Yonish - Cremation

1820 yilda tasvirlangan rasm Hindlarning dafn marosimi yurish Janubiy Hindiston. Pira chap tomonda, daryo yonida, etakchi motam tutgan odam oldinda yuribdi, jasad oqga o'ralgan va kremasiya piriga olib borilmoqda, qarindoshlari va do'stlari ergashadilar.[1]

Yonish usuli hisoblanadi yakuniy qaror a o'lik jasad yonish orqali (yonish ).[2]

Krematatsiya a vazifasini o'tashi mumkin dafn marosimi yoki dafn marosimidan keyingi marosim va alternativa sifatida dafn qilish yoki buzilmagan o'lik tananing intermeni. Ba'zi mamlakatlarda, shu jumladan Hindiston va Nepal, an ochiq havo piri qadimiy an'ana. 19-asrdan boshlab kremasiya dunyoning boshqa qismlariga kiritildi yoki qayta kiritildi. Zamonaviy davrda yoqish odatda a bilan amalga oshiriladi yopiq o'choq (kremator), a krematorium.

Krematsiya ortida o'rtacha 2,4 kg (5,3 funt) qoldiqlar qoladi, ular "kullar" yoki "kremlar" deb nomlanadi.[3][4] Bu haqiqiy emas kul suyak mineralining kuymagan qismlari, ular odatda kukunga aylanadi. Ular sog'liq uchun xavf tug'dirmaydi va ko'milishi, yodgorlik joyiga joylashtirilishi, qarindoshlari tomonidan saqlanishi yoki turli yo'llar bilan tarqalishi mumkin.

Qadimgi tarix

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Ikkinchi darajali kuyish
Bronza qadimgi yoqib yuborilgan odam qoldiqlari idishi nazrli taklif

Krematizatsiya kamida 17000 yil avval boshlangan[5][6] arxeologik yozuvlarda, bilan Mungo xonim, topilgan qisman kuydirilgan jasad qoldiqlari Mungo ko'li, Avstraliya.[7]

Jasadni yo'q qilishning bir usuli - o'ldirish (dafn etish), kuydirish yoki ta'sir qilish usulini ta'kidlaydigan o'limning muqobil marosimlari tarix davomida afzal ko'rilgan davrlardan o'tgan.

Yaqin Sharq va Evropada dafn qilish ham, kuydirish ham arxeologik yozuvlarda yaqqol ko'rinib turibdi Neolitik davr. Madaniyat guruhlari o'zlarining afzalliklari va taqiqlariga ega edilar. The qadimgi misrliklar kuydirishni taqiqlovchi murakkab ruhiy transmigratsiya ilohiyotini ishlab chiqdi. Bu semit xalqlari tomonidan ham keng qabul qilingan. Bobilliklar, ko'ra Gerodot, o'liklarini mumiyalashdi. Erta Forslar krematsiya bilan shug'ullangan, ammo bu paytida taqiqlangan Zardushtiylik Davr. Finikiyaliklar ham kuydirish, ham dafn qilish bilan shug'ullangan. Dan Kiklad tsivilizatsiyasi miloddan avvalgi 3000 yilda Sub-ga qadarMikena miloddan avvalgi 1200–1100 yillarda, Yunonlar ingumatsiya bilan shug'ullangan. Krematsiya miloddan avvalgi XII asrda paydo bo'lgan va ehtimol dafn etishning yangi amaliyotini tashkil etgan Anadolu. Xristianlar davriga qadar, inhumatsiya yana dafn qilishning yagona amaliyotiga aylanganda, davr va joylashuvga qarab, yonish ham, ingumatsiya ham amalga oshirilgan.[8] Rimliklarga keyingi imperiya davriga qadar har ikkalasini ham kuydirish bilan shug'ullangan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Evropada, Erta davrga oid kuyish izlari mavjud Bronza davri (miloddan avvalgi 2000 y.) Pannoniyalik tekislik va o'rtada Dunay. Bronza davri mobaynida Evropada odat odatlanib qoldi Urnfild madaniyati (miloddan avvalgi 1300 yildan boshlab). In Temir asri, ingumatsiya yana tez-tez uchraydi, lekin kuyish davom etdi Villanovan madaniyati va boshqa joylarda. Gomer ning hisobi Patrokl dafn marosimi kuyishni tasvirlaydi, keyin esa dafn etiladi tumulus, Urnfield dafn marosimiga o'xshash va kremasiya marosimlarining dastlabki ta'rifi sifatida tan olingan. Bu anakronizm bo'lishi mumkin, chunki Miken davrida dafn marosimi odatda ma'qul bo'lgan va Gomer asrlar o'tib, "Iliada" yozilgan davrda kremasiyaning keng qo'llanilishini aks ettirgan bo'lishi mumkin.

The Azteklar imperator Ahuitzotl yoqib yuborilmoqda. Uning atrofida nefrit va oltin taqinchoqlar marjonlari bor Ketsal patlar, a nusxa (toj), uning ismi glif va narigi dunyoda unga hamroh bo'lish uchun qurbon qilinadigan uchta qul.

Dafn marosimlarini tanqid qilish - raqobatlashuvchi dinlar va madaniyatlar, shu jumladan kuydirish bilan birlashishni o'z ichiga olgan keng tarqalgan shakl. olov qurbonligi yoki inson qurbonligi.

Hinduizm va Jaynizm nafaqat kuydirishga ruxsat berish, balki uni tayinlash bilan ham ajralib turadi. Hindistonda kuydirish birinchi marta tasdiqlangan H madaniyati qabristoni (miloddan avvalgi 1900 yildan boshlab) ning shakllanish bosqichini ko'rib chiqdi Veda tsivilizatsiyasi. The Rigveda paydo bo'lgan amaliyotga havolani o'z ichiga oladi RV 10.15.14, bu erda ota-bobolar "ikkalasi ham kuydirilgan (agnidagdhá-) va yoqilmagan (agnagnidagdha-) "chaqiriladi.

Kremasyon odatiy bo'lib qoldi, ammo ikkalasida ham universal emas qadimgi Yunoniston va qadimgi Rim. Ga binoan Tsitseron, Rimda ingumatsiya ko'proq arxaik marosim deb qaraldi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ning ko'tarilishi Nasroniylik Evropada krematatsiya tugadi, garchi u allaqachon pasayib ketgan bo'lsa.[9] Ushbu pozitsiyaga uning ildizlari yahudiylik, tanani tiriltirishga bo'lgan ishonch va Masihning dafn etilish namunasi ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Antropologlar qabristonlarning paydo bo'lishi bilan butun Evropada nasroniylikning rivojlanishini kuzatishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Erta Rim Britaniya, krematsiya odatiy bo'lgan, ammo 4-asrga kelib kamaygan. Keyin u V va VI asrlarda migratsiya davrida paydo bo'ldi, ba'zida qurbonlik qilingan hayvonlar inson tanasiga qo'shilib pire va marhumlar kostyum kiyib, kuyish uchun bezaklar bilan bezatilgan. Ushbu urf-odat shimoliy kontinental erlarning german xalqlari orasida juda keng tarqalgan edi Angliya-sakson o'sha davrda migrantlar kelib chiqishi kerak. Keyinchalik bu kullar loydan yoki bronzadan yasalgan idishga "qabriston qabristoniga" yotqizilgan. 7-asrda xristian dafn marosimi umumiy bo'lib o'tganida anglo-saksonlar yoki erta inglizlarning xristian diniga o'tishi bilan yana bu odat yo'q bo'lib ketdi.[10]

G'arbiy dunyoda zamonaviy tarix

O'rta yosh

Evropaning ba'zi joylarida kuydirish qonun bilan taqiqlangan, hatto o'ldirish bilan jazolanadi Heathen marosimlar.[11] Ba'zan katolik ma'murlari tomonidan kuydirish, ayblangan bid'atchilar uchun jazo sifatida ishlatilgan xavf ostida yonish. Masalan, ning tanasi Jon Uiklif vafotidan bir necha yil o'tgach qazib olinib, kulga daryoga tashlangan holda kulga aylangan,[12] inkor qilish uchun o'limdan keyingi jazo sifatida aniq Rim katolik doktrinasi transubstantizatsiya.[13]

Kremasiyadan foydalanishni birinchi bo'lib tabib Sir Tomas Braun 1658 yilda. Honoretta Bruks Pratt 1769 yil 26 sentyabrda vafot etganida va u erda noqonuniy ravishda yoqib yuborilganida, zamonaviy davrda qayd etilgan birinchi Evropada kuydirilgan shaxs bo'ldi. Londondagi Hannover maydonidagi qabr.[14]

Qayta joriy etish

The Woking Crematorium boshchiligidagi uzoq davom etgan kampaniyadan so'ng 1878 yilda Angliyadagi birinchi inshoot sifatida qurilgan Buyuk Britaniyaning Cremation Society.

Evropada kremasiyani tanani yo'q qilishning hayotiy usuli sifatida qayta tiklash harakati 1870-yillarda boshlangan. Bunga pechning yangi texnologiyasi ixtiro qilinishi va uni tatbiq etgan sharq madaniyati bilan aloqa qilish imkoni bo'ldi.[15] O'sha paytda ko'plab tarafdorlari miazma nazariyasi va bu kuyish kasalliklarni keltirib chiqaradigan "yomon havo" ni kamaytiradi.[16] Ushbu harakatlar bilan bog'liq edi dunyoviylik madaniy va intellektual doiralarda o'z izdoshlariga ega bo'ldi.[15] Italiyada bu harakat bilan bog'liq edi klerikalizm va Masonluk Holbuki, bular Britaniyadagi harakatning asosiy mavzusi emas edi.[9]

1869 yilda bu g'oya professorlar Koletti va Kastiglioni tomonidan "Xalq salomatligi va tsivilizatsiya nomidan" Florentsiyaning Xalqaro tibbiy kongressiga taqdim etildi. 1873 yilda professor Paolo Gorini ning Lodi va professor Ludoviko Brunetti Padua ular olib borgan amaliy ishlarning hisobotlarini chop etishdi.[17] Bu erda Brunettining kuydirish apparati maketi va hosil bo'lgan kul bilan birga namoyish etildi Vena ko'rgazmasi 1873 yilda va katta e'tiborni tortdi[18] Ayni paytda, janob Charlz Uilyam Simens uni ishlab chiqqan edi regenerativ o'choq 1850-yillarda. Uning pechkasi yuqori haroratda ishlatilgan regenerativ oldindan qizdirish yoqilg'i va havo yonish. Rejenerativ oldindan qizdirishda pechdan chiqadigan gazlar g'ishtli kameraga quyiladi, bu erda issiqlik gazlardan g'ishtga o'tadi. Keyin pechning oqimi teskari yo'naltiriladi, shunda yonilg'i va havo kameradan o'tib, g'isht bilan isitiladi. Ushbu usul yordamida martenli pech po'latni eritish uchun yetarlicha yuqori haroratga yetishi mumkin va bu jarayon kuydirishni samarali va amaliy taklif qildi. Charlzning jiyani, Karl Fridrix fon Simens zavodida organik moddalarni yoqish uchun ushbu pechdan foydalanishni takomillashtirdi Drezden. Radikal siyosatchi, janob Charlz Ventuort Dilke, vafot etgan xotinining jasadini 1874 yilda kuydirish uchun u erga olib borgan. Samarali va arzon jarayon tanani tez va to'liq yoqib yuborishga olib keldi va nihoyat sanoat kuydirilishini amaliy imkoniyatga aylantirgan asosiy texnik yutuq bo'ldi.[19]

G'arbiy dunyodagi birinchi krematorium ochildi Milan, Italiya 1876 ​​yilda Milan shahrida "Krematorium ibodatxonasi" qurilgan Monumental qabriston. Bino hali ham turibdi, ammo 1992 yilda o'z faoliyatini to'xtatgan.[20][21]

Sudi Uilyam Prays krematsiya Buyuk Britaniyada qonuniy ekanligini tasdiqladi. Uning o'zi 1893 yilda vafotidan keyin yoqib yuborilgan.

Ser Genri Tompson, 1-baronet, jarroh va Qirolichaga shifokor Viktoriya, Vena ko'rgazmasida Gorinining krematorini ko'rgan va Angliyada kremasiyaning birinchi va bosh promouteri bo'lish uchun uyiga qaytgan.[18] Kremasiyani qo'llab-quvvatlashning asosiy sababi shundaki, "bu aholi yashaydigan hududga nisbatan kun sayin o'sib boruvchi aholi orasida kasallik tarqalishidan saqlanish uchun zarur bo'lgan sanitariya choralariga aylandi". Bundan tashqari, uning fikriga ko'ra, kuydirish erta ko'milishining oldini oladi, dafn marosimlari xarajatlarini kamaytiradi, aza tutuvchilar motam paytida havo sharoitida turish zarurligini va urnlar vandalizmdan xavfsiz bo'lishini ta'minlaydi.[18] U boshqa tarafdorlari bilan qo'shilib Buyuk Britaniyaning Cremation Society 1874 yilda. "[18] Ular asos solgan Buyuk Britaniyaning birinchi krematoriyasi yilda Woking,[22] Gorini krematorani o'rnatishda yordam berish uchun Angliyaga sayohat qilgani bilan. Ular birinchi marta 1879 yil 17 martda ot tanasi bilan sinovdan o'tkazdilar. Biroq, norozilik va aralashuvdan so'ng Uy kotibi, Ser Richard Kross, ularning rejalari to'xtatildi. 1884 yilda uelsliklar Neo-Druidik ruhoniy Uilyam Prays o'g'lining jasadini yoqmoqchi bo'lganligi uchun hibsga olingan va sudga berilgan.[23] Prays sudda muvaffaqiyatli ravishda ta'kidlashicha, agar qonunda kuydirish qonuniy ekanligi aytilmagan bo'lsa, unda u noqonuniy ekanligi ham aytilmagan. Ish a presedent bu Kremasiya Jamiyatining rivojlanishiga imkon berdi.[24]

1885 yilda Buyuk Britaniyada birinchi rasmiy kuydirish Vokingda bo'lib o'tdi. Marhum edi Jeanette Pickersgill, adabiy va ilmiy doiralarda taniqli shaxs.[25] Yil oxiriga kelib Buyuk Britaniyaning Kremasiya Jamiyati yana ikkita kuydirishni, ya'ni o'sha yili Buyuk Britaniyada o'lganlarning 597 357 kishidan 3 tasini nazorat qildi.[22] 1888 yilda ushbu joyda 28 ta kuyish marosimi bo'lib o'tdi. 1891 yilda Woking Crematorium ibodatxonani qo'shib, krematoriya kontseptsiyasini kashshof qilib, dafn marosimi va kuydirish joyi deb bildi.[21]

Tanada kuyish uchun o'ralgan jun konvertlar uchun reklama Undertakerning jurnali, 1889.

Evropadagi boshqa erta krematoriyalar 1878 yilda shaharchada qurilgan Gota Germaniyada va keyinchalik Geydelberg 1891 yilda AQShda birinchi zamonaviy krematoriya 1876 yilda qurilgan Frensis Julius LeMoyne uning Evropada ishlatilishi haqida eshitgandan so'ng. Ko'plab dastlabki tashabbuskorlar singari, u ham uning sog'lig'i uchun foydali bo'lishiga ishongan.[26][27] LeMoyne-ning krematurasi 1901 yilda yopilishidan oldin u 42 ta kuydirishni amalga oshirgan.[28] Birinchi krematoriumini ochgan boshqa mamlakatlar orasida Shvetsiya (1887 yilda Stokgolmda), Shveytsariya (Tsyurixda 1889 yilda) va Frantsiya (1889 yilda) Pere Lashazi, Parij).[21]

Erta tarqalish

Ba'zi bir protestant cherkovlaridan ba'zilari "Xudo bir piyola changni tiriltirgani kabi, bir piyola kulni ham tiriltirishi mumkin" degan mantiqiy asos bilan krematatsiyani qabul qilishga kelishdi. Anglikan va Nordic protestant mamlakatlarida kremasiya avval yuqori sinflar va madaniy doiralar, so'ngra qolgan aholi tomonidan qabul qilindi (hali odatiy holga aylanmagan).[21] 1905 yilda, Vestminster abbatligi birinchi marta kulga o'ralgan; 1911 yilga kelib Abbey o'zaro kulga ustunlik berayotganini bildirdi.[29] 1908 yil Katolik entsiklopediyasi taraqqiyotga tanqidiy munosabatda bo'lib, ularni "yomon harakat" deb atagan va ularni birlashtirgan Masonluk, "cherkovni yoqish amaliyotida cherkovning har qanday dogmalariga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qarshi hech narsa yo'q" deyilgan bo'lsa-da.[30]

AQShda yiliga atigi bitta krematatsiya 19-asr oxirida qurilgan. Dafn marosimi keng qabul qilinib va ​​qo'llanila boshlagach, krematoriyalar sanitariya holatini yo'qotdilar. Krematoriyalar orqada qolmasliklari uchun yoqilishni chiroyli qilish haqida tasavvurga ega edilar. Vitrayli derazalar va devorlari freskali marmar pollar bilan krematoriyalar qurishni boshladilar.

Avstraliya zamonaviy kremasiya harakatlari va jamiyatlarini barpo etishni ham boshladi. Avstraliyaliklar birinchi bo'lib zamonaviy krematoriya va cherkovga ega bo'lishgan G'arbiy teras qabristoni ichida Janubiy Avstraliya poytaxti Adelaida 1901 yilda. binolarga o'xshash bu kichik bino Woking, 19-asr uslubidan deyarli o'zgarmay qoldi va 50-yillarning oxirigacha to'liq ishladi. Avstraliyadagi eng qadimgi krematorium Rookwood qabristoni, yilda Sidney. U 1925 yilda ochilgan.

Niderlandiyada Ixtiyoriy kuyish uyushmasi asos solingan[31] 1874 yilda kuydirilishning afzalliklari va kamchiliklari to'g'risida uzoq munozarani boshladi. Kremasyonga qarshi qonunlar 1915 yilda (Gollandiyada birinchi krematorium qurilganidan ikki yil o'tgach) rad qilingan va bekor qilingan, ammo 1955 yilgacha kremasiya qonuniy ravishda tan olinmagan.[32]

Ikkinchi jahon urushi

Krematoriya at Dachau kontslageri

Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi (1939–45) fashistlar Germaniyasi kamida oltitasida maxsus qurilgan pechlardan foydalangan yo'q qilish lagerlari davomida Polshani bosib oldi shu jumladan Osventsim-Birkenau, Xelmno, Belzek, Majdanek, Sobibor va Treblinka, bu erda gaz bilan o'ldirilganlarning jasadlari yoqish uchun ishlatilgan. Sanoatlashtirilgan o'ldirish samaradorligi Reinhard operatsiyasi ning eng xavfli bosqichida Holokost juda ko'p jasadlarni ishlab chiqarishgan, shu sababli SS spetsifikatsiyasi bo'yicha ishlab chiqarilgan krematoriyalar kecha va kunduz tulkiga ishlov berish uchun ularning barchasida foydalanishga topshirilgan.[33][34] The Vrba - Vetsler hisoboti quyidagi tavsifni taqdim etadi.

Hozirgi vaqtda Bda to'rtta krematoriya mavjudIRKENAU, ikkita katta, I va II va ikkita kichikroq, III va IV. I va II tipdagilar 3 qismdan iborat, ya'ni: (A) o'choq xonasi; B) katta zallar; va (C) gaz kamerasi. Har biri to'rtta teshikka ega bo'lgan to'qqizta pech guruhlangan pechdan katta mo'ri ko'tariladi. Har bir ochilish birdaniga uchta oddiy jasadni olishi mumkin va bir yarim soatdan keyin jasadlar to'liq yoqiladi. Bu kunlik taxminan 2000 ta tanadagi quvvatga to'g'ri keladi ... Crematoria III va IV deyarli bir xil printsip asosida ishlaydi, ammo ularning quvvati atigi yarim baravar katta. Shunday qilib, B-dagi to'rtta yoqish va gaz chiqarish zavodlarining umumiy quvvatiIRKENAU kuniga 6000 ga teng.[35]

diagramma
Dan eskiz Vrba - Vetsler hisoboti, ishlatilgan krematoriyalarning qo'pol tartibini ko'rsatib beradi Osvensim, bir nechta fashist nemislaridan biri yo'q qilish lagerlari yilda Polshani bosib oldi

Holokost pechlari eng yaxshi ma'lum bo'lgan va eng keng tarqalgan bo'lib, bir qator ishlab chiqaruvchilar tomonidan ta'minlangan Topf va o'g'illari shuningdek, Berlinning Kori kompaniyasi,[36] duxovkalari ikkita tanani sig'dirish uchun cho'zilgan bo'lib, orqa tomondan ichkariga siljigan. Old tomondan kul olib chiqildi.[37] Pechlar ham o'ziga xos edi, chunki ular "yakka o'zi" turiga ega edi, ya'ni chiqindi gazlar uchun ko'rinadigan kanal ishi yo'q edi. Odatda shifoxonalarni yoqish uchun ishlatiladigan dizaynga asoslangan bu pechlar, buning o'rniga gazning pastki qismida joylashgan konstruktsiyali fanning yordami bilan polga o'rnatilgan qator kanallar orqali havo chiqarib yubordi. Tashqariga chiqqandan so'ng, gazlar erkin turgan mo'ri orqali ko'tarilib ketdi, eng muhimi, u to'g'ridan-to'g'ri binoning tuzilishiga biriktirilmaganligi yoki unga ko'rinadigan kanalning yo'qligi bilan ajralib turardi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Zamonaviy davr

20-asrda kremasiya ko'pchilik nasroniy mazhablarida turli darajada qabul qilinmoqda. Uilyam ibodatxonasi, eng katta episkop Angliya cherkovi, 1944 yilda lavozimida vafot etganidan keyin yoqib yuborilgan Rim-katolik cherkovi amaliyotni sekinroq qabul qildi. 1963 yilda, da Ikkinchi Vatikan Kengashi Papa Pol VI krematsiya taqiqini bekor qildi,[38] va 1966 yilda katolik ruhoniylariga ruxsat berdi boshqaruvchi kuydirish marosimlarida. Bu kul sochilib ketmasdan, ko'milishi yoki aralashtirilishi sharti bilan amalga oshiriladi. Dafn qilish an'anaviy bo'lgan ko'plab mamlakatlar o'lik jasadni yo'q qilishning eng keng tarqalgan usuli bo'lsada muhim ahamiyatga ega. 1960-70 yillarda Buyuk Britaniyada krematorium qurilishining misli ko'rilmagan bosqichi bo'lgan[15] va Gollandiya.[39]

Shuningdek qarang: Kremasiya darajasi bo'yicha mamlakatlar ro'yxati

1960-yillardan boshlab, dafn etishdan ko'ra, yoqib yuborish an'anaviy bo'lgan bir necha mamlakatlarda keng tarqalgan. Bunga Buyuk Britaniya (1968), Kanada (2000-yillarning boshlari), AQSh (2016) va Finlyandiya (2017) kiradi. Ko'rsatilgan omillar arzonroq xarajatlarni o'z ichiga oladi (ayniqsa, keyingi omil) 2008 yilgi turg'unlik ), dunyoviy qarashlarning o'sishi va ba'zi xristian konfessiyalarida qarshilikning pasayishi.[40]

Zamonaviy krematsiya jarayoni

Avstriyada elektr kremator
A inson murdasi elektr kremator ichida

Krematatsiya a kremator, joylashgan a krematorium yoki krematifik. Ko'pgina mamlakatlarda krematoriya dafn marosimlari bilan bir qatorda kuydirish marosimidir.[15]

Kremator sanoatdir o'choq jasadning parchalanishini ta'minlash uchun 871-982 ° S (1600-1800 ° F) haroratni yaratishga qodir.[41] Zamonaviy yoqilg'iga yoqilg'ilar kiradi moy,[42] tabiiy gaz, propan, va, Gonkongda, ko'mir gazi.[43] Ko'mir va koks 1960 yillarning boshlariga qadar ishlatilgan.[iqtibos kerak ] Zamonaviy krematorlar o'zlarining ichki qismlarini avtomatik ravishda kuzatib boradilar, ular yoqib yuborilish jarayoni qachon tugaganligini va shpal teshigiga ega bo'lishlarini aytib berishadi, shunda operator uning ichini ko'radi.[44] Kremasiya uchun zarur bo'lgan vaqt har bir tanada farq qiladi, kattalar tanasi uchun o'rtacha 90 daqiqa.[44]

Kremator bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta odam tanasini yoqish uchun mo'ljallanmagan. Krematoriya vaqti-vaqti bilan tug'ilmagan egizaklar yoki tug'ruq paytida vafot etgan bola va ona kabi holatlarni istisno qilishi mumkin.[iqtibos kerak ] Korpus joylashtirilgan kameraga a deyiladi krematsiya kamerasi yoki qasos va issiqqa chidamli bilan qoplangan refrakter g'isht. Olovga chidamli g'ishtlar bir necha qatlamlarga mo'ljallangan. Eng tashqi qatlam odatda oddiygina izolyatsiya materialidir, masalan., mineral jun. Ichkarida odatda izolyatsiyalash g'ishtli qatlam, asosan kaltsiy silikat tabiatdir. Og'ir krematorlar, odatda, yalıtım qatlami ichida ikki qatlamli olovli g'isht bilan yaratilgan. Yonish jarayoni bilan aloqa qiladigan yong'inga qarshi g'isht qatlami tashqi qatlamni himoya qiladi va vaqti-vaqti bilan almashtirilishi kerak.[45]

Tananing tobut yoki yonuvchan idish ichida bo'lishi talab qilinadi.[44] Bu tanani krematorga tez va xavfsiz surish imkonini beradi. Shuningdek, bu operatorlar uchun sog'liq uchun xavfni kamaytiradi. Issiqlikni yo'qotmaslik uchun tobut yoki idish iloji boricha tezroq krematorga kiritiladi (zaryadlanadi). Ba'zi krematoriyalar qarindoshlariga zaryadni ko'rishga imkon beradi. Bu ba'zan diniy sabablarga ko'ra amalga oshiriladi, masalan, an'anaviy Hindu va Jain dafn marosimlari,[46] va shuningdek, odatiy hisoblanadi Yaponiya.[15]

Tana idishi

Chan Kusaloning (Shimoliy Tailand buddaviy patriarxi) kullari orasidan topilgan yodgorlik chedi shaklidagi flakon va ichkarida ko'rsatilgan Wat Chedi Luang yilda Chiang May.

Qo'shma Shtatlarda federal qonunda kuydirish uchun hech qanday konteyner talablari belgilanmagan. Biroq, ba'zi bir davlatlar barcha krematsiyalar uchun shaffof yoki shaffof bo'lmagan idishni talab qilishi mumkin. Bu oddiy gofrokarton quti yoki yog'och kassa bo'lishi mumkin (tobut ). Ko'pchilik kassa ishlab chiqaruvchilari kremasiya uchun maxsus qurilgan kassetalar qatorini taqdim etadilar.[iqtibos kerak ] Yana bir variant - bu an'anaviy kassaga o'xshab ko'rinishga mo'ljallangan yog'och qobiq ichiga joylashtirilgan karton quti. Dafn marosimidan so'ng, kassani qayta ishlatishga ruxsat berib, kremasiyadan oldin quti qobiqdan olib tashlanadi.[47] Janoza uylari shuningdek, xizmat ko'rsatish paytida ishlatiladigan an'anaviy kassalar bo'lgan ijaraga solingan kassalarni ham taklif qilishi mumkin, shundan keyin jasadlar kuyish uchun boshqa idishlarga o'tkaziladi.[iqtibos kerak ] Ijaraga beriladigan kassalar ba'zan olinadigan ko'rpa va astarlar bilan ishlab chiqilgan bo'lib, ular har foydalanishdan keyin almashtiriladi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Buyuk Britaniyada jasad tobutdan olinmaydi va yuqorida aytib o'tilganidek idishga solinmaydi. Jasad tobut bilan yondirilgan[48] shuning uchun kuydirish uchun ishlatilishi kerak bo'lgan barcha ingliz tobutlari yonuvchan bo'lishi kerak. Krematatsiya amaliyoti kodeksi[49] krematoriyaga kelganidan keyin tobutni ochishni taqiqlaydi va qoidalar dafn marosimidan keyin 72 soat ichida yoqib yuborilishi kerakligini belgilaydi.[50] Shuning uchun, Buyuk Britaniyada, jasadlar, xuddi dafn marosimida tasdiqlangan "qopqoq" dan foydalanishga ruxsat berilgan bo'lsa-da, ular tovar egasida joylashtirilgan tobutda yoqiladi.[50] Shu sababli, tobutni muhrlashdan oldin zargarlik buyumlarini olib tashlash tavsiya etiladi. Kremasiya tugagandan so'ng, qoldiqlar magnit maydonidan o'tib, har qanday metalni olib tashlash uchun o'tkaziladi, ular krematoriya maydonchasining boshqa joylarida aralashtiriladi yoki tobora ko'proq qayta ishlanadi.[51] Kullar kremulyatorga kiritiladi[52] qarindoshlariga yoki yaqinlariga berilishidan yoki inshootlar mavjud bo'lgan krematoriya maydoniga tarqalguncha qoldiqlarni yanada mayinroq qilib maydalash.[53]

Germaniyada bu jarayon asosan Buyuk Britaniyaga o'xshaydi. Jasad tobutda kuydirilgan. Yong'indan keyin o'lik jasad qoldiqlarini aniqlash uchun ustiga raqam qo'yilgan yong'in gilidan foydalaniladi.[54] Keyin qoldiqlar an deb nomlangan idishga joylashtiriladi kul kapsulasi, odatda kinoteatr urniga qo'yiladi.

Avstraliyada marhumni tovar ishlab chiqaruvchi etkazib beradigan tobutda kuydirishadi.[iqtibos kerak ] Qayta ishlatiladigan yoki kartondan yasalgan tobutlar ommalashib bormoqda, endi ularni bir nechta ishlab chiqaruvchilar etkazib berishmoqda.[55] Arzon narxlar uchun oddiy zarrachalar tobutidan (savdoda "chippi" nomi bilan tanilgan) foydalanish mumkin. Tutqichlar (agar o'rnatilgan bo'lsa) plastik bo'lib, krematorda foydalanish uchun tasdiqlangan. Tobutlar tabiiy karton va tugallanmagan zarrachalar taxtasidan (agar xizmat bo'lsa, baxmal pallasi bilan qoplangan) qattiq yog'ochgacha farq qiladi; aksariyati shponlangan zarrachalar taxtasi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Kremasiyalar "faqat etkazib berish" bo'lishi mumkin, bundan oldin krematoriyada cherkov marosimi o'tkazilmasligi kerak (garchi cherkov marosimi o'tkazilgan bo'lsa ham) yoki oldin krematori cherkovlaridan birida xizmat qilish. Faqat etkazib berish krematoriyalarga krematorlardan maksimal darajada foydalanish uchun krematoriyalarni rejalashtirishga imkon beradi, ehtimol tanani muzlatgichda bir kecha-kunduz ushlab, undan kam haq olish imkoniyatini beradi. Faqat etkazib berish ba'zan chaqiriladi g'arbiy cherkov xizmati sanoat jargonida.[iqtibos kerak ]

Yonish va kul yig'ish

Shuningdek qarang: To'p tegirmoni

  • (Germaniya) olovli loy jasadni kuydirgandan keyin kulni aniqlash uchun ishlatiladi

  • (Germaniya) kinoteatr urn. Dantellar urnni erga tushirish uchun ishlatiladi

  • (Germaniya) O'liklarning qoldiqlarini o'z ichiga olgan kul kapsulasi, nomi va sanalari bilan birga muhrlangan sineriya urnasi

  • (Germaniya) Kul kapsulasi

  • (Germaniya) O'lganlarning qoldiqlarini ko'rsatadigan ochiq kulli kapsula

  • (Germaniya) 15 yildan keyin kulli kapsula va sineriya urnasi

Tanani o'z ichiga olgan quti retortga joylashtirilgan va yoqib yuborilgan 760 dan 1150 ° C gacha bo'lgan haroratda (1400 dan 2100 ° F). Krematatsiya jarayonida tananing katta qismi (ayniqsa organlar va boshqa yumshoq to'qimalar) bug'langan va oksidlangan kuchli issiqlik bilan; chiqarilgan gazlar egzoz tizimi orqali chiqariladi. Jarayon odatda 90 daqiqadan ikki soatgacha davom etadi, katta jismlar esa ko'proq vaqt talab etadi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Marjonlarni, soatlar va uzuklar kabi zargarlik buyumlari, odatda, kuydirilishdan oldin olib tashlanadi va oilaga qaytariladi. Bir nechta joylashtirilgan qurilmalarni olib tashlash talab qilinadi. Kardiostimulyatorlar va boshqa tibbiy asboblar hayratlanarli darajada katta, xavfli portlashlarga olib kelishi mumkin.[56]

Ommabop e'tiqoddan farqli o'laroq, yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlar odatdagi ma'noda kul emas. Kuydirish tugagandan so'ng, quruq suyak bo'laklari retortadan chiqarib tashlanadi va a deb nomlangan mashina yordamida maydalanadi. Kremulyator- mohiyatan yuqori quvvatli va yuqori tezlik blender - ularni "kulga" yoki "yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlarga" qayta ishlash uchun,[56][57] garchi pulverizatsiya qo'l bilan ham amalga oshirilishi mumkin. Bu suyakni to'qima va rangga o'xshash mayda qum bilan qoldiradi, ularni begona moddalar bilan aralashtirishga hojat qoldirmasdan tarqalib ketishi mumkin,[58] garchi donning hajmi ishlatilgan Kremulyatorga qarab turlicha bo'lsa ham. Voyaga etganlarning qoldiqlarining o'rtacha vazni 2,4 kg (5,3 lb); kattalar erkaklar uchun o'rtacha vazn kattalar ayollarga qaraganda 1 kg (2,2 lb) ga yuqori.[59] Kremulyatorlarning har xil turlari, shu jumladan aylanadigan moslamalar, maydalagichlar va og'ir metall to'plardan foydalanadigan eski modellar mavjud.[60]Öğütme jarayoni odatda taxminan 20 soniya davom etadi.

Yapon dafn marosimida suyaklarni yig'ish marosimi

Xitoy, Yaponiya yoki Tayvan kabi Sharqiy Osiyo mamlakatlarida, agar oldindan so'ralmasa, suyaklar maydalanmaydi. Suyaklarni maydalashmaganida, oila a'zolari tomonidan yig'iladi va kul bilan bo'lgani kabi saqlanadi.

Tegirmondan keyin yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlarning paydo bo'lishi ularning chaqirilishining sabablaridan biridir kul, ba'zida texnik bo'lmagan atama "kremlar" bo'lsa ham,[3][4] a portmanteau "yondirilgan" va "qoldiqlar" ning (Shimoliy Amerikaning Krematsiya assotsiatsiyasi "odamlarning kuydirilgan qoldiqlari" ga nisbatan "kremlar" so'zi ishlatilmasligini afzal ko'radi. Bunga sabab "kremlar" marhum bilan kamroq aloqada, deb o'ylashadi, yaqinlaringiz esa "yoqib yuborilganlar" qoldlari "aniqlanadigan insoniy aloqaga ega.[61])

Oxirgi silliqlashdan so'ng, kullar idishga joylashtiriladi, bu oddiy karton qutidan tortib to dekorativgacha bo'lishi mumkin urn. Ko'proq krematoriyalar tomonidan ishlatilgan odatiy idish, undan qimmatroq narsa tanlanmagan bo'lsa, odatda menteşeli, qulflanadigan plastik quti.

Yong'inni yoqishning muqarrar natijasi shundaki, kuydirilgandan keyin kamerada tana qoldiqlarining kichik qoldiqlari qoladi va keyingi kuyishlar bilan aralashadi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Kulning vazni va tarkibi

Hali ham polietilen paketga solingan kul

Kremlangan qoldiqlar asosan quruq kaltsiy fosfatlar natriy va kaliy tuzlari kabi ba'zi bir kichik minerallar bilan. Oltingugurt va ko'p miqdordagi uglerod jarayon davomida oksidlangan gaz sifatida haydaladi, ammo uglerodning taxminan 1-4%[62] karbonat sifatida.

Qolgan kul organizmning asl massasining taxminan 3,5% ni tashkil etadi (bolalarda 2,5%). Quruq suyak bo'laklarining og'irligi skelet massasi bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lganligi sababli, ularning vazni odamda juda katta farq qiladi. Tana tarkibidagi ko'plab o'zgarishlar (masalan, yog 'va mushaklarning yo'qolishi yoki ko'payishi) kuydirilgan qoldiqlarning vazniga ta'sir qilmasligi sababli, qoldiqlarning og'irligini odamning bo'yi va jinsidan (skeletning vaznini taxmin qiladigan) aniqroq taxmin qilish mumkin. odamning oddiy vaznidan taxmin qilish mumkin.

Aytish mumkinki, kattalarning kullari 876 dan 3.784 g gacha (1 funt 15 ozdan 8 funt 5 ozgacha), ayollar kullari odatda 2.750 g (6 funt 1 oz) dan past, erkaklar kullari esa 1.877 g (4 funt) dan yuqori. 3 oz).[59]

Qolganlarning hammasi suyak emas. O'tkazib yuborilgan zargarlik buyumlaridan eritilgan metall parchalari bo'lishi mumkin; tabut mebellari; tish plombalari; va kestirib almashtirish kabi jarrohlik implantatlar. Yondirilishdan oldin ko'krak implantlarini olib tashlash shart emas.[63] Portlash xavfidan qochish uchun yurak stimulyatori kabi ba'zi tibbiy asboblarni kremasiyadan oldin olib tashlash kerak bo'lishi mumkin. Titan kestirib, almashtirish kabi katta buyumlar (qorayadi, lekin erimaydi) yoki kassetali menteşalar odatda ishlov berishdan oldin olib tashlanadi, chunki ular protsessorga zarar etkazishi mumkin. (Agar ular dastlab o'tkazib yuborilgan bo'lsa, ularni qayta ishlash tugamasdan oldin olib tashlash kerak, chunki titan qo'shimchalarini almashtirish kabi narsalar erga ishlov berish uchun juda bardoshlidir.) Implantatlar oilaga qaytarilishi mumkin, ammo ko'pincha temir sifatida sotiladi / rangli metallolom. Qoldiqlarni qayta ishlagandan so'ng, kichikroq metall parchalari, masalan, tish plombalari va halqalar (odatda shunday tanilgan) terim) elakdan o'tkazilib, keyinchalik ular umumiy bo'lishi mumkin, muqaddas qilingan qabristonning chekka hududida tuproq. Ular shuningdek qimmatbaho metallarning qoldiqlari sifatida sotilishi mumkin.

Yondirilgan qoldiqlarni saqlash yoki yo'q qilish usullari

AQSh dengiz floti dengizchida yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlarni tarqatib yubordi. Ko'rinib turibdiki, qoldiqlarni o'z ichiga olgan shaffof plastik ichki sumka va uning yonida ichki qopni o'z ichiga olgan yorliqli qora plastik quti. Amerika ambalajında ​​bu odatiy holdir.

Yondirilgan qoldiqlar odat va mamlakatga ko'ra har xil qarindoshlariga qaytariladi. Qo'shma Shtatlarda kuydirilgan qoldiqlar deyarli har doim qalin suv o'tkazmaydigan joyda saqlanadi polietilen polietilen paket qattiq to'rtburchaklar ichida joylashgan plastik idish, bosilgan qog'oz yorlig'i bilan etiketlenmiş. Asosiy muhrlangan plastik idish sumkasi boshqa karton quti yoki baxmal qopga solinishi mumkin, yoki agar oila allaqachon sotib olgan bo'lsa, ular idish ichida bo'lishi mumkin. Krematoriya vakolati bilan tayyorlangan rasmiy ravishda yoqib yuborilish marosimi to'g'risidagi guvohnoma qoldiqlarga hamroh bo'ladi va agar qonunda nazarda tutilgan bo'lsa, kuydirilgan qoldiqlar ichida qolishi kerak bo'lgan odam qoldiqlarini tashlash uchun ruxsatnoma.

Kuydirilgan qoldiqlarni an urn, maxsus yodgorlik binosida saqlanadi (kolumbariy ), ko'p joylarda erga ko'milgan yoki maxsus maydonga, tog'ga sepilgan yoki dengizda. Bundan tashqari, yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlar turli yo'llar va joylarda tarqalib ketadigan bir nechta xizmatlar mavjud. Ba'zi misollar geliy pufagi orqali, otashinlar orqali, miltiq snaryadlaridan qayiqda otilgan[64] yoki samolyotdan tarqalib ketgan. Bitta xizmat labda lablari naychasi bilan kuydirilgan qoldiqlarning namunasini past tuproq orbitasiga yuboradi va ular atmosferani qayta tiklashdan oldin yillar davomida (lekin doimiy ravishda emas) qoladi. Ba'zi kompaniyalar[65] qismini aylantirish uchun xizmatni taklif eting yondirilgan qoldiqlar sintetik olmosga aylanadi keyinchalik uni zargarlik buyumlari qilish mumkin.[66]

Yondirilgan qoldiqlar sun'iy rifning bir qismiga urna va tsement bilan qo'shilishi mumkin yoki ularni bo'yoqqa aralashtirib, marhumning portretini yasash ham mumkin. Ba'zi odamlar eslash portretlari uchun zarb siyohidagi qoldiqlarning juda oz miqdoridan foydalanadilar. Yondirilgan qoldiqlar maxsus ruxsatnoma bilan AQShdagi milliy bog'larda tarqalishi mumkin. Shuningdek, ular egasining ruxsati bilan xususiy mulkka tarqalishi mumkin. Yondirilgan qoldiqlarning bir qismi kuydiriladigan zargarlik buyumlari deb nomlanuvchi maxsus ishlab chiqarilgan shkafchada saqlanishi yoki hattoki maxsus shisha yodgorliklarga uchirilishi mumkin.[67] va shisha sharbalar.[68] Yondirilgan qoldiqlar ham singdirilishi mumkin. Aksariyat qabristonlarda yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlarni ko'mib tashlash uchun oilalar tomonidan sotib olingan yoki foydalanib kelinayotgan ishg'ol qilingan qabriston uchastkalarida yoqib yuborilgan qoldiqlarni ko'mish uchun ruxsat beriladi.

Kullar yumshoq kislotali. Kabi ba'zi sohalarda Snoudon, Uels, atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish idoralari kullarning tez-tez sochilib turishi tuproqning tabiatini o'zgartirishi va ekologiyaga ta'sir qilishi mumkinligi haqida ogohlantirdi.[69]

Yakuniy tartib marhumning shaxsiy xohishlariga, shuningdek madaniy va diniy e'tiqodlariga bog'liq. Ba'zi dinlar kuydirilgan qoldiqlarni uyda sepishga yoki saqlashga ruxsat beradi. Rim katolikligi kabi ba'zi dinlar, qoldiqlarni ko'mishni yoki entomb qilishni afzal ko'rishadi. Hinduizm marhumning eng yaqin erkak qarindoshini (o'g'li, nabirasi va boshqalarni) muqaddas daryoga yoqib yuborish majburiyatini yuklaydi. Gangalar, tarjixon muqaddas shaharlardan birida Triveni Sangam, Ollohobod, Varanasi, yoki Xaridvar Hindistonda. The Sixlar qoldiqlarini suvga soling Sutlej, odatda Shri Xarkiratpur. Hindistonning janubida kullar daryoga botiriladi Kaveri Paschima vahini-da Srirangapattana daryoning sharqdan g'arbga oqib o'tadigan qismida, insonning quyosh chiqishidan quyosh botishiga qadar hayotini tasvirlaydi. Yaponiya va Tayvanda qolgan suyak bo'laklari oilaga beriladi va oxirgi dafn marosimidan oldin dafn marosimida ishlatiladi.

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Yapon dafn marosimi va Yaponiyada kuydirish

Kremasiyani tanlash sabablari

Krementatsiya qabriston maydonidan juda tejamli foydalanishga imkon beradi. Mini-qabr toshlari Xelsinki.

Diniy sabablardan tashqari (quyida muhokama qilinadi), ba'zi odamlar shaxsiy sabablarga ko'ra an'anaviy dafn marosimidan ko'ra kuydirishni afzal ko'rishadi. Uzoq va sekin parchalanish jarayoni haqidagi fikr ba'zilarga yoqimsiz;[70] ko'p odamlar krematsiyani afzal ko'rishadi, chunki u tanani bir zumda yo'q qiladi.[71]

Boshqa odamlar kuydirishni dafn etish jarayonini soddalashtirish usuli deb bilishadi. Bu odamlar an'anaviy dafn marosimini dafn etish jarayonining keraksiz asorati deb bilishadi va shu bilan o'z xizmatlarini iloji boricha soddalashtirish uchun kuydirishni tanlaydilar. Yonish marosimi dafn marosimidan ko'ra rejalashtirishning oddiy usuli hisoblanadi. This is because with a burial funeral one would have to plan for more transportation services for the body as well as embalming and other body preservation methods. With a burial funeral one will also have to purchase a casket, headstone, grave plot, opening and closing of the grave fee, and mortician fees. Cremation funerals only require planning the transportation of the body to a crematorium, cremation of the body, and a cremation urn.[72]

The cost factor tends to make cremation attractive. Generally speaking, cremation is cheaper than a traditional burial service,[73] especially if direct cremation is chosen, in which the body is cremated as soon as legally possible without any sort of services. However, for some even cremation is still relatively expensive, especially as a lot of fuel is required to perform it. Methods to reduce fuel consumption/fuel cost include the use of different fuels (i.e. natural gas or propane, compared to wood) and by using an incinerator (retort) (closed cabin) rather than an open fire.

For surviving kin, cremation is preferred because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together.

Cremated remains can be scattered or buried. Cremation plots or kolumbariy niches are usually cheaper than a traditional burial plot or mausoleum crypt, and require less space. Some religions, such as Rim katolikligi, require the burial or entombment of cremated remains, but burial of cremated remains may often be accomplished in the burial plot of another person, such as a family member, without any additional cost. This option is charged for in England in an Anglican church where the fee is set by the Table of Parochial Fees (£36 to incumbent and £78 to church council) a total of £114 in 2010 with a marker charged as extra. It is also very common to scatter the remains in a place the deceased liked—such as the sea, a river, a beach, a park, or mountains, following their last will. This is generally forbidden in public places but easy to do. Some persons choose to have a small part of their ashes (usually less than 1 part in 1000, because of cost constraints) scattered in space (known as space burial and offered by companies such as Elysium Space, Celestis and Ascending Memories). Cremated remains can now also be converted to olmos.

Atrof muhitga ta'siri

Despite being an obvious source of uglerod chiqindilari, cremation also has atrof-muhit advantages over burial, depending on local practice. Studies by Elisabeth Keijzer for the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Research found that cremation has less of an environmental impact than a traditional burial (the study did not address natural burials ), while the newer method of alkaline hydrolysis (ba'zan chaqiriladi green cremation yoki resomation) had less impact than both. The study was based on Dutch practice; American crematoria are more likely to emit simob, but are less likely to burn hardwood coffins.[74] Keijzer's studies also found that a cremation or burial accounts for only about a quarter of a funeral's environmental impact; the carbon emissions of people travelling to the funeral are far greater.[74]

Each cremation requires about 110 L (28 US gal) of fuel and releases about 240 kg (540 lb) of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Thus, the roughly 1 million bodies that are cremated annually in the United States produce about 240,000 t (270,000 short tons) of carbon dioxide, which is more CO2 pollution than 22,000 average American homes generate in a year.[75] The environmental impact may be reduced by using cremators for longer periods, and relaxing the requirement for a cremation to take place on the same day that the coffin is received, which reduces the use of fossil fuel and hence carbon emissions. Cremation is therefore becoming more friendly toward the environment.[76] Some funeral and crematorium owners offer a carbon neutral funeral service incorporating efficient-burning coffins made from lightweight recycled kompozit taxta.[77]

Burial is a known source of certain environmental contaminants, with the major ones being formaldegid and the coffin itself. Cremation can also release contaminants, such as simob dan dental fillings.[74] In some countries such as the United Kingdom, the law now requires that cremators be fitted with abatement equipment (filters) that remove serious pollutants such as mercury.

Another environmental concern is that traditional burial takes up a great deal of space. In a traditional burial, the body is buried in a casket made from a variety of materials. In the United States, the casket is often placed inside a beton vault or liner before burial in the ground. While individually this may not take much room, combined with other burials, it can over time cause serious space concerns. Ko'pchilik qabristonlar, particularly in Japan[78] and Europe as well as those in larger cities, have run out of permanent space. Yilda Tokio, for example, traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive,[79] va London, a space crisis led Harriet Xarman to propose reopening old graves for "double-decker" burials.[80] Some cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt.

Diniy qarashlar

Nasroniylik

Asosiy maqola: Cremation in Christianity

In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged and viewed as a desecration of God’s image, and as interference with the resurrection of the dead taught in Scripture. It is now acceptable to some denominations, since a literal interpretation of Scripture is less common.[81]

Katoliklik

Christians preferred to bury the dead rather than to cremate the remains, as was common in Rim madaniyat. The early church carried on Judaism’s respect for the human body as being created in God’s image, and followed their practices of speedy interment, in hopes of the future resurrection of all dead. The Roman catacombs and Medieval veneration of yodgorliklar ning Roman Catholic saints witness to this preference. For them, the body was not a mere receptacle for a spirit that was the real person, but an integral part of the human person.[82] They looked on the body as sanctified by the muqaddas marosimlar[83] and itself the temple of the Holy Spirit,[84] and thus requiring to be disposed of in a way that honours and reveres it, and they saw many early practices involved with disposal of dead bodies as butparast in origin or an insult to the body.[85]

The idea that cremation might interfere with God's ability to resurrect the body was refuted by the 2nd-century Octavius ning Minucius Feliks, in which he said: "Every body, whether it is dried up into dust, or is dissolved into moisture, or is compressed into ashes, or is attenuated into smoke, is withdrawn from us, but it is reserved for God in the custody of the elements. Nor, as you believe, do we fear any loss from sepulture, but we adopt the ancient and better custom of burying in the earth."[86] And while there was a clear and prevailing preference for burial, there was no general Church law forbidding cremation until 1866. In O'rta asr Evropa, cremation was practiced mainly in situations where there were multitudes of corpses simultaneously present, such as after a jang, a keyin pestilence yoki ochlik, and where there was an imminent fear of diseases spreading from the corpses, since individual burials with digging graves would take too long and body decomposition would begin before all the corpses had been interred.

Dan boshlab O'rta yosh, and even more so in the 18th century and later, non-Christian rationalists and classicists began to advocate cremation again as a statement denying the resurrection and/or the afterlife,[87] although the pro-cremation movement often took care to address these concerns.[88] Sentiment within the Catholic Church against cremation became hardened in the face of the association of cremation with "professed enemies of God."[88] When Masonic groups advocated cremation as a means of rejecting Christian belief in the resurrection, the Muqaddas qarang forbade Catholics to practise cremation in 1886. The 1917 Code of Canon Law incorporated this ban. In 1963, recognizing that, in general, cremation was being sought for practical purposes and not as a denial of bodily resurrection, the choice of cremation was permitted in some circumstances.[89][90] Joriy 1983 yil Canon qonuni kodeksi, states: "The Church earnestly recommends the pious custom of Christian burial be retained; but it does not entirely forbid cremation, except if this is chosen for reasons which are contrary to Christian teaching."[91]

There are no universal rules governing Catholic funeral rites in connection with cremation, but episkop konferentsiyalari have laid down rules for various countries.[89] Of these, perhaps the most elaborate are those established, with the necessary confirmation of the Holy See, by the AQSh katolik yepiskoplari konferentsiyasi and published as Appendix II of the United States edition of the Order of Christian Funerals.[92][93]

Although the Holy See has in some cases authorized bishops to grant permission for funeral rites to be carried out in the presence of cremated remains, it is preferred that the rites be carried out in the presence of a still intact body. Practices that show insufficient respect for the ashes of the dead such as turning them into jewelry or scattering them are forbidden for Catholics, but burial on land or sea or enclosing in a niche or columbarium is now acceptable.[89]

Anglicanism and Lutheranism

In 1917, Volume 6 of the American Lutheran Survey stated that "The Lyuteran clergy as a rule refuse" and that "Episkopal pastors often take a stand against it."[94] Indeed, in the 1870s, the Anglican London yepiskopi stated that the practice of cremation would "undermine the faith of mankind in the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, hasten rejection of a Scriptural worldview and so bring about a most disastrous social revolution."[95] Yilda The Lutheran Pastor, George Henry Gerberding stated:

Third. As to cremation. This is not a Biblical or Christian mode of disposing of the dead. The Old and New Testament agree and take for granted that as the body was taken originally from the earth, so it is to return to the earth again. Burial is the natural and Christian mode. There is a beautiful symbolism in it. The whole terminology of eschatology presupposes it. Cremation is purely heathenish. It was the main practice among pagan Greeks and Romans. The majority of Hindus thus dispose of their dead. It is dishonoring to the body, intended as a temple of the Holy Ghost and to bear the image of God. It is an insidious denial of the doctrine of the resurrection.[96]

Biroq, ba'zilari Protestant churches welcomed the use of cremation at a much earlier date than the Catholic Church; pro-cremation sentiment was not unanimous among Protestants, however, as some have retained a literal interpretation of Scripture.[97] The first crematoria in the Protestant countries were built in the 1870s, and in 1908, the Dean and Chapter of Vestminster abbatligi —one of the most famous Anglikan churches—required that remains be cremated for burial in the abbey's precincts.[98] Today, "scattering", or "strewing," is an acceptable practice in some Protestant denominations, and some churches have their own "garden of remembrance" on their grounds in which remains can be scattered. Some denominations, like Lutheran churches in Scandinavia, favour the urns being buried in family graves. A family grave can thus contain urns of many generations and also the urns of spouses and loved ones.

Metodizm

Erta Metodist tract titled Immortality and Resurrection noted that "burial is the result of a belief in the resurrection of the body, while cremation anticipates its annihilation."[99] The Methodist Review noted that "Three thoughts alone would lead us to suppose that the early Christians would have special care for their dead, namely, the essential Jewish origin of the Church; the mode of burial of their founder; and the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, so powerfully urged by the apostles, and so mighty in its influence on the primitive Christians. From these considerations, the Roman custom of cremation would be most repulsive to the Christian mind."[100]

Eastern Orthodox and others who forbid cremation

Some branches of Christianity entirely oppose cremation, including non-mainstream Protestant groups and the Orthodox churches.[101] Eng muhimi, Sharqiy pravoslav va Sharqiy pravoslav Churches historically forbid cremation, but not dogmatically. Exceptions are made for circumstances where it cannot be avoided (when civil authority demands it, in aftermath of war or during epidemics) or if it may be sought for good cause.[tushuntirish kerak ] But when a cremation is specifically and willfully chosen for no good cause by the one who is deceased, he or she is not permitted a funeral in the church and may also be permanently excluded from burial in a Christian cemetery and liturgical prayers for the departed. In Orthodoxy, cremation is perceived as a rejection of the temple of God and of the dogma of the general resurrection.[102]

Most independent Bible churches, free churches, Holiness churches and those of Anabaptist faiths will not practice cremation. As one example, the Xudoning cherkovi (tiklash) forbids the practice of cremation, believing as the Early Church did, that it continues to be a pagan practice.[103]

Oxirgi kun avliyolari Iso Masihning cherkovi

Oxirgi kun avliyolari Iso Masihning cherkovi (LDS Church) has, in past decades, discouraged cremation without expressly forbidding it. In the 1950s, for example, Havoriy Bryus R. Makkonki[104] wrote that "only under the most extraordinary and unusual circumstances" would cremation be consistent with LDS teachings.

However, more recent LDS publications have provided instructions for how to dress the deceased when they have received their temple endowments (and thus wear temple garments ) prior to cremation for those wishing to do so, or in countries where the law requires cremation. Except where required by law, the family of the deceased may decide whether the body should be cremated, though the Church "does not normally encourage cremation."[105]

Hind dinlari

Shuningdek qarang: Antyesti

Hind dinlari kabi Hinduizm, Buddizm, Jaynizm va Sihizm practice cremation. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Budda, was cremated. For Buddhist spiritual masters who are cremated, one of the results of cremation is the formation of Buddhist relics.[iqtibos kerak ]

A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried.[107][108] The rite of passage is performed in harmony with the Hindu religious view that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe.[109] The soul (Atman, Brahman) is the essence and immortal that is released at the Antyeshti ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism. They consist of five elements – air, water, fire, earth and space.[109] The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins.[107][109][110] The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows:

Burn him not up, nor quite consume him, Agni: let not his body or his skin be scattered,
O all possessing Fire, when thou hast matured him, then send him on his way unto the Fathers.
When thou hast made him ready, all possessing Fire, then do thou give him over to the Fathers,
When he attains unto the life that waits him, he shall become subject to the will of gods.
The Sun receive thine eye, the Wind thy Prana (life-principle, breathe); go, as thy merit is, to earth or heaven.
Go, if it be thy lot, unto the waters; go, make thine home in plants with all thy members.[111]

The final rite in the case of untimely death of a child is usually not cremation but a burial. This is rooted in Rig Veda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to "neither harm our girls nor our boys", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.[112]

Ashes of the cremated bodies are usually spread in a river, which are considered holy in the Hindu practice. Ganga is considered to be the holiest river and Varanasi, which is on the banks of river Ganga the holiest place to be cremated at.

Bali, Indonesia

Cremation of the dead by Hindus in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia.

Bali Hindu dead are generally buried inside the container for a period of time, which may exceed one oy or more, so that the cremation ceremony (Ngaben ) can occur on an auspicious day in the Bali -Yava Taqvim system ("Saka "). Additionally, if the departed was a court servant, member of the court or minor olijanob, the cremation can be postponed up to several years to coincide with the cremation of their Shahzoda. Balinese funerals are very expensive and the body may be interred until the family can afford it or until there is a group funeral planned by the village or family when costs will be less. The purpose of burying the corpse is for the yemirilish process to consume the fluids of the corpse, which allows for an easier, more rapid and more complete cremation.

Islom

Islom strictly forbids cremation. It does not fit in line with the teachings of respect and dignity due to all humans, who are created in God’s image. [113][114][115] Islam has specific rites for the treatment of the body after death.[116]

Yahudiylik

Yahudiylik has traditionally disapproved of cremation in the past, as a rejection of the respect due to humans who are created in the image of God. It was the traditional means of disposing the dead in many of the neighboring pagan Bronza davri cultures surrounding the early Ibroniylarga. Judaism has also disapproved of preservation of the dead by means of embalming and mummifying, as this involves mutilation and abuse of the corpse. [117][118] Mummification was a practice of the ancient Egyptians, among whom the early Jews lived as slaves.

Through history and up to the philosophical movements of the current era Zamonaviy pravoslavlar, Pravoslav, Haredi va Hasidik movements in Judaism have maintained the historical practice and strict Biblical line against cremation and disapprove of it, as Halaxa (Jewish law) forbids it. This halakhic concern is grounded in the literal interpretation of Scripture, viewing the body as created in the image of God and upholding a bodily tirilish as core beliefs of traditional Judaism. This was occasionally opposed by some liberal trends such as among the Sadduqiylar, who denied resurrection. Many Scriptures teach burial, such as the clear wording of the Torah in Devarim (Deuteronomy) 21:23 "Bury, you will bury him the same day; for the (unburied body) is a curse to God" with both a positive command derived from this verse to command one to bury a dead body and a negative command forbidding neglecting to bury a dead body.[119] Some from the generally liberal Konservativ yahudiy also oppose cremation, some very strongly, seeing it as a rejection of God’s design.[120][121]

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, as the Jewish cemeteries in many European towns had become crowded and were running out of space, in a few cases cremation for the first time became an approved means of corpse disposal among emerging liberal and Reform Jewish movements in line with their across the board rejection of literal scripture interpretation and traditional Torah ritual laws. Current liberal movements like Yahudiylikni isloh qiling still support cremation, although burial remains the preferred option.[70][122]

In Israel religious ritual events including free burial and funeral services for all who die in Israel and all citizens including the majority Jewish population including for the secular or non-observant are almost universally facilitated through the Rabinate of Israel. This is an Orthodox organization following historical and traditional Jewish law. In Israel there were no formal crematories until 2004 when B&L Cremation Systems Inc. became the first crematory manufacturer to sell a retort to Israel. In August 2007, an orthodox youth group in Israel was accused of burning down the country's sole crematorium, which they see as an affront to God.[123] The crematorium was rebuilt by its owner and the retort replaced.

Boshqalar

Bahosi Iymon

The Bahosi Iymon forbids cremation, "He feels that, in view of what ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has said against cremation, the believers should be strongly urged, as an act of faith, to make provisions against their remains being cremated. Bahá’u’lláh has laid down as a law, in the Aqdas, the manner of Baháʼí burial, and it is so beautiful, befitting and dignified, that no believer should deprive himself of it."

Zardushtiylik

An'anaga ko'ra, Zardushtiylik disavows cremation or burial to preclude pollution of fire or earth. The traditional method of corpse disposal is through ritual exposure in a "Sukunat minorasi ", but both burial and cremation are increasingly popular alternatives. Some contemporary adhererents of the faith have opted for cremation. Forscha -Zardushtiylik ashulachi Freddi Merkuriy guruhning Qirolicha was cremated after his death.

Xitoy

Neofutsiylik ostida Chju Si strongly discourages cremation of one's parents' corpses as unfilial. Han Chinese traditionally practiced burial and viewed cremation as taboo and as a barbarian practice.

Traditionally, only Buddhist monks in China exclusively practiced cremation because ordinary Han Chinese detested cremation, refusing to do it. But now, the atheist Communist party enforces a strict cremation policy on Han Chinese. However, exceptions are made for Hui who do not cremate their dead due to Islamic beliefs.[124]

The minority Yurxen va ularning Manchu descendants originally practiced cremation as part of their culture. They adopted the practice of burial from the Han, but many Manchus continued to cremate their dead.[125]

Pet cremation

Pet cremation is practiced internationally. In Japan, more than 465 companion animal temples are in operation. These venues hold funerals and rituals for dead pets. In Australia, pet owners can purchase services to have their companion animal cremated and placed in a uy hayvonlari qabristoni or taken home.[126]

The cost of pet cremation depends on location, where the cremation is done, and time of cremation. The American Humane Society's cost for cremation of 22.5 kg (50 lb). or less pet is $110 while 23 kg (51 lb). or more is $145. The cremated remains are available for the owner to pick up in seven to ten business days. Urns for the companion animal range from $50 to $150.[127]

Controversial cases in recent history

Tri-State Crematory incident

Asosiy maqola: Tri-State Crematory scandal

In early 2002, 334 corpses that were supposed to have been cremated in the previous few years at the Tri-State Crematory were found intact and decaying on the crematorium's grounds in the U.S. state of Gruziya, having been dumped there by the crematorium's proprietor. Many of the corpses were decayed beyond identification. Some families received "ashes" that were made of wood and concrete dust.[128]

Operator Ray Brent Marsh had 787 criminal charges filed against him. On 19 November 2004, Marsh pleaded guilty to all charges. Marsh was sentenced to two 12-year prison sentences, one each from Gruziya va Tennessi, to be served concurrently; he was also sentenced to probation for 75 years following his incarceration.[128]

Civil suits were filed against the Marsh family as well as a number of funeral homes who shipped bodies to Tri-State; these suits were ultimately settled. The property of the Marsh family has been sold, but collection of the full $80-million judgment remains doubtful. Families have expressed the desire to return the former Tri-State crematory to a natural, parklike setting.[iqtibos kerak ]

Indian Ocean tsunamis

The kattalik 9.0–9.3 2004 yil Hind okeanidagi zilzila triggered a series of lethal tsunamis on 26 December 2004 that killed almost 300,000 people, making them the deadliest tsunamis in recorded history. The tsunamis killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo (Indonesia, Tailand, and the northwestern coast of Malayziya ), to thousands of kilometers away in the Hindiston qit'asi (Bangladesh, India, Shri-Lanka, Maldiv orollari ), the Afrika shoxi (Somali ), va Afrikadagi Buyuk ko'llar (Keniya va Tanzaniya ).

Authorities had difficulties dealing with the large numbers of bodies, and as a result, thousands of bodies were cremated together out of fear that decaying bodies would cause disease. Many of these bodies were not identified or viewed by relatives prior to cremation. A particular point of objection was that the bodies of Westerners were kept separate from those of Asian descent, who were mostly locals. This meant that the bodies of tourists from other Asian nations, such as Japan and South Korea, were mass cremated, rather than being returned to their country of origin for funeral rites.[iqtibos kerak ]

Narxlar

Asosiy maqola: List of countries by cremation rate

The cremation rate varies considerably across countries with Japan reporting a 99% cremation rate while Poland reported a rate of 6.7% in 2008. The cremation rate in the United Kingdom has been increasing steadily with the national average rate rising from 34.70% in 1960 to 75.44% in 2015.[129] Ga ko'ra National Funeral Directors Association the cremation rate in the United States in 2016 was 50.2 percent and this was expected to increase to 63.8 percent by 2025 and 78.8 percent in 2035.[130]

Shuningdek qarang

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