ a b J. Sherman, 101-104 betlar.
  19. ^ J. Sherman, p. 105.
  20. ^ Gienapp, 136-137 betlar.
  21. ^ Xarrington, 641-63 betlar; J. Sherman, 111–113-betlar.
  22. ^ J. Sherman, 115-116-betlar; Sibley, 3-4 bet.
  23. ^ J. Sherman, 115-116-betlar; Berton, 39-41 bet.
  24. ^ J. Sherman, 117-131 betlar.
  25. ^ Berton, p. 42.
  26. ^ a b v Berton, 43-44-betlar.
  27. ^ J. Sherman, p. 139.
  28. ^ J. Sherman, bet 145–146.
  29. ^ Freehling 2007 yil, 109-110 betlar.
  30. ^ a b Freehling 2007 yil, 136–141 betlar.
  31. ^ a b v Berton, 52-53 betlar.
  32. ^ J. Sherman, p. 152.
  33. ^ a b J. Sherman, 153-156 betlar.
  34. ^ Berton, 58-60 betlar.
  35. ^ J. Sherman, p. 167.
  36. ^ J. Sherman, 161–166-betlar.
  37. ^ a b Berton, p. 61.
  38. ^ a b J. Sherman, p. 168.
  39. ^ Krensha, p. 323.
  40. ^ Krensha, p. 324.
  41. ^ Krensha, p. 325.
  42. ^ a b Krensha, 326–327 betlar.
  43. ^ Krensha, p. 328.
  44. ^ Berton, 65-66 bet.
  45. ^ a b v d Berton, 67-73 betlar; J. Sherman, 182–193-betlar.
  46. ^ Berton, p. 65; J. Sherman, 229-230 betlar.
  47. ^ J. Sherman, 197–201 betlar; Berton, 75-76-betlar.
  48. ^ Berton, p. 76.
  49. ^ a b Bryant, 501-502 betlar.
  50. ^ Berton, p. 76; Bryant, 520-524-betlar.
  51. ^ Berton, 76-77 betlar.
  52. ^ J. Sherman, p. 234.
  53. ^ J. Sherman, 232–233 betlar.
  54. ^ a b J. Sherman, 241-245 betlar; V. Sherman, 185-186 betlar.
  55. ^ Berton, 84-85 betlar; J. Sherman, 245-250 betlar; Nichols 1968 yil, p. 126.
  56. ^ J. Sherman, 258-259 betlar; Berton, 88-90 betlar.
  57. ^ a b Dam, p. 372.
  58. ^ J. Sherman, 258-259 betlar.
  59. ^ Berton, 120-123, 129-betlar.
  60. ^ J. Sherman, p. 307.
  61. ^ J. Sherman, 262-267 betlar.
  62. ^ a b v Dam, p. 373.
  63. ^ Million, p. 251.
  64. ^ J. Sherman, p. 270.
  65. ^ J. Sherman, 272–274-betlar.
  66. ^ Unger, p. 15.
  67. ^ a b J. Sherman, 275-280 betlar.
  68. ^ a b Dam, p. 375.
  69. ^ Million, 255-256 betlar.
  70. ^ a b J. Sherman, p. 284.
  71. ^ J. Sherman, 284-291 betlar.
  72. ^ J. Sherman, 291–292 betlar.
  73. ^ Berton, p. 137.
  74. ^ Berton, p. 138.
  75. ^ J. Sherman, 310-313-betlar.
  76. ^ J. Sherman, 314-316 betlar.
  77. ^ a b J. Sherman, p. 335.
  78. ^ J. Sherman, p. 348.
  79. ^ a b J. Sherman, 351-355 betlar.
  80. ^ J. Sherman, p. 359.
  81. ^ Berton, 148–154-betlar.
  82. ^ Berton, 155-156 betlar.
  83. ^ a b v Berton, 158-160-betlar.
  84. ^ a b v Berton, 164-165-betlar.
  85. ^ J. Sherman, 369-370-betlar.
  86. ^ Berton, 161–163-betlar; Foner, 274–277 betlar.
  87. ^ J. Sherman, 427-432 betlar.
  88. ^ a b v Berton, 166–171-betlar.
  89. ^ Foner, 454-455 betlar.
  90. ^ a b v Berton, 172–180-betlar.
  91. ^ Smit va Smit, p. 698.
  92. ^ a b v d J. Sherman, 377-384-betlar.
  93. ^ Nichols 1934 yil, p. 185.
  94. ^ J. Sherman, 384-385-betlar.
  95. ^ a b v d e f Berton, 182–185 betlar.
  96. ^ J. Sherman, p. 448.
  97. ^ a b v d J. Sherman, 451-458 betlar.
  98. ^ Hoogenboom, 237-238 betlar; Nichols 1968 yil, 129-130-betlar.
  99. ^ Fridman, p. 1162; J. Sherman, 459-462 betlar.
  100. ^ a b Fridman, 1161–1163-betlar.
  101. ^ J. Sherman, p. 465.
  102. ^ a b J. Sherman, 462-464 betlar.
  103. ^ J. Sherman, 543-544 betlar.
  104. ^ a b J. Sherman, 464-466 betlar.
  105. ^ Fridman, 1165–1167-betlar.
  106. ^ Fridman, p. 1166; Vaynshteyn, p. 312.
  107. ^ a b Fridman, 1168–1169-betlar.
  108. ^ Fridman, 1169–1171-betlar.
  109. ^ a b Hoogenboom, p. 356.
  110. ^ Unger, p. 358.
  111. ^ J. Sherman, p. 470.
  112. ^ Berton, p. 226.
  113. ^ Berton, 228-229 betlar.
  114. ^ J. Sherman, p. 491.
  115. ^ Berton, 233–234 betlar.
  116. ^ Nichols 1934 yil, p. 186.
  117. ^ a b Berton, 244-247 betlar.
  118. ^ Berton, 248-249 betlar.
  119. ^ a b J. Sherman, 521-523 betlar.
  120. ^ Hoogenboom, 257-260 betlar; Foner, p. 557.
  121. ^ Berton, 252-254 betlar.
  122. ^ a b Berton, 255-257 betlar; Hoogenboom, 256-295-betlar.
  123. ^ a b J. Sherman, 553-557 betlar; Nichols 1968 yil, 132-133 betlar.
  124. ^ J. Sherman, 556-561 betlar.
  125. ^ Devison, p. 104; Nichols 1934 yil, p. 186.
  126. ^ a b Hoogenboom, 301-302 betlar.
  127. ^ J. Sherman, p. 808.
  128. ^ a b v Hoogenboom, 358-360-betlar.
  129. ^ J. Sherman, p. 597.
  130. ^ Smit va Smit, p. 704.
  131. ^ Trefuz, p. 107.
  132. ^ a b Devison, 176–177 betlar.
  133. ^ Nichols 1934 yil, p. 187.
  134. ^ Berton, 266-267 betlar.
  135. ^ Devison, 176–177 betlar; J. Sherman, p. 623.
  136. ^ J. Sherman, p. 623.
  137. ^ Berton, 268–269 betlar.
  138. ^ Trefuz, 93-94 betlar.
  139. ^ a b Hoogenboom, 318-319-betlar.
  140. ^ Devison, p. 164-165.
  141. ^ a b v Hoogenboom, 322-325 betlar; Devison, 164-165 betlar; Berton, 292–294 betlar.
  142. ^ Berton, 292-294 betlar; J. Sherman, 681-682 betlar.
  143. ^ a b Hoogenboom, 352-355 betlar; Trefuz, 95-101 betlar.
  144. ^ Berton, 295-297 betlar; Hoogenboom, 370-384-betlar.
  145. ^ a b Berton, 296-297 betlar; Rivz, 155-157 betlar.
  146. ^ Rivz, p. 156.
  147. ^ Hoogenboom, 415-416 betlar; Devison, 104-105 betlar.
  148. ^ a b v d e f Berton, 301-304 betlar; Muzzey, 160-172-betlar.
  149. ^ a b Kerr, 66-67 betlar.
  150. ^ Kerr, 69-70 betlar.
  151. ^ Nichols 1934 yil, p. 188; Kerr, 68-69 betlar.
  152. ^ Devison, p. 106.
  153. ^ a b Nichols 1934 yil, p. 189.
  154. ^ Berton, 296-297 betlar.
  155. ^ Kerr, 76-79 betlar.
  156. ^ Berton, p. 310.
  157. ^ a b Rivz, 220-223 betlar.
  158. ^ Rivz, 230-223 betlar.
  159. ^ J. Sherman, p. 817.
  160. ^ a b v J. Sherman, 819-821-betlar.
  161. ^ Rivz, p. 237.
  162. ^ J. Sherman, 821-830-betlar.
  163. ^ a b v Rivz, 320-324 betlar; Doenecke, 96-97 betlar.
  164. ^ Doenecke, 99-100 betlar.
  165. ^ a b Berton, 320-321 betlar.
  166. ^ Rivz, p. 324; Doenecke, 101-102 betlar.
  167. ^ Berton, 311-315 betlar.
  168. ^ a b Rivz, 328-329-betlar; Doenecke, p. 168.
  169. ^ a b Rivz, 330-333-betlar; Doenecke, 169–171-betlar.
  170. ^ a b Berton, 316-319-betlar.
  171. ^ Rivz, 277–278 betlar; Hoogenboom, 387-389 betlar.
  172. ^ Rivz, 278–279 betlar; Doenecke, 81-84 betlar.
  173. ^ a b v d e Berton, 328-331-betlar.
  174. ^ a b Berton, 304-305 betlar.
  175. ^ Rivz, 368-371-betlar.
  176. ^ Muzzey, 281-285 betlar; Rivz, p. 380.
  177. ^ Muzzey, p. 286.
  178. ^ a b Kerr, 153-154 betlar.
  179. ^ Kerr, 157–161-betlar.
  180. ^ Devison, p. 105.
  181. ^ Muzzey, 366-375-betlar.
  182. ^ Kerr, 187-190-betlar.
  183. ^ a b v d Muzzey, 376-380 betlar.
  184. ^ Berton, 305-306 betlar; J. Sherman, p. 1029.
  185. ^ Kerr, p. 192.
  186. ^ Nichols 1934 yil, p. 192.
  187. ^ a b v Berton, 336-339 betlar.
  188. ^ a b Berton, 340-343 betlar.
  189. ^ Nesh, 181-186 betlar.
  190. ^ Letvin, 221–226, 234–235 betlar.
  191. ^ a b Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 53.
  192. ^ Berton, 353-355-betlar.
  193. ^ Letvin, p. 249.
  194. ^ Letvin, p. 252.
  195. ^ Matilda, Valter. Valter Kvintin Greshamning hayoti, 1832-1895, II jild. p. 632.
  196. ^ Bork, p. 14.
  197. ^ a b Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 54.
  198. ^ Bork, p. 26.
  199. ^ Letvin, p. 255.
  200. ^ Socolofsky & Spetter, 56-57 betlar.
  201. ^ a b v d e Socolofsky & Spetter, 58-60 betlar.
  202. ^ Kerr, p. 235.
  203. ^ Berton, p. 367.
  204. ^ Kerr, p. 237.
  205. ^ Kerr, p. 240.
  206. ^ Welch, 122-125-betlar.
  207. ^ Nevinlar, 524-528, 537-540-betlar.
  208. ^ Nevinlar, 541-548 betlar.
  209. ^ Berton, 388-391-betlar.
  210. ^ a b Welch, 126–128-betlar.
  211. ^ Berton, 384-385-betlar.
  212. ^ Kerr, 277–280-betlar.
  213. ^ Kerr, 280-282 betlar.
  214. ^ J. Sherman, p. 1209.
  215. ^ Berton, 402-403 betlar.
  216. ^ Berton, 404-405 betlar.
  217. ^ a b Gould, 16-19 betlar.
  218. ^ Kerr, p. 386.
  219. ^ Kerr, p. 376.
  220. ^ Kerr, p. 391.
  221. ^ Gould, 68-70 betlar.
  222. ^ Gould, 71-72-betlar.
  223. ^ Gould, p. 74.
  224. ^ a b Berton, 412-413 betlar.
  225. ^ Gould, 56, 67-betlar.
  226. ^ Berton, 414-415 betlar; Kerr, 395-397 betlar.
  227. ^ Kerr, p. 398.
  228. ^ a b v Berton, 416-417 betlar.
  229. ^ Kerr, p. 409.
  230. ^ Kerr, 422-424-betlar.
  231. ^ Nyu-York Tayms 1900 yil.
  232. ^ Nevinlar, p. flyleaf.
  233. ^ Berton, p. 429.

Manbalar

Kitoblar
  • Foner, Erik (2002) [1988]. Qayta qurish: Amerikaning tugallanmagan inqilobi, 1863–1877. Nyu-York: Harper ko'p yillik zamonaviy klassiklari. ISBN  978-0-06-093716-4.
  • Frizling, Uilyam V. (1990). Parchalanishga olib boradigan yo'l: 1776–1854-yillarda ko'rfazdagi 1-jild seansistlar. Nyu-York, Nyu-York: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, AQSh. ISBN  0-19-505814-3.
  • Freehling, William W. (2007). Parchalanishga olib boradigan yo'l: 2-jild Sektsionistlar g'alaba qozonishdi 1854–1861. Nyu-York, Nyu-York: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, AQSh. ISBN  978-0-19-505815-4.
  • Gienapp, Uilyam E. (1987). Respublikachilar partiyasining kelib chiqishi, 1852–1856. Nyu-York, Nyu-York: Oksford universiteti matbuoti, AQSh. ISBN  0-19-505501-2.
  • Muzzey, Devid Savil (1934). Jeyms G. Bleyn: Boshqa kunlarning siyosiy buti. Nyu-York, Nyu-York: Dodd, Mead va Kompaniya. OCLC  656771.
  • Nevins, Allan (1932). Grover Klivlend: Jasorat bo'yicha tadqiq. Nyu-York, Nyu-York: Dodd, Mead va Kompaniya. OCLC  1373564.
  • Sokolofskiy, Gomer E.; Spetter, Allan B. (1987). Benjamin Xarrisonning prezidentligi. Amerika prezidentligi. Lourens, Kanzas: Kanzas universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-7006-0320-6.
Maqolalar
  • Krenshu, Ollinger (1942 yil dekabr). "1859-1860 yillardagi ma'ruzachilar tanlovi: Jon Shermanning saylanishi buzilish sababmi?". Missisipi vodiysi tarixiy sharhi. 29 (3): 323–338. doi:10.2307/1897913. JSTOR  1897913.
  • Xarrington, Fred Xarvi (1936 yil dekabr). "Nataniel Prentiss Banks: Qullikka qarshi siyosat bo'yicha tadqiqot". Yangi Angliya chorakligi. 9 (4): 626–654. doi:10.2307/360988. JSTOR  360988.
  • Nash, Jerald D. (1957 yil iyul). "1887 yildagi davlatlararo tijorat to'g'risidagi qonunning kelib chiqishi". Pensilvaniya tarixi. 24 (3): 181–190. JSTOR  27769741.
  • Nichols, Jeanette Paddock (1934 yil sentyabr). "Jon Sherman: Inflyatsiyani o'rganish". Missisipi vodiysi tarixiy sharhi. 21 (2): 181–194. doi:10.2307/1896890. JSTOR  1896890.
  • Sibley, Joel H. (1989 yil yoz). "Birinchi Shimoliy g'alaba" dan keyin: Respublikachilar partiyasi Kongressga keladi, 1855–1856 ". Fanlararo tarix jurnali. 20 (1): 1–24. doi:10.2307/204047. JSTOR  204047.
  • Vaynshteyn, Allen (1967 yil sentyabr). "" 1873 yilgi jinoyat "bo'lganmi ?: Demonetizatsiya qilingan dollar ishi". Amerika tarixi jurnali. 54 (2): 307–326. doi:10.2307/1894808. JSTOR  1894808.
Gazeta

Tashqi havolalar

AQSh Vakillar palatasi
Oldingi
Uilyam D. Lindsli		 A'zosiAQSh Vakillar palatasi
dan Ogayo shtatining 13-kongress okrugi
1855–1861		Muvaffaqiyatli
Semyuel T. Vorester
Oldingi
Jon S. Felps		 Kafedra Uy usullari va vositalari bo'yicha qo'mita
1860–1861		Muvaffaqiyatli
Taddey Stivens
AQSh Senati
Oldingi
Salmon P. Chase		 Ogayo shtatidan AQSh senatori (3-sinf)
1861–1877
Bilan birga xizmat qildi: Benjamin Veyd, Allen G. Turman		Muvaffaqiyatli
Stenli Metyus
Oldingi
Filipp Allen		 Kafedra Senatning qishloq xo'jaligi qo'mitasi
1863–1867		Muvaffaqiyatli
Simon Kemeron
Oldingi
Uilyam Pitt Fessenden		 Kafedra Senatning moliya qo'mitasi
1864–1865		Muvaffaqiyatli
Uilyam Pitt Fessenden
Kafedra Senatning moliya qo'mitasi
1867–1877		Muvaffaqiyatli
Jastin Morril
Oldingi
Allen G. Turman		 Ogayo shtatidan AQSh senatori (1-sinf)
1881–1897
Bilan birga xizmat qildi: Jorj H. Pendlton, Genri B. Peyn, Kalvin S. Bris, Jozef B. Foraker		Muvaffaqiyatli
Mark Xanna
Oldingi
Jon F. Miller		 Kafedra Senatning tashqi aloqalar qo'mitasi
1886–1893		Muvaffaqiyatli
Jon T. Morgan
Oldingi
Jon T. Morgan		 Kafedra Senatning tashqi aloqalar qo'mitasi
1895–1897		Muvaffaqiyatli
Uilyam P. Fray
Partiyaning siyosiy idoralari
Oldingi
Genri B. Entoni		 Senat respublika konferentsiyasining raisi
1884–1885		Muvaffaqiyatli
Jorj F. Edmunds
Oldingi
Jorj F. Edmunds		 Senat respublika konferentsiyasining raisi
1891–1897		Muvaffaqiyatli
Uilyam B. Allison
Siyosiy idoralar
Oldingi
Lot M. Morrill		 Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari G'aznachilik kotibi
1877–1881		Muvaffaqiyatli
Uilyam Vindom
Oldingi
Jorj F. Edmunds		 Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Senatining tempore prezidenti
1885–1887		Muvaffaqiyatli
Jon Jeyms Ingalls
Oldingi
Richard Olney		 Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari davlat kotibi
1897–1898		Muvaffaqiyatli
Uilyam R. Day