Qo'shma Shtatlardagi zamonaviy liberalizm - Modern liberalism in the United States

Zamonaviy liberalizm ning dominant versiyasidir AQShdagi liberalizm. Bu g'oyalarni birlashtiradi fuqarolik erkinligi va tenglik uchun qo'llab-quvvatlash bilan ijtimoiy adolat va a aralash iqtisodiyot. Yan Adamsning so'zlariga ko'ra, Amerikaning barcha yirik partiyalari "liberal va har doim ham shunday bo'lgan. Aslida ular tarafdor klassik liberalizm, bu demokratlashtirilgan shakl Whig konstitutsionizm ortiqcha erkin bozor. Farq nuqtasi ta'sirida keladi ijtimoiy liberalizm ".[1]

Iqtisodiy jihatdan zamonaviy liberalizm kesimlarni qisqartirishga qarshi ijtimoiy xavfsizlik tarmog'i va tengsizlikni kamaytirish, ta'limni ta'minlash, sog'liqni saqlash xizmatlaridan foydalanish imkoniyatini ta'minlash, iqtisodiy faoliyatni tartibga solish va tabiiy muhitni muhofaza qilishda hukumatning rolini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.[2] Liberalizmning ushbu shakli 20-asrda Qo'shma Shtatlarda franchayzing va boshqa fuqarolik huquqlari fuqarolarning katta toifasiga tatbiq etilishi bilan shakllandi. Asosiy misollarga quyidagilar kiradi Teodor Ruzvelt "s Kvadrat bitim va Yangi millatchilik, Vudro Uilson "s Yangi erkinlik, Franklin D. Ruzvelt "s Yangi bitim, Garri S. Truman "s Adolatli bitim, Jon F. Kennedi "s Yangi chegara va Lyndon B. Jonson "s Buyuk jamiyat.

20-asrning birinchi yarmida ikkala yirik Amerika partiyalari ham konservativ va a liberal qanot. Konservativ Shimoliy respublikachilar va Janubiy demokratlar tashkil etdi konservativ koalitsiya hukmron bo'lgan Kongress oldindaFuqarolik huquqlari davri. Prezident Jonson boshchiligidagi demokratlar avval fuqarolik huquqlarini qo'llab-quvvatlay boshlaganlar Qattiq janubiy Demokratik ma'noda, afroamerikalik saylovchilar ko'p bo'lgan tumanlardan tashqari, qat'iy respublikachilikka aylandi. 1960-yillardan boshlab Demokratik partiya liberal va Respublika partiyasi konservativ deb hisoblanadi. Bir guruh sifatida liberallar chap va konservatorlar o'ng deb nomlanadi. 21-asrdan boshlab zichroq, bir jinsli bo'lmagan jamoalarda yashashga intilayotgan liberallar va unchalik zich bo'lmagan, bir hil jamoalarda yashashga moyil bo'lgan konservatorlar o'rtasida ham keskin bo'linish yuzaga keldi.[3][4]

Umumiy nuqtai

Zamonaviy liberal falsafa kabi dasturlarga davlat xarajatlarini qat'iyan ma'qullaydi ta'lim, Sog'liqni saqlash va farovonlik. Muhim ijtimoiy muammolar 21-asrning birinchi qismida o'z ichiga oladi iqtisodiy tengsizlik (boylik va daromad ),[5] ovoz berish huquqlari ozchiliklar uchun,[6] tasdiqlovchi harakat,[7] reproduktiv va boshqalar ayollar huquqlari,[8] uchun qo'llab-quvvatlash LGBT huquqlari[9][10] va immigratsiya islohoti.[11][12] Zamonaviy liberalizm 20-asrda shakllanib, ildizlari ildiz otgan Teodor Ruzvelt "s Kvadrat bitim va Yangi millatchilik, Vudro Uilson "s Yangi erkinlik, Franklin D. Ruzvelt "s Yangi bitim, Garri S. Truman "s Adolatli bitim, Jon F. Kennedi "s Yangi chegara va Lyndon B. Jonson "s Buyuk jamiyat. Zamonaviy liberallar bunga qarshi konservatorlar ko'p masalalar bo'yicha, ammo hamma masalalar bo'yicha emas. Tarixiy jihatdan bog'liq bo'lsa-da ijtimoiy liberalizm va progressivizm, o'rtasidagi hozirgi munosabatlar liberal va progressiv nuqtai nazarlar muhokama qilinadi.[13][14][15][16][17][18] Zamonaviy liberalizm odatda Demokratik partiya esa zamonaviy konservatizm odatda bilan bog'lanadi Respublika partiyasi.[19]

1941 yilda Franklin D. Ruzvelt quyidagi so'zlar bilan liberal partiyani aniqladi:

Liberal partiya, erkaklar va ayollarning individual ravishda uchrashish imkoniyatidan tashqarida yangi shartlar va muammolar paydo bo'lganligi sababli, ularga qarshi kurashadigan yangi vositalarni topish hukumatning vazifasi bo'lib qoladi deb hisoblaydi. Liberal partiyaning ta'kidlashicha, hukumat barcha ijtimoiy kuchlarni va mablag'larni yangi ijtimoiy muammolarni hal qilish uchun ishlatish uchun aniq vazifa - oddiy odamga o'zining iqtisodiy va siyosiy huquqini ta'minlash uchun. hayot, erkinlik va baxtga intilish.[20]

1960 yilda Jon F. Kennedi liberalni quyidagicha ta'riflagan:

Raqiblarimiz bizga "Liberal" yorlig'i bilan murojaat qilishganda nimani anglatadi? Agar ular "liberal" deganda, odamlar xohlaganidek, chet elda o'z siyosatida yumshoq, mahalliy hukumatga qarshi bo'lgan va soliq to'lovchining dollariga befarq bo'lmagan odamni nazarda tutgan bo'lsa, demak, bu partiya va uning a'zolarining qaydlari shuni ko'rsatadiki biz bunday "liberal" emasmiz. Ammo, agar "liberal" deganda, ular orqada emas, oldinga qaraydigan, yangi g'oyalarni qattiq reaktsiyalarsiz kutib oladigan, odamlarning farovonligi - sog'lig'i, uy-joylari, maktablari, ish joylari, ularning fuqarolik huquqlari va ularning fuqarolik erkinliklari - bizni chet elda olib boradigan siyosatimizdagi tanglik va shubhalarni bartaraf etishimiz mumkin deb hisoblaydigan kishi, agar ular "liberal" degani shu bo'lsa, demak, men g'urur bilan aytaman: Men "liberal" emasman.[21][22]

Keynslik iqtisodiy nazariyasi zamonaviy liberallarning iqtisodiy falsafasida muhim rol o'ynadi.[23] Zamonaviy liberallar odatda milliy farovonlik ishsizlikni past darajada ushlab turish, inflyatsiyani ushlab turish va o'sishni yuqori darajada ushlab turish uchun makroiqtisodiyotni hukumat tomonidan boshqarishni talab qiladi deb hisoblaydilar.[iqtibos kerak ] Ular iqtisodiy tengsizlikdan himoya qiluvchi institutlarni ham qadrlashadi. Yilda Liberalning vijdoni, Pol Krugman yozadi: "Men boylik va qashshoqlikni cheklaydigan institutlar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan nisbatan teng jamiyatga ishonaman. Men demokratiya, fuqarolar erkinligi va qonun ustuvorligiga ishonaman. Bu meni liberal qiladi va men bundan faxrlanaman" .[24] Zamonaviy liberallar ko'pincha keyingi yillarda aralash iqtisodiyot sharoitida keng tarqalgan farovonlikka ishora qilmoqdalar Ikkinchi jahon urushi.[25][26] Ular sog'liqni saqlash va iqtisodiy imkoniyatlar kabi zarur bo'lgan narsalardan foydalanish hamma uchun mavjud bo'lganda erkinlik mavjud deb hisoblashadi[27] va ular atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilishni qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar.[28][29]

Evropada ishlatilishidan amerikalik liberalizm

Bugun, liberalizm turli mamlakatlarda turlicha ishlatiladi. Eng katta qarama-qarshiliklardan biri Qo'shma Shtatlardagi va Evropadagi foydalanish o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikdir. Ga binoan Artur M. Shlezinger kichik. (1956 yilda yozilgan), "Amerikada iberalizmning Evropadagi biron bir mamlakat siyosatida ishlatilgan so'z bilan umuman o'xshashligi yo'q, ehtimol Britaniyadan tashqari".[30] Evropada, liberalizm odatda ba'zan nima deyiladi degan ma'noni anglatadi klassik liberalizm, majburiyat cheklangan hukumat, laissez-faire iqtisodiyot va ajralmas shaxs huquqlari. Bu klassik liberalizm ba'zan Amerika ta'rifiga yanada yaqinroq mos keladi libertarizm, ba'zilari bir-biridan farq qilsa ham klassik liberalizm va libertarizm.[31]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda umumiy atama liberalizm deyarli har doim zamonaviy liberalizmga, klassik liberalizmning ijtimoiy variantiga murojaat qiladi. Evropada bu ijtimoiy liberalizm Evropaga yaqinroq ijtimoiy demokratiya, garchi asl shakli Evropadagi ba'zi liberal partiyalar tomonidan ham qo'llab-quvvatlansa ham Beveridj guruhi tarkibidagi fraksiya Liberal-demokratlar, Liberallar, Daniya ijtimoiy-liberal partiyasi, Demokratik harakat va Italiya Respublikachilar partiyasi.

Amerikalik liberallarning demografiyasi

2005 yil Pew tadqiqot markazi Tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, liberallar eng bilimli mafkuraviy demografik va eng badavlat guruh uchun tashabbuskorlarning konservativ pastki guruhi bilan bog'langan. Liberal deb topganlarning 49 foizi kollej bitiruvchilari va 41 foizi uy xo'jaliklarining daromadi 75 ming dollardan oshgan, bu ko'rsatkich o'rtacha respublika bo'yicha 27 va 28 foizni tashkil etgan.[32] Liberalizm akademiyada hukmron siyosiy mafkuraga aylandi, so'rovnomaning aniq so'zlariga qarab 44-62% liberal deb topildi. Bu 1969 yildan 1984 yilgacha o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlarda 40-46% liberal identifikatsiyalash bilan taqqoslanadi.[33] The ijtimoiy fanlar va gumanitar fanlar biznes va muhandislik bo'limlari eng liberal bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, biznes bo'limlarida ham liberallar konservatorlardan ikkitadan ko'p edi.[34] Bu liberallar o'zlarining siyosiy hamkasblaridan konservatorlarga qaraganda o'rtacha ma'lumotliroqmi degan umumiy savolga javob beradi. 2008 va 2010 yillarda o'tkazilgan ikkita Zogby so'rovnomasi, o'zini o'zi tanigan liberallar o'zini o'zi tanigan konservatorlardan ko'ra ko'proq kollejga borishga moyilligini tasdiqlamoqda. So'rovnomalar shuni ko'rsatdiki, yosh amerikaliklar umumiy aholidan ko'ra ancha erkinroq.[35] 2009 yil holatiga ko'ra, 18-29 kohortaning 30% liberal edi.[35] 2011 yilda bu 28 foizga o'zgargan, o'rtacha foiz esa ikki foizni tashkil qilgan.[36]

2015 yil Gallup so'rovnoma shuni aniqladi ijtimoiy liberal 1999 yildan beri Qo'shma Shtatlarda qarashlar doimiy ravishda o'sib bormoqda.[37] 2015 yilga kelib taxminan teng miqdordagi ijtimoiy liberal amerikaliklar va ijtimoiy konservativ Amerikaliklar (har biri 31%) va ijtimoiy liberal tendentsiya o'sishda davom etmoqda.[37] 2016 yil boshida Gallup ko'proq amerikaliklar g'oyaviy jihatdan o'zlarini aniqladilar konservativ (37%) yoki o'rtacha Liberal (24%) emas, balki (35%), ammo bu liberalizm 1992 yildan beri asta-sekin o'sib boradi va 24 yillik eng yuqori darajaga ko'tariladi.[38]

XXI asr muammolari

21-asrning boshlarida Qo'shma Shtatlardagi siyosiy nutqda liberalizm qo'llab-quvvatlashni o'z ichiga oldi reproduktiv huquqlar ayollar uchun, shu jumladan abort,[39] uchun tasdiqlovchi harakat ozchilik guruhlari tarixan kamsitilgan,[40] ko'p qirralilik va xalqaro institutlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash,[41] korporativ manfaatlar ustidan individual huquqlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash,[42] amerikaliklar uchun umumiy sog'liqni saqlashni qo'llab-quvvatlash (bitta to'lovni to'lash imkoniyati bilan), LGBTQ + huquqlarini qo'llab-quvvatlash va nikoh tengligi va boylar uchun soliqlarni kamaytirishga qarshi chiqish.[43]

Tarix

Tarixchi va liberalizm tarafdori Artur M. Shlezinger kichik. merosini chuqur o'rgangan edi Jekson demokratiyasi Franklin D. Ruzveltga ta'sirida.[44] Robert V. Remini, biografi Endryu Jekson, shuningdek dedi:

Jekson demokratiyasi Demak, demokratiya kontseptsiyasini iloji boricha ko'proq qamrab oladi va hali ham ishlashga yaroqli bo'lib qoladi. [...] Shunday qilib, Amerika tarixidagi o'n to'qqizinchi va yigirmanchi asrlarda sodir bo'lgan dinamik va dramatik voqealarning aksariyati - Populizm, Progressivizm, Yangi va adolatli bitimlar, Yangi Chegara va Buyuk Jamiyat dasturlari haqida eslatib o'tdi. eng aniq.[45]

1956 yilda Shlezinger AQShdagi liberalizm ikkalasini ham o'z ichiga oladi deb aytdi laissez-faire shakl va a hukumat aralashuvi shakl. Uning fikricha, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi liberalizm unga erishishga qaratilgan imkoniyatlarning tengligi hamma uchun, lekin sharoitga qarab o'zgarib turadigan bunga erishish vositasi. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, "liberalizmni 20-asrning ijtimoiy ehtiyojlari nuqtai nazaridan qayta aniqlash jarayoni" tomonidan olib borilgan Teodor Ruzvelt va uning Yangi millatchilik, Vudro Uilson va uning Yangi erkinlik va Franklin D. Ruzvelt va uning Yangi bitim. Ushbu uchta islohot davridan ijtimoiy tushunchasi paydo bo'ldi ijtimoiy davlat, bunda milliy hukumat iqtisodiyotda bandlikni yuqori darajada ushlab turish, hayot va mehnat me'yorlarini nazorat qilish, ishbilarmonlik raqobati usullarini tartibga solish va ijtimoiy ta'minotning har tomonlama namunalarini o'rnatish bo'yicha aniq majburiyatlarga ega edi.[30]

Ba'zilar bir-birlarini farqlaydilar Amerika klassik liberalizmi sifatida tanilgan yangi liberalizm ijtimoiy liberalizm.[46]

Progressive Era

The progressiv harakat 1890-yillarda paydo bo'lgan va sotsiolog tomonidan aniqlangan intellektual islohotchilarni o'z ichiga olgan "Lester" Frenk Uord va iqtisodchi Richard T. Ely.[47] Ular Viktoriya liberalizmini o'zgartirib, fuqarolik erkinliklari va shaxs huquqlariga bo'lgan sodiqligini saqlab qolishdi va laissez-faire iqtisodiyot. Uord 1933 yildan keyin zamonaviy ijtimoiy davlatga aylanishini aniqlashga yordam berdi.[48] Ular ko'pincha tobora ortib borayotgan ishchilar kasaba uyushmalarini va ba'zan hatto chap tarafdagi sotsialistlarni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. The Ijtimoiy Xushxabar harakat, ayniqsa 1890-yillardan 20-yillarga qadar liberalizmni shakllantirishga yordam bergan protestant intellektual harakati edi. U xristian axloqini ijtimoiy muammolarga, xususan iqtisodiy tengsizlik, qashshoqlik, alkogolizm, jinoyatchilik, irqiy ziddiyatlar, kambag'allar, nopok atrof-muhit, bolalar mehnati, yetarli bo'lmagan kasaba uyushmalari, kambag'al maktablar va urush xavfi kabi ijtimoiy adolat masalalariga tatbiq etdi.[49] Lyndon B. Jonson Ota-onasi Ijtimoiy Xushxabarda faol bo'lgan va unga umrbod sodiq bo'lgan, chunki u ijtimoiy muammolarni axloqiy muammolarga aylantirishga intilgan. Bu uning misolida ko'rsatilgandek uning uzoq vaqtdan beri ijtimoiy adolat tarafdori ekanligini tushuntirishga yordam beradi Buyuk jamiyat va uning irqiy tenglikka sodiqligi. Ijtimoiy Xushxabar uning xristianlik baynalmilalchiligiga va millat qurish yo'lidagi tashqi siyosatiga yaqqol ilhom berdi.[50] Falsafa va ta'lim sohasida, Jon Devi juda ta'sirli edi.[51]

1900–1920 yillarda liberallar o'zlarini taraqqiyparvar deb atashdi. Ular boshchiligidagi respublikachilar ortida to'plandilar Teodor Ruzvelt va Robert M. La Follette boshchiligidagi demokratlar kabi Uilyam Jennings Bryan va Vudro Uilson korruptsiyaga, isrofgarchilikka va katta narsalarga qarshi kurashish ishonchlar (monopoliyalar). Ular ijtimoiy adolat va hukumatdan ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy muammolarni hal qilishda foydalanish ideallarini ta'kidladilar. Kabi aholi punktlari ishchilari Jeyn Addams liberal an'ana rahbarlari edi.[52] Kasaba uyushmalari bilan xushyoqish va manfaatdor bo'lmagan mutaxassislarning ilmiy tajribalarini qo'llash maqsadi o'rtasida ziddiyat mavjud edi. 1940-yillarda liberallar antikommunistga aylanganda, ular so'lchilarni liberal harakatdan tozalashdi.[53]

Siyosiy yozuvchi Gerbert Kroli orqali yangi liberalizmni aniqlashga yordam berdi Yangi respublika jurnal va ko'plab nufuzli kitoblar. Kroul rejali iqtisodiyot, ta'limga sarflangan mablag'larning ko'payishi va "insoniyatning birodarligi" ga asoslangan jamiyatni yaratish masalasini taqdim etdi. Uning 1909 yildagi nufuzli kitobi Amerika hayotining va'dasi iqtisodiy rejalashtirish orqali umumiy turmush darajasini oshirishni taklif qildi. Croly agressiv ittifoqqa qarshi chiqdi. Yilda Demokratiya usullari (1915), u ham dogmatik individualizmga, ham dogmatik sotsializmga qarshi bahs yuritdi.[54]

Tarixchi Vernon Lui Parrington 1928 yilda Pulitser mukofotiga sazovor bo'ldi Amerika tafakkuridagi asosiy oqimlar. Bu mustamlaka davridan 20-asrning boshlarigacha Amerikaning juda ta'sirli intellektual tarixi edi. Bu yaxshi yozilgan va qiymatiga ishtiyoqmand edi Jefferson demokratiyasi liberal qahramonlarni va ularning g'oyalari va sabablarini aniqlashga va ularni sharaflashga yordam berdi.[55] 1930 yilda Parrington: "Amerikada yarim asrdan ko'proq vaqt davomida ijodiy siyosiy fikrlash asosan g'arbiy agrar edi va shu manbadan keyinchalik liberalizmning asosiy mahsulotini ta'minlashi kerak bo'lgan demokratik g'oyalar paydo bo'ldi".[56] 1945 yilda tarixchi Artur M. Shlezinger kichik. da'vo qildi Jeksonning yoshi liberalizm ham paydo bo'lgan Jekson demokratiyasi va Sharqiy shaharlarning mehnat radikalizmi, shu bilan uni Ruzveltning yangi bitimining shahar o'lchovi bilan bog'laydi.[57]

Liberal respublikachilar

Da'volar ustidan kuchli federal hukumatga urg'u berish bilan davlatning huquqlari, qul egalarining mulk huquqlariga qarshi keng tarqalgan tadbirkorlik va individual erkinlik, Avraam Linkoln Prezidentlik kelajakdagi liberal respublikachilik boshqaruvi uchun juda katta ishlarni yaratdi.[58]

20-asr boshlarida Respublikachilar partiyasining liberal elementi tomonidan tipiklashtirildi Teodor Ruzvelt 1907-1912 yillarda, Ruzvelt ko'proq bo'lsa-da konservativ boshqa nuqtalarda. Boshqa liberal respublikachilar orasida senator ham bor edi Robert M. La Follette va uning Viskonsin shtatidagi o'g'illari (taxminan 1900 yildan 1946 yilgacha) va senator kabi G'arb rahbarlari Xiram Jonson Kaliforniyada, senator Jorj V. Norris Nebraska shtatida, senator Bronson M. kesish Nyu-Meksiko shahrida, Kongress ayol Janet Rankin Montana va senatorda Uilyam Borax taxminan 1900 yildan 1940 yilgacha Aydaxoda. Ular kasaba uyushmalarini qo'llab-quvvatlaganliklari sababli ichki siyosatda umuman liberal edilar[59] va ko'p Yangi bitim. Biroq, ular tashqi siyosatda qattiq izolyatsiya tarafdorlari edilar.[60] Ushbu element 1940-yillarda yo'q bo'lib ketdi. 1930-yillardan boshlab, asosan shimoliy-sharqiy respublikachilarning bir qismi kasaba uyushmalari, sarf-xarajatlar va "Yangi bitim" siyosati bo'yicha zamonaviy liberal pozitsiyalarni egallashdi. Ularning ichiga gubernator ham bor edi Garold Stassen Minnesota shtati,[61] Hokim Tomas E. Devi Nyu-York gubernatori Graf Uorren Kaliforniya shtati,[62] Senator Klifford P. ishi Nyu-Jersidan, Genri Kabot lojasi kichik., Massachusets shtatidan, senator Preskott Bush ning Konnektikut (Jorj X. V. Bushning otasi), senator Jeykob K. Javits Nyu-York gubernatori va keyinchalik senator Mark Xetfild Oregon shtatidan, senator Jon Sherman Kuper Kentukki shtatidan, senator Jorj Ayken Vermont, Hokim Uilyam Skranton Pensilvaniya shtati va gubernator Jorj Romni Michigan shtati.[63] Ularning barchasidan eng e'tiborlisi Gubernator edi Nelson Rokfeller Nyu-York.[64]

Ommaviy axborot vositalari ularni tez-tez chaqirgan bo'lsa-da Rokfeller respublikachilari, liberal respublikachilar hech qachon uyushgan harakat yoki kokus tashkil qilmagan va taniqli etakchiga ega bo'lmagan. Ular iqtisodiy o'sishni va yuqori soliq va ko'plab liberal qonunchiliklarni qabul qilishda yuqori davlat va federal xarajatlarni qo'llab-quvvatladilar, chunki ular uni yanada samarali boshqarishi mumkin edi. Ular ishchilar kasaba uyushmalarining va katta ishbilarmonlarning qo'llab-quvvatlashini kutib, demokratlarning katta shahar mashinalariga qarshi chiqishdi. Din ularning kun tartibida emas edi, lekin ular afro-amerikaliklar uchun fuqarolik huquqlariga kuchli ishonganlar va ayollar huquqlari va aksariyat liberallar tanlov uchun tanlov. Ular shuningdek kuchli ekologlar edilar va oliy ma'lumotni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Tashqi siyosatda ular o'zlarini qo'llab-quvvatlab, mo''tadil kishilarni tashlab, baynalmilalistlar edilar[65] Duayt D. Eyzenxauer konservativ rahbar ustidan Robert A. Taft kabi konservatorlar ularni ko'pincha "Sharqiy muassasa" deb atashgan Barri Goldwater.[66] Goldwater konservatorlari ushbu tashkilotga qarshi kurash olib borishdi, 1964 yilgi boshlang'ich saylovlarda Rokfellerni mag'lub etishdi va oxir-oqibat uning ko'pchilik a'zolari nafaqaga chiqdilar, garchi ba'zi senatorlar Charlz Gudell va shahar hokimi Jon Lindsay Nyu-Yorkda demokratlarga aylandi.[67] Prezident sifatida Richard Nikson liberallarning atrof-muhit, farovonlik va san'at borasidagi ko'plab pozitsiyalarini qabul qildi. Kongress a'zosidan keyin Jon B. Anderson Illinoys shtati 1980 yilda partiyani mahkamlagan va Reyganga qarshi mustaqil ravishda qatnashgan, liberal respublikachilar unsuri yo'qolib ketgan. Ularning shimoliy-sharqdagi qadimgi tayanch punktlari endi asosan demokratlar tomonidan saqlanib qolgan.[68]

Yangi bitim

Prezident Franklin D. Ruzvelt iqtisodiy inqirozi sharoitida 1933 yilda ish boshlagan Katta depressiya, xalqqa taklif a Yangi bitim iqtisodiy umidsizlik va ishsizlikni engillashtirish, katta imkoniyatlar yaratish va farovonlikni tiklash uchun mo'ljallangan. Uning prezidentligi 1933 yildan 1945 yilgacha davom etgan Amerika tarixidagi eng uzoq vaqt bo'lib, federal hukumatning xalqning iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy muammolarini hal qilishdagi roli oshgan. Ishni yengillashtirish dasturlari ish bilan ta'minlandi, kabi ulkan loyihalar Tennessi vodiysi boshqarmasi iqtisodiy rivojlanishni rivojlantirish uchun yaratilgan va a ijtimoiy Havfsizlik tizim o'rnatildi. Ruzvelt ma'muriyatiga o'z ishlarida Kongressdagi taraqqiyparvar kishilar yordam berishdi, 1934 yilgi Kongressning oraliq saylovlarida progressiv, yangi liberal tadbirlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashga tayyor bo'lgan yanada radikal Vakillar palatasi qaytib keldi.[69] J. Richard Piper ta'kidlaganidek:

1935 yilga kelib "yangi" liberalizm o'zining dominant shakliga aylanib borar ekan, Kongressning har ikkala palatasi odatda "liberal" deb nomlangan davlat siyosati uchun katta miqdordagi ovoz berishda davom etdi. Konservatorlar 1933 yildan 1937 yilgacha kongressda alohida ozchilikni tashkil qildilar va bir muncha vaqt unutish bilan tahdid qilishdi.[70]

Buyuk depressiya 1936 yilda tugaganga o'xshaydi, ammo 1937-1938 yillarda qayta tiklanish uzoq muddatli ishsizlikni keltirib chiqardi. Ikkinchi jahon urushida Qo'shma Shtatlarning iqtisodiy, ijtimoiy va harbiy resurslarini to'liq safarbar qilish bilan to'liq ish bilan ta'minlandi. O'sha paytda WPA va CCC kabi asosiy yordam dasturlari tugatildi. Artur Xermanning ta'kidlashicha, Ruzvelt 1940 yildan keyin katta biznes bilan yaqin hamkorlik qilish orqali farovonlikni tiklagan,[71] garchi "Sizningcha, Ruzvelt ma'muriyatining biznesga bo'lgan munosabati biznesni tiklashni kechiktiryaptimi?" degan savolga amerikaliklar 1939 yilda "ha" deb javob berishgan bo'lsa, 2 dan 1 gacha.[72]

Buyuk Depressiyani engillashtiradigan "Yangi bitim" dasturlari odatda ishsizlikni tugatishda aralash muvaffaqiyat sifatida qaraladi. O'sha paytda ko'plab yangi bitim dasturlari, ayniqsa CCC, mashhur edi. Liberallar ularni oddiy fuqaroning hayotini yaxshilash va ishsizlarni ish bilan ta'minlash, kasaba uyushma ishchilarini huquqiy himoya qilish, Amerika qishloqlari uchun zamonaviy kommunal xizmatlar, kambag'allar uchun ish haqi va oilaviy fermer uchun narx barqarorligi uchun ularni olqishladilar. Ammo ozchiliklar uchun iqtisodiy taraqqiyotga kamsitish to'sqinlik qildi, bu masalada Ruzvelt ma'muriyati ko'pincha chetlab o'tdi.[73]

Yengillik, tiklanish va islohot

Yangi bitim relyef, tiklanish va islohotlarni ishlab chiqarishga mo'ljallangan uch xil dasturdan iborat edi:[74]

Musobaqa

Yangi bitim irqiy jihatdan ajratilgan, chunki qora va oq tanlilar kamdan-kam hollarda New Deal dasturlarida bir-birlari bilan birga ishlashgan. Hozirgacha eng katta yordam dasturi WPA bo'lib, u Nyu-Yorkdagi yoshlar filiali singari ajratilgan bo'linmalarni boshqargan.[76] Qora tanlilar WPA tomonidan Shimolda nazoratchi sifatida yollangan. Janubdagi WPA-ning 10000 nazoratchisidan faqat 11 nafari qora tanli edi.[77] Dastlabki bir necha hafta ichida Shimoldagi CCC lagerlari birlashtirildi. 1935 yil iyulga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlardagi barcha lagerlar ajratilgan va qora tanlilar ularga berilgan nazorat rollarida qat'iy cheklangan.[78] Kinker va Smitning ta'kidlashicha, "Yangi bitimdagi eng taniqli irqiy liberallar ham Jim Krouni tanqid qilishga jur'at etmagan".[79] Ichki ishlar kotibi Garold Ikkes Ruzvelt ma'muriyatining qora tanlilarning eng taniqli tarafdorlaridan biri bo'lgan va NAACP ning Chikago bobining sobiq prezidenti bo'lgan. Qachon senator Josiya Beyli, Shimoliy Karolina demokrati, 1937 yilda uni segregatsiya to'g'risidagi qonunlarni buzishga urinishda ayblagan, Ikkes unga buni rad etish uchun yozgan:

Iloji bo'lsa, o'zlarining ijtimoiy muammolarini hal qilish davlatlar ixtiyorida deb o'ylayman va men har doim negrlarning to'rtburchaklar bilan bitim tuzganligini ko'rishga qiziqqan bo'lsam-da, men hech qachon kuchimni ajratishning alohida tosh devoriga qarshi sarflamaganman. Menimcha, negr o'zini yuqori ta'lim va iqtisodiy darajaga ko'targanida devor qulab tushadi. [...] Bundan tashqari, Shimolda ajratish qonunlari mavjud emasligiga qaramay, aslida ajratish mavjud va biz ham buni tan olishimiz mumkin.[80][81]

Yangi bitimning rekordi hujumga uchradi Yangi chap tarixchilar, 60-yillarda kapitalizmga kuchliroq hujum qilmaslikda va qora tanlilarga tenglikka erishishda yordam bermaslikda yordam berganliklari uchun. Tanqidchilar yangi dilerlarning asosiy ijtimoiy muammolarga hujum qilmasliklarini tushuntirish uchun islohotlar falsafasi yo'qligini ta'kidlaydilar. Ular yangi bitimning kapitalizmni qutqarish va xususiy mulkni olib qo'yishdan bosh tortish majburiyatini namoyish etmoqda. Ular xalqdan uzoqlikni va ishtirok etuvchi demokratiyaga befarqlikni aniqlaydilar va buning o'rniga mojaro va ekspluatatsiyaga ko'proq e'tibor berishga chaqirishadi.[82][83]

Franklin D. Ruzveltning tashqi siyosati

Xalqaro munosabatlarda Ruzveltning 1938 yilgacha bo'lgan prezidentligi o'sha paytdagi deyarli barcha Amerika siyosatida hukmronlik qilgan izolyatsiyani aks ettirdi. 1938 yildan so'ng, u dunyo urushga duchor bo'lganligi sababli u interventsionizmga o'tdi.[84] Liberallar tashqi siyosatda ikkiga bo'lindi, chunki ko'pchilik Ruzveltga ergashdi, boshqalari esa Jon L. Lyuis ning Sanoat tashkilotlari kongressi, tarixchi Charlz A. Soqol va Kennedi oilasi unga qarshi chiqdi. Biroq, Ruzvelt respublikachilar kabi yangi konservativ tarafdorlarini qo'shdi Genri Stimson (u 1940 yilda uning harbiy kotibi bo'lgan) va Vendell Uilki (Ruzvelt bilan 1940 yilgi saylovlarda yutqazgandan keyin u bilan yaqin hamkorlik qilgan). Urushdan keyingi davrni kutgan holda Ruzvelt a Birlashgan Millatlar xalqaro miqyosdagi muammolarni hal qilish uchun o'zaro hamkorlikni rag'batlantirish vositasi sifatida tashkilot. Uning baynalmilalizm g'oyalariga sodiqligi Vudro Uilson, bundan tashqari, Ruzvelt Uilsonning xatolaridan bilib oldi Millatlar Ligasi. Masalan, Ruzvelt respublikachilarni tashqi siyosatni shakllantirishga qo'shgan va Qo'shma Shtatlarning Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotida veto qo'yishini talab qilgan.[85]

Sovuq urush davrida liberalizm

Amerika liberalizmi Sovuq urush davr bevosita merosxo'r edi Franklin D. Ruzvelt "s Yangi bitim va biroz uzoqroq merosxo'r ilg'or 20-asr boshlarida. Rossinov (2008) 1945 yildan so'ng Yangi kelishuv yillarida faoliyat yuritgan chap-liberal ittifoq kommunizm masalasida yaxshilikka ajralgan deb ta'kidlaydi. Boshchiligidagi antikommunistik liberallar Uolter Reuter va Xubert Xamfri o'ta so'lchilarni mehnat jamoalaridan chiqarib yuborgan va Yangi bitim koalitsiyasi va Demokratik partiyani "Sovuq urush" siyosatiga sodiq qoldirdi NATO va kommunizmni qamrab olish. Liberallar kabi yirik monopoliyalarni qabul qilgan iqtisodiy o'sishning miqdoriy maqsadiga sodiq qolishdi General Motors va AT & T oldingi chap-liberallar orzu qilgan tarkibiy o'zgarishlarni rad etish bilan birga. Haddan tashqari so'lchilar so'nggi hujumga duch kelishdi Genri A. Uolles 1948 yilgi uchinchi tomon prezidentlik kampaniyasi. Uolles yangi bitim islohotlarini qo'llab-quvvatladi va Sovuq urushga qarshi chiqdi, ammo uning kampaniyasini o'ta so'llar egallab oldi va Uolles nafrat bilan siyosatdan nafaqaga chiqdi.[86]

Sovuq urush liberalizmining eng taniqli va doimiy pozitsiyalari quyidagilar edi:[86]

  • Mehnat o'rtasidagi kuchlar muvozanatiga asoslangan uyushgan iqtisodiyotni qo'llab-quvvatlash (uyushgan shaklda) kasaba uyushmalari ) va menejment (yirik korporatsiyalarga nisbatan ko'proq qiziqish istagi bilan kichik biznes ).
  • Sovet Ittifoqi va uning ittifoqchilarini qamrab olishga qaratilgan tashqi siyosat.
  • New Deal ijtimoiy yordam dasturlarini davom ettirish va kengaytirish (keng qamrovli ma'noda, shu kabi dasturlarni o'z ichiga oladi) Ijtimoiy Havfsizlik ).
  • Quchog'i Keyns iqtisodiyoti. O'zlarining o'ng tomonidagi siyosiy guruhlar bilan murosaga kelish yo'li bilan, bu ko'pincha amalda yuz berdi harbiy Keynschilik.[87]

Qaysidir ma'noda, bu boshqa mamlakatlarda aytilgan narsalarga o'xshardi ijtimoiy demokratiya. Biroq, amerikalik liberallar hech qachon keng ma'qullanmagan milliylashtirish Evropa sotsial-demokratlari kabi sanoatning, aksincha jamoat foydasi uchun tartibga solishni ma'qullaydigan.

1950-1960 yillarda Amerikaning ikkala yirik siyosiy partiyalari tarkibiga liberal va konservativ fraksiyalar kirgan. The Demokratik partiya bir tomondan Shimoliy va G'arbiy liberallarni, boshqa tomondan umuman konservativ Janubiy oqlarni o'z ichiga olgan. Tasniflash qiyin bo'lgan Shimoliy katta shahar Demokratik edi siyosiy mashinalar. Shahar mashinalari New Deal iqtisodiy siyosatini qo'llab-quvvatlagan, ammo ular farovonlik va etnik guruhlarning assimilyatsiya qilinishi bilan susaygan. 1960-yillarga kelib deyarli barchasi shaharlardagi irqiy zo'ravonliklarga qarshi qulab tushdi[88] The Respublika partiyasi mo''tadil-liberalni o'z ichiga olgan Uoll-strit va mo''tadil-konservativ Asosiy ko'cha. Shimoliy-sharqda eng kuchliroq bo'lgan liberal qanot "Yangi bitim" dasturlarini, ishchilar uyushmalarini va internatsionalistik tashqi siyosatni ko'proq qo'llab-quvvatladi.[89] Kommunizmga qarshi qo'llab-quvvatlash ba'zan hisobidan amalga oshirildi fuqarolik erkinliklari. Masalan, ADA asoschilaridan biri va Sovuq urush liberal arxetipi Xubert Xamfri 1950 yilda prezident tomonidan buzg'unchilik e'lon qilinganlarni sudsiz ushlab turilishi mumkin bo'lgan hibsxonalarni tashkil etish to'g'risidagi Senatning qonun loyihasi muvaffaqiyatsiz ravishda qo'llab-quvvatlandi.[90] Shunga qaramay, liberallar qarshi chiqishdi Makkartizm va Makkartining qulashi uchun markaziy o'rinni egallashdi.[91]

Davomida ichki siyosatda Beshinchi partiya tizimi (1932-1966), liberallar kamdan-kam hollarda hukumatni to'liq nazorat qilar edilar, ammo konservatorlar bu davrda ham hech qachon to'liq nazoratga ega emas edilar. Jonathan Bernsteinning so'zlariga ko'ra, na liberallar va na demokratlar Vakillar palatasini 1939 yildan 1957 yilgacha tez-tez nazorat qilmaganlar, ammo 1958 yilgi ko'chki 20 yil ichida birinchi marta Kongressning har ikki palatasida liberallarga haqiqiy ko'pchilikni bergan. Shu bilan birga, Qoidalar qo'mitasi islohotlari va boshqalar ushbu ko'chkidan keyin amalga oshirildi, chunki liberallar uy tartib-qoidalari "bu ko'pchilikdan foydalanishlariga halaqit berayotganini" ko'rdilar. Konservativ koalitsiya 1967 yildan 1974 yilgacha muhim bo'lgan (agar u hukmron bo'lmasa), garchi Kongress 1985 yildan 1994 yilgacha liberal Demokratik ko'pchilikka ega bo'lgan bo'lsa ham. Bernshteyn ham ta'kidlaganidek, "ozgina yillar bo'lgan (Franklin D. Ruzveltning birinchi muddati) , 1961-1966 yillarda, Jimmi Karter prezidentligi va Klinton va Barak Obama prezidentligining dastlabki ikki yilida), Uyda, Senatda va Oq uyda aniq, ishlaydigan liberal ko'pchiliklar bo'lganida ".[92]

Garri S. Trumanning adolatli bitimi

U prezident bo'lguncha, liberallar umuman ko'rmadilar Garri S. Truman o'zlaridan biri sifatida, uni Demokratik partiyaning buzilishi deb hisoblaydi. Biroq, liberal siyosatchilar va kasaba uyushmalari kabi liberal tashkilotlar va Amerikaliklar demokratik harakat uchun (ADA) Trumaning liberalini qo'llab-quvvatladi Adolatli bitim yangi kelishuvni davom ettirish va kengaytirish bo'yicha takliflar. Alonzo Xambi adolatli bitim liberalizmga qaratilgan totalitarizmni rad etgan, hukumat hokimiyatining haddan tashqari konsentratsiyasida shubhali bo'lgan va yangi bitimni ilg'or kapitalistik tizimga erishish uchun qilingan sa'y-harakatlar sifatida sharaflagan hayotiy markaziy yondashuvni aks ettirganini ta'kidlaydi. Keng ko'lamli ijtimoiy qonunchilikni himoya qilishda "Yangi bitim" an'analariga qat'iy asoslangan holda, "Halol bitim" alohida shaxsni talab qilish uchun etarlicha farq qildi. Urushdan keyin depressiya qaytmadi va Adolatli Bitim farovonlik va umidvor kelajakka duch keldi. Yarmarka dilerlari depressiya tanqisligi emas, balki mo'l-ko'lchilik haqida o'ylashdi. Iqtisodchi Leon Keyserling liberal vazifa iqtisodiy o'sishni rag'batlantirish orqali mo'l-ko'lchilikning afzalliklarini jamiyatga tarqatishdan iborat edi. Qishloq xo'jaligi kotibi Charlz F. Brannan qishloq xo'jaligi mo'l-ko'lchiligining afzalliklarini ochishni va shahar-qishloq demokratik koalitsiyasining rivojlanishini rag'batlantirishni xohladi. Biroq, "Brannan rejasi" uning shahar ishtiyoqiga ishonmagan shahar mehnatkashlari va fermer xo'jaliklari egalarini birlashtirish imkoniyatiga bo'lgan ishonchsizligi bilan mag'lub bo'ldi. The konservativ koalitsiya Shimoliy respublikachilar va Kongressdagi janubiy demokratlarning yarmarkasi va 1930-yillarning oxiridan 1960-yilgacha bo'lgan barcha liberal qonunchilikni samarali ravishda to'sib qo'yishdi.[93] The Koreya urushi harbiy xarajatlarni millatning ustuvor yo'nalishiga aylantirdi.[94]

1960-yillarda Stenford universiteti tarixchisi Barton Bernshteyn Trumanni New Deal kun tartibini bajara olmaganligi va uyda haddan tashqari antikommunizm uchun rad etdi.[95]

1950-yillar

Konservatizmga qarshi kurash liberal kun tartibiga kiritilmagan edi, chunki 1950 yilga kelib liberal mafkura shu qadar intellektual jihatdan ustun bo'lganki, adabiyotshunos Lionel Trilling "liberalizm nafaqat hukmron, balki yagona intellektual an'ana [...] ekanligini ta'kidlashi mumkin. [T] bu erda muomalada bo'lgan konservativ yoki reaktsion g'oyalar yo'q".[96]

Aksariyat tarixchilar liberalizmni 1950-yillarda, yangi kelishuv orzularining eski uchqunida Eyzenxauer yillaridagi jozibali xotirjamlik va konservatizm soya solib qo'yganida, tushkunlikda ko'rishmoqda. Adlai Stivenson II Ikki ko'chkida yo'qolgan va bir nechta yangi liberal takliflarni taqdim etgan, bundan tashqari butun dunyoda yadro sinovlarini taqiqlash to'g'risidagi taklif. Barri Karl ta'kidlaganidek, Stivenson "uni mag'lubiyatga uchratgan dushmanlardan ko'ra, muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lgan muxlislari oldida ko'proq azob chekdi".[97] Ko'pgina liberallar Demokratik liderlarning tayyorligidan xafa bo'lishadi Lyndon B. Jonson va Sem Reyburn Kongressda Eyzenxauer bilan hamkorlik qilish va AFL-CIO kasaba uyushmalarining majburiyatlari va senatorlar singari eng liberal vakillar. Xubert Xamfri va Pol Duglas uyda va chet elda antikommunizmga. Ular liberallarning ko'pchiligining yangi tug'ilganlarga bo'lgan zaif e'tiborini rad etishadi fuqarolik huquqlari harakati.[98]

Liberal koalitsiya

Siyosiy jihatdan, 40-yillarning oxiridan boshlab kuchli ommaviy qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan, energetik jihatdan yaxshi moliyalashtirilgan tashkilotlar va Kongressda tarafdorlari tarkibiga ega bo'lgan kuchli mehnat-liberal koalitsiyasi mavjud edi.[99] Mehnat tarafida Amerika Mehnat Federatsiyasi (AFL) va Sanoat tashkilotlari kongressi Ga qo'shilgan (CIO) AFL-CIO 1955 yilda,[100] The Birlashgan avtoulov ishchilari (BAW),[101] uyushma lobbistlari va Siyosiy Maorif Qo'mitasi (COPE)[102] saylovda ishtirok etish kampaniyasini va ommaviylikni tashkil qildi. Uolter Reuter BAW ishchilar harakatida liberalizmning etakchisi edi va uning mualliflari bu ishni saxiylik bilan moliyalashtirdilar.[103]

Asosiy liberal tashkilotlar tarkibiga Rangli odamlarni rivojlantirish bo'yicha milliy assotsiatsiya (NAACP),[104] The Amerika yahudiylari Kongressi (AJC), the Amerika fuqarolik erkinliklari ittifoqi (ACLU), Fuqarolik huquqlari bo'yicha etakchi konferentsiya (LCCR), Samarali Kongress uchun Milliy Qo'mita (NCEC) va Amerikaliklar demokratik harakat uchun (ADA).[105]

Kongressdagi asosiy liberal rahbarlar kiritilgan Xubert Xamfri Minnesota shtati,[106] Pol Duglas Illinoys shtati,[107] Genri Jekson Vashington,[108] Valter Mondale Minnesota shtati[109] va Klod Pepper Senatning Florida shtati[110] Palatadagi rahbarlar orasida Vakillar ham bor edi Frenk Tompson Nyu-Jersidan, Richard Bolling Missuri va boshqa a'zolari Demokratik tadqiqotlar guruhi.[111] Garchi yillar davomida ular asosan konservativ koalitsiyadan hafsalasi pir bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, liberal koalitsiya 1963 yilda to'satdan hokimiyat tepasiga keldi va Buyuk Jamiyatning markazida bo'lgan takliflar bilan tayyor edi.[112]

Ziyolilar

Ayni paytda ziyolilar va yozuvchilar koalitsiyaning muhim tarkibiy qismi edi.[113] Ko'plab yozuvchilar, ayniqsa tarixchilar, liberalizmning taniqli so'zlovchilariga aylanishdi va tez-tez ommaviy jurnallarda ma'ruzalar va siyosiy mavzulardagi mashhur insholar kabi jurnallar tomonidan chaqirilgan. Yangi respublika, Shanba sharhi, Atlantika oyligi va Harpers.[114] G'oyalar maydonida adabiyotshunoslar ham faol edilar[115] kabi Lionel Trilling va Alfred Kazin, iqtisodchilar[116] kabi Alvin Xansen, Jon Kennet Galbraith,[117] Jeyms Tobin va Pol Samuelson kabi siyosatshunoslar kabi Robert A. Dahl va Seymur Martin Lipset kabi sotsiologlar Devid Rizman va Daniel Patrik Moynihan.[118] Vakil tarixchi edi Genri Stil qo'mondoni, o'z vatandoshlariga liberalizm qanday qilib Amerika qadriyatlari asosi bo'lganligini o'rgatish vazifasini his qilgan. U Amerika tarixini tushunadigan savodli jamoatchilik liberal dasturlarni, xususan, internatsionalizm va Yangi bitimni qo'llab-quvvatlashiga ishongan. Komagager hamfikr tarixchilarning butun avlodining vakili bo'lgan, ular keng jamoatchilik tomonidan keng o'qilgan, shu jumladan Allan Nevins, Daniel Boorstin, Richard Xofstadter va Vann Vudvord.[119] Ehtimol, eng ko'zga ko'ringanlari shu edi Artur M. Shlezinger kichik., whose books on Andrew Jackson and on Roosevelt and the Kennedy brothers as well as his many essays and his work with liberal organizations and in the White House itself under Kennedy emphasized the ideological history of American liberalism, especially as made concrete by a long tradition of powerful liberal Presidents.[120]

Commager's biographer Neil Jumonville has argued that this style of influential public history has been lost in the 21st century because political correctness has rejected Commager's open marketplace of tough ideas. Jumonville says history now comprises abstruse deconstruction by experts, with statistics instead of stories and is now comprehensible only to the initiated while etnosentrizm rules in place of common identity.[121] Other experts have traced the relative decline of intellectuals to their concern race, ethnicity and gender[122] and scholarly antiquarianism.[123]

Great Society: 1964–1968

The climax of liberalism came in the mid-1960s with the success of President Lyndon B. Jonson (1963–1969) in securing congressional passage of his Buyuk jamiyat programs, including civil rights, the end of segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty.[124][125] Tarixchi Jozef Krespinoning so'zlariga ko'ra:

Sovuq urush tashvishlari urushdan keyingi davrda bir qator ilg'or siyosiy yutuqlarning asosi bo'lganligi yigirmanchi asr tarixshunosligining asosiy mahsulotiga aylandi: qurollanish poygasini moliyalashtirishga yordam bergan va daromadlarning keng tengligiga hissa qo'shgan yuqori progressiv marginal soliq stavkasi; uzoq vaqt davomida Amerikaning teng huquqli axloqini yolg'onga chiqargan Amerika janubidagi siyosat va jamiyatni o'zgartirgan fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi uzoq qonunchilikni ikki tomonlama qo'llab-quvvatlash; 1920-yillardan beri amal qilib kelayotgan aniq irqchi immigratsiya tizimini ag'darish uchun ikki tomonlama qo'llab-quvvatlash; keksalar va kambag'allarga bepul tibbiy xizmat ko'rsatish, Yangi muomala davrining tugallanmagan maqsadlaridan birini qisman bajarish. Ro'yxat davom etishi mumkin.[126]

As recent historians have explained:

Asta-sekin, liberal ziyolilar iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy adolatga erishish uchun yangi qarashni ishlab chiqdilar. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to fan class passions or redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Xalqaro miqyosda bu antikommunistik edi. Bu erkin dunyoni himoya qilish, uyda iqtisodiy o'sishni rag'batlantirish va mo'l-ko'l mo'l-ko'l adolatli taqsimlanishini ta'minlashga qaratilgan edi. Their agenda-much influenced by Keynesian economic theory-envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs.[127]

Jonson 1964 yilda konservativlarga qarshi saylov ko'chkisi bilan mukofotlandi Barri Goldwater which broke the decades-long control of Congress by the konservativ koalitsiya. However, the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and as the Democratic Party splintered five ways Republicans elected Richard Nikson in 1968. Faced with a generally liberal Democratic Congress during his presidency,[128] Nixon used his power over executive agencies to obstruct the authorization of programs that he was opposed to. As noted by one observer, Nixon "claimed the authority to 'impound,' or withhold, money Congress appropriated to support them".[128]

Nevertheless, Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited.[129] Conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reygan 1980 yilda.[130]

Liberals and civil rights

Cold War liberalism emerged at a time when most Afroamerikaliklar, ayniqsa janub, were politically and economically disenfranchised. Boshlash Ushbu huquqlarni ta'minlash, an official report issued by the Truman White House in 1947, self-proclaimed liberals increasingly embraced the civil rights movement. In 1948, President Truman desegregated the armed forces and the Democrats inserted a strong civil rights plank or provision in the Democratic Party platform. Black activists, most prominently Martin Lyuter King kichik, escalated the bearer agitation throughout the South, especially in Birmingham, Alabama during the 1963 Birmingem kampaniyasi, where brutal police tactics outraged national television audiences. The civil rights movement climaxed in the Vashingtonda mart in August 1963, where King gave his dramatic "Mening orzuim bor " speech, culminating in the events of the 1965 Selma - Montgomeri yurishlari. The activism put civil rights at the very top of the liberal political agenda and facilitated passage of the decisive Fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi 1964 y which permanently ended segregation in the United States and the 1965 yil ovoz berish huquqi to'g'risidagi qonun which guaranteed blacks the right to vote, with strong enforcement provisions throughout the South handled by the federal Department of Justice.[131][132]

During the mid-1960s, relations between white liberals and the civil rights movement became increasingly strained as civil rights leaders accused liberal politicians of temporizing and procrastinating. Although President Kennedy sent federal troops to compel the Missisipi universiteti to admit African-American Jeyms Meredit in 1962 and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. toned down the 1963 March on Washington at Kennedy's behest, the failure to seat the delegatlar ning Missisipi Ozodlik Demokratik partiyasi 1964 yilda Demokratik milliy konventsiya indicated a growing rift. President Johnson could not understand why the rather impressive civil rights laws passed under his leadership had failed to immunize Northern and Western cities from rioting. At the same time, the civil rights movement itself was becoming fractured. By 1966, a Qora kuch movement had emerged. Black Power advocates accused white liberals of trying to control the civil rights agenda. Proponents of Black Power wanted African-Americans to follow an ethnic model for obtaining power,[iqtibos kerak ] not unlike that of Democratic political machines in large cities. This put them on a collision course with urban machine politicians. On its most extreme edges, the Black Power movement contained racial separatists who wanted to give up on integration altogether—a program that could not be endorsed by American liberals of any race. The mere existence of such individuals (who always got more media attention than their actual numbers might have warranted) contributed to white backlash against liberals and civil rights activists.[132]

Liberals were latecomers to the movement for equal rights for women. Generally, they agreed with Eleanor Ruzvelt that women needed special protections, especially regarding hours of work, night work and physically heavy work.[133] The Teng huquqlarga o'zgartirish (ERA) had first been proposed in the 1920s by Elis Pol and appealed primarily to middle-class career women. At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including labor unions, AFL–CIO, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), American Federation of Teachers, American Nurses Association, the Women's Division of the Methodist Church and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women.[134]

Neokonservativlar

Some liberals moved to the right and became neokonservativlar 1970-yillarda. Many were animated by foreign policy, taking a strong anti-Soviet and pro-Israel position as typified by Sharh, a Jewish magazine.[135] Many had been supporters of Senator Genri M. Jekson, who was noted for his strong positions in favor of labor and against Communism. Many neoconservatives joined the administrations of Ronald Reygan va Jorj H. V. Bush and attacked liberalism vocally in both the popular media and scholarly publications.[136]

Under attack from the New Left

Liberalism came under attack from both the New Left in the early 1960s and the right in the late 1960s. Kazin (1998) says: "The liberals who anxiously turned back the assault of the postwar Right were confronted in the 1960s by a very different adversary: a radical movement led, in the main, by their own children, the white "New Left".[137] This new element, says Kazin, worked to "topple the corrupted liberal order".[138] As Maurice Isserman notes, the New Left "came to use the word 'liberal' as a political epithet".[139] Slack (2013) argues that the New Left was more broadly speaking the political component of a break with liberalism that took place across several academic fields, namely philosophy, psychology and sociology. In philosophy, ekzistensializm va neo-marksizm rejected the instrumentalism of Jon Devi; in psychology, Vilgelm Reyx, Pol Gudman, Gerbert Markuz va Norman O. Braun rad etildi Zigmund Freyd 's teaching of repression and sublimation; and in sociology, Rayt Mills rejected the pragmatism of Dewey for the teachings of Maks Veber.[140][141]

The attack was not confined to the United States as the New Left was a worldwide movement with strength in parts of Western Europe as well as Japan. For example, massive demonstrations in France denounced Amerika imperializmi and its helpers in Western European governments.[142][143]

The main activity of the New Left became opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War as conducted by liberal President Lyndon B. Jonson. The anti-war movement escalated the rhetorical heat as violence broke out on both sides. The climax came in sustained protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Liberals fought back, with Zbignev Bjezinskiy, chief foreign policy advisor of the 1968 Humphrey campaign, saying the New Left "threatened American liberalism" in a manner reminiscent of McCarthyism.[144] While the New Left considered Humphrey a war criminal, Nixon attacked him as the New Left's enabler—a man with "a personal attitude of indulgence and permissiveness toward the lawless".[145] Beinart concludes that "with the country divided against itself, contempt for Hubert Humphrey was the one thing on which left and right could agree".[146]

After 1968, the New Left lost strength and the more serious attacks on liberalism came from the right. Nevertheless, the liberal ideology lost its attractiveness. Liberal sharhlovchi E. J. Dionne contends: "If liberal ideology began to crumble intellectually in the 1960s it did so in part because the New Left represented a highly articulate and able wrecking crew".[147]

Liberals and the Vietnam War

While the civil rights movement isolated liberals from their erstwhile allies, the Vetnam urushi threw a wedge into the liberal ranks, dividing pro-war qirg'iylar such as Senator Genri M. Jekson dan kaptarlar such as 1972 presidential candidate Senator Jorj MakGovern. As the war became the leading political issue of the day, agreement on domestic matters was not enough to hold the liberal consensus together.[148]

In 1960 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasi, Jon F. Kennedi was liberal in domestic policy, but conservative on foreign policy, calling for a more aggressive stance against Communism than his opponent Richard Nixon.

Opposition to the war first emerged from the New Left and from black leaders such as Martin Lyuter King kichik By 1967, there was growing opposition from within liberal ranks, led in 1968 by Senators Evgeniy Makkarti va Robert F. Kennedi. After Democratic President Lyndon Johnson announced in March 1968 that he would not run for re-election, Kennedy and McCarthy fought each other for the nomination, with Kennedy besting McCarthy in a series of Democratic primaries. The Kennedining o'ldirilishi removed him from the race and Vice President Xubert Xamfri emerged from the disastrous 1968 yil Demokratlarning milliy qurultoyi with the presidential nomination of a deeply divided party. Meanwhile, Alabama Governor Jorj Uolles announced his third-party run and pulled in many working-class whites in the rural South and big-city North, most of whom had been staunch Democrats. Liberals led by the labor unions focused their attacks on Wallace while Nixon led a unified Republican Party to victory.

Richard Nikson

The chaos of 1968, a bitterly divided Democratic Party and bad blood between the New Left and the liberals gave Nixon the presidency. Nixon rhetorically attacked liberals, but in practice enacted many liberal policies and represented the more liberal wing of the Republican Party. Nixon established the Atrof muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi by executive order, expanded the national endowments for the arts and the humanities, began affirmative action policies, opened diplomatic relations with Kommunistik Xitoy, boshlab Strategik qurollarni cheklash bo'yicha muzokaralar kamaytirish ballistik raketa availability and turned the war over to South Vietnam. He withdrew all American combat troops by 1972, signed a peace treaty in 1973 and ended the draft.[149] Regardless of his policies, liberals hated Nixon and rejoiced when the Votergeyt bilan bog'liq janjal forced his resignation in 1974.

While the differences between Nixon and the liberals are obvious—the liberal wing of his own party favored politicians such as Nelson Rokfeller va Uilyam Skranton and Nixon overtly placed an emphasis on law and order over civil liberties, with Niksonning dushmanlari ro'yxati being composed largely of liberals—in some ways the continuity of many of Nixon's policies with those of the Kennedy–Johnson years is more remarkable than the differences. Pointing at this continuity, New Left leader Noam Xomskiy (himself on Nixon's enemies list ) has called Nixon "in many respects the last liberal president".[150]

The political dominance of the liberal consensus even into the Nixon years can best be seen in policies such as the successful establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency or his failed proposal to replace the welfare system with a guaranteed annual income by way of a salbiy daromad solig'i. Tasdiqlovchi harakat in its most quota-oriented form was a Nixon administration policy. The Nixon Giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urush allocated two-thirds of its funds for treatment, a far higher ratio than was to be the case under any subsequent President, Republican or Democrat. Additionally, Nixon's normalization of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China and his policy of détente with the Soviet Union were probably more popular with liberals than with his conservative base.

An opposing view offered by Kass R. Sunshteyn yilda The Second Bill of Rights (Basic Books, 2004, ISBN  0-465-08332-3) argues that through his Oliy sud appointments Nixon effectively ended a decades-long expansion of economic rights along the lines of those put forward in the Inson huquqlari umumjahon deklaratsiyasi, adopted in 1948 by the Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh assambleyasi.

Kasaba uyushmalari

Labor unions were central components of liberalism, operating through the Yangi bitim koalitsiyasi.[151] The unions gave strong support to the Vietnam War, thereby breaking with the blacks and with the intellectual and student wings of liberalism. From time to time, dissident groups such as the Progressive Alliance, the Citizen-Labor Energy Coalition and the National Labor Committee broke from the dominant AFL-CIO which they saw as too conservative. In 1995, the liberals managed to take control of the AFL–CIO under the leadership of Jon Suini ning Xizmat ko'rsatuvchi xodimlar xalqaro ittifoqi (SEIU). Union membership in the private sector has fallen from 33% to 7%, with a resulting decline in political weight. In 2005, the SEIU, now led by Endi Stern, broke away from the AFL–CIO to form its own coalition, the G'oliblik federatsiyasiga o'zgartirish, to support liberalism, including Barak Obama 's policies, especially health care reform. Stern retired in 2010.[152] Regardless of the loss of numbers, unions have a long tradition and deep experience in organizing and continue at the state and national level to mobilize forces for liberal policies, especially regarding votes for liberal politicians, a graduated income tax, government spending on social programs, and support for unions. They also support the conservative position of protectionism. [153] Offsetting the decline in the private sector is a growth of unionization in the public sector. The membership of unions in the public sector such as teachers, police and city workers continues to rise, now covering 42% of local government workers.[154] The financial crisis that hit American states during the recession of 2008–2011 focused increasing attention on pension systems for government employees, with conservatives trying to reduce the pensions.[155]

Ekologiya

A new unexpected political discourse emerged in the 1970s centered on the environment.[156] The debates did not fall neatly into a left–right dimension, for everyone proclaimed their support for the environment. Environmentalism appealed to the well-educated middle class, but it aroused fears among lumbermen, farmers, ranchers, blue collar workers, automobile companies and oil companies whose economic interests were threatened by new regulations.[157] As a result, conservatives tended to oppose environmentalism while liberals endorsed new measures to protect the environment.[158] Liberals supported the Yovvoyi tabiat jamiyati va Syerra klubi and were sometimes successful in blocking efforts by lumber companies and oil drillers to expand operations. Environmental legislation limited the use of DDT, kamaytirilgan kislotali yomg'ir and protected numerous animal and plant species. Within the environmental movement, there was a small radical element that favored direct action rather than legislation.[159] By the 21st century, debates over taking major action to reverse Global isish by and dealing with carbon emissions were high on the agenda. Unlike Europe, where green parties play a growing role in politics, the environmental movement in the United States has given little support to third parties.[160]

End of the liberal consensus

During the Nixon years and through the 1970s, the liberal consensus began to come apart and the 1980 election of Ronald Reygan as president marked the election of the first non-Keynesian administration and the first application of ta'minot tomoni iqtisodiyoti. The alliance with white Southern Democrats had been lost in the Civil Rights era. While the steady enfranchisement of African-Americans expanded the electorate to include many new voters sympathetic to liberal views, it was not quite enough to make up for the loss of some Southern Democrats. A tide of conservatism rose in response to perceived failures of liberal policies.[161] Organized labor, long a bulwark of the liberal consensus, was past the peak of its power in the United States and many unions had remained in favor of the Vietnam War even as liberal politicians increasingly turned against it.

In 1980, the leading liberal was Senator Ted Kennedi, amaldagi Prezidentga qarshi chiqqan Jimmi Karter Demokratik partiyadan prezidentlikka nomzod uchun, chunki Karterning muvaffaqiyatsizligi liberallarni xafa qildi. Kennedi qat'iy mag'lubiyatga uchradi va o'z navbatida Karter mag'lub bo'ldi Ronald Reygan.

Tarixchilar 1979-1980 yillarda demokratiya liberalizmidan uzoqlashib, Amerika elektorati ichidagi falsafiy yo'nalishni hozirgi kunga qadar ishlatishadi. Reygan davri konservatizm.[162][163] Biroq, ba'zi liberallar ozchilikni fikricha, hech qanday siljish bo'lmagan va Kennedining mag'lubiyati shunchaki uning saylovoldi kampaniyasi, xalqaro inqirozlar va Karterning prezidentlik lavozimidan foydalanishi tufayli sodir bo'lgan tarixiy voqea sodir bo'lgan.[164]

Abrams (2006) liberalizmning tutilishi, asosan, ishchilar kasaba uyushmalarini va Yangi bitimning tartibga soluvchi rejimini zaiflashtirishni istagan korporatsiyalar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan fundamentalist va antimodern mavzudagi xalq populist qo'zg'oloni sabab bo'lgan deb ta'kidlamoqda. Liberalizmning muvaffaqiyati, birinchi navbatda, a ning sa'y-harakatlaridan kelib chiqqan liberal elita o'zini asosiy ijtimoiy, siyosiy va ayniqsa sud lavozimlarida egallagan. Abramsning ta'kidlashicha, ushbu elita o'zlarining liberalizm brendini eng kam demokratik va izolyatsiya qilingan ba'zi institutlar, xususan universitetlar, fondlar, mustaqil nazorat idoralari va Oliy sud ichidan o'rnatgan. Faqatgina zaif xalq bazasi bo'lgan liberalizm xalqning demokratik yoki majoritar kuchlari tomonidan populistik aksilinqilobga uchragan.[165]

Bill Klinton ma'muriyati va uchinchi yo'l

Atama Uchinchi yo'l yarashishga harakat qiladigan turli xil siyosiy pozitsiyalarni ifodalaydi o'ng qanot va chap qanot siyosati markaz-o'ng iqtisodiy va chapga yo'naltirilgan ijtimoiy siyosatning turli xil sintezini himoya qilish orqali.[166] Uchinchi yo'l, davlatning iqtisodiy hayotiyligiga xalqaro e'tiqod qulashi oqibatlariga javoban, turli xil chap-markaziy progressiv harakatlar doirasidagi siyosiy siyosatni jiddiy qayta baholash sifatida yaratilgan. iqtisodiy aralashuvchi tomonidan ilgari ommalashtirilgan siyosat Keynschilik va shunga mos ravishda mashhurlikning ko'tarilishi neoliberalizm va Yangi huquq.[167] Bu ulug'roq narsaga intilishni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi tenglik jamiyatda ko'nikmalar, imkoniyatlar va samarali fondlarning taqsimotini oshirish bo'yicha harakatlar orqali, daromadlarni taqsimlashni bunga erishish vositasi sifatida rad etish.[168] Bu majburiyatni ta'kidlaydi muvozanatli byudjetlar, ta'minlash teng imkoniyat ta'kidlash bilan birlashtirilgan shaxsiy javobgarlik, markazsizlashtirish hukumat hokimiyatining mumkin bo'lgan eng past darajaga ko'tarilishi, rag'batlantirish davlat-xususiy sheriklik, takomillashtirish ishchi kuchi ta'minoti, investitsiya inson rivojlanishi, himoya qilish ijtimoiy kapital va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish.[169]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda, Uchinchi Yo'l tarafdorlari o'zlarini qamrab olishadi fiskal konservatizm an'anaviy ijtimoiy liberallarga qaraganda ko'proq darajada va ba'zi birlarini almashtirishni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi farovonlik bilan ish haqi va ba'zan an'anaviy muammolarni bozor echimlari uchun kuchliroq afzalliklarga ega (xuddi shunday) ifloslanish bozorlari ) sofni rad etish paytida laissez-faire iqtisodiyot va boshqalar ozodlik lavozimlar. Boshqaruvning uchinchi uslubi prezidentlik davrida qat'iy qabul qilingan va qisman qayta aniqlangan Bill Klinton.[170] Prezidentlarga nisbatan "Uchinchi yo'l" atamasi siyosatshunos tomonidan kiritilgan Stiven Skovronek, kim yozgan Prezidentlarning siyosati (1993, 1997; ISBN  0-674-68937-2).[171][172] Uchinchi yo'l prezidentlari "muxolifatni o'rtasidan tortib olish va u bilan siyosiy hukmronlikka erishish uchun undan siyosat olib qarz olish yo'li bilan ziyon keltiradi. Jonsonning" Buyuk jamiyati "ning davomi bo'lgan Niksonning iqtisodiy siyosatini o'ylab ko'ring; Klintonning farovonligini isloh qilish va o'lim jazosi; va Obamaning pragmatik markazparastligi, uning huquqi islohotining yaqinda bo'lsa ham, uning quchog'ida aks etgan ".[173]

Keyin Toni Bler Buyuk Britaniyada hokimiyat tepasiga keldi, Klinton, Bler va boshqa Uchinchi Yo'l tarafdorlari 1997 yilda Uchinchi Yo'l falsafasini targ'ib qilish uchun konferentsiyalar tashkil qildilar. Shashka Angliyada.[174][175] 2004 yilda bir necha faxriy demokratlar yangisini tashkil etishdi fikr markazi yilda Vashington, Kolumbiya deb nomlangan Uchinchi yo'l o'zini "ilg'orlar uchun strategiya markazi" deb hisoblaydi.[176] Uchinchi yo'l tadqiqot markazi bilan bir qatorda, Demokratik etakchilik kengashi Uchinchi yo'l siyosatining tarafdorlari.[177]

Uchinchi yo'l ko'pchilik tomonidan qattiq tanqid qilindi sotsial-demokratlar shu qatorda; shu bilan birga anarxistlar, kommunistlar, sotsialistlar va demokratik sotsialistlar xususan, chap qanot qadriyatlariga xiyonat sifatida. Demokratik etakchilik kengashi 2011 yilda o'z faoliyatini tugatgan. Demokratik etakchilik kengashining susayib borayotgan ta'siriga izoh berib, Politico uni "90-yillarning o'rtalaridagi siyosiy dolzarbligidan uzoq vaqtdan beri susayib kelayotgan" Klinton davridagi taniqli markazchi tashkilot "deb ta'rifladi. Partiya ichi ishtahasi kam bo'lgan bir paytda chap tomonidan" uchburchak "ning ramzi sifatida taralgan. markaziy o'ng tomonda urush ".[178]

Uchinchi yo'l siyosatining o'ziga xos ta'riflari Evropa va AQSh o'rtasida farq qilishi mumkin.[179]

Norozilik siyosatining qaytishi

Respublika va qat'iy konservativ Jorj V.Bush g'olib bo'ldi 2000 yil prezident saylovi bir nechta bahslarni o'z ichiga olgan qattiq bahsli musobaqada qayta hisoblaydi Florida shtatida.[180] Natija sudgacha bir oy davomida bog'langan Oliy sud.[181] Qarama-qarshi qarorda Bush va Gor 9-dekabr kuni[182] Oliy sud bekor qildi a Florida Oliy sudi Uchinchi qayta sanashni buyurish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilish, mojaroni mohiyatan tugatish va natijada Bush saylovda ovoz berish orqali prezidentlik g'olibligini qo'lga kiritishi, garchi u xalq ovozini demokrat va amaldagi vitse-prezidentga yutqazgan bo'lsa ham. Al Gor.[183]

Bushning siyosati amerikalik liberallarga juda yoqmadi, xususan uning siyosatni boshlashi Iroq urushi shaklida ommaviy norozilik siyosatining qaytishiga olib keldi Iroqdagi urushga qarshi chiqish. Bushning reytingi 2004 yil dekabrida AP-Ipsos so'rovlarida 50% ko'rsatkichdan pastroqqa tushdi.[184] Shundan so'ng, uning ma'qullash reytingi va ichki va tashqi siyosat bilan bog'liq masalalarni hal qilish doimiy ravishda tushib ketdi. Bush Iroq urushi bilan shug'ullangani uchun qattiq tanqidga uchradi Katrina bo'roniga javob va Abu Graib mahbuslarni suiiste'mol qilish, NSA kafil bo'lmagan kuzatuv, Aniq ish va Guantanamo qamoqxonasi tortishuvlar.[185] 2006 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rovnomalar Bushning o'rtacha 37% reytingini ko'rsatdi[186] Bu Bush Respublikachilar partiyasining bo'g'ilishi deb atagan narsaga hissa qo'shdi 2006 yil oraliq saylovlar.[187]

Qachonki moliya tizimi butunlay qulab tushishi mumkin bo'lsa 2008 moliyaviy inqiroz, Bush katta miqyosda itarib yubordi qutqaruv paketlari Kongressdagi ba'zi konservatorlar qo'llab-quvvatlamagan banklar va avtokompaniyalar uchun ba'zi konservativ sharhlovchilar Bushni ular konservativ emas deb hisoblagan va New Deal liberal mafkurasini eslatganligi uchun tanqid qilishlariga olib keldi.[188][189][190]

Qisman Bush ma'muriyatiga qarshi reaktsiya tufayli, Barak Obama, ba'zilar uni liberal va ilg'or deb bilishadi,[191] birinchi bo'lib 2008 yilda prezidentlikka saylangan Afroamerikalik ofisni egallash. Kongressning har ikkala palatasida Demokratik ko'pchilik ovozi bilan Obama a 814 milliard dollarlik rag'batlantirish xarajatlari dasturi, investitsiya firmalari to'g'risidagi yangi qoidalar va tibbiy sug'urta qoplamasini kengaytirish to'g'risidagi qonun.[192] Boshchiligidagi Choy partiyasi harakati, Respublikachilar Kongressning ikkita palatasidan birini qayta qo'lga kiritdilar 2010 yil oraliq saylovlar.[193]

2008 yilda boshlangan davom etayotgan moliyaviy inqirozga munosabat sifatida, norozilik siyosati Obama ma'muriyatida davom etdi, ayniqsa Uol-Stritni egallab oling.[194] Asosiy masalalar ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy tengsizlik, ochko'zlik, korruptsiya va ortiqcha narsalar korporatsiyalarning ta'siri hukumat to'g'risida, xususan moliyaviy xizmatlar sektor. Uoll-stritni egallab oling "shiori"Biz 99% "tobora o'sib borayotganiga murojaat qiladi daromadlarning tengsizligi va boylikni taqsimlash Qo'shma Shtatlarda eng badavlat 1% va qolgan aholi o'rtasida. Garchi ulardan ba'zilari liberal faollar va demokratlar tomonidan keltirilgan bo'lsa-da, bu ma'lumotlar harakatning o'zi g'oyalaridan biri sifatida foydalanilmaguncha to'liq milliy e'tibor markaziga aylanmadi.[195] Tomonidan so'rovnoma Fordxem universiteti Siyosatshunoslik bo'limi namoyishchilarning siyosiy a'zoliklarini asosan chapparast deb topdi, 25% Demokratlar, 2% Respublikachilar, 11% Sotsialistlar, 11% Yashillar partiyasi, 12% Boshqalar va 39% mustaqil.[196] So'rov shuni ko'rsatdiki, namoyishchilarning 80% o'zlarini ozgina o'ta liberal deb atashgan,[196] Uol-Stritni egallab oling va "Kengroq bosib oling" harakati "liberalizmdan qutulish" deb nomlanadi va hatto "stipendiyalardan kelib chiqadigan" printsiplarga ega. anarxiya ".[194][197]

2011 yil 6 oktyabrda bo'lib o'tgan matbuot anjumani chog'ida Prezident Obama: "Menimcha, bu Amerika xalqining Buyuk Depressiyadan keyingi eng katta moliyaviy inqirozni boshdan kechirganligi, butun mamlakat bo'ylab katta miqdordagi garov ziyonlari bo'lganligimiz haqida [...] va shunga qaramay, bizni mas'uliyatsizlik bilan ish tutgan ba'zi bir odamlarni hali ham ko'rmoqdasiz, bu bizni birinchi navbatda bunga majbur qilgan haqoratli amaliyotlarga qarshi kurashish uchun harakatlarni amalga oshirishga harakat qilmoqda. "[198][199] Ba'zi norozilik namoyishlari Obama ma'muriyatining Uoll-Strit bilan munosabatda bo'lgan ikki tomonlama standartiga murojaat qilish uchun qilingan harakat sifatida qaraldi.[200]

Obama edi qayta saylangan Prezident 2012 yil noyabr oyida respublikachilar nomzodini mag'lubiyatga uchratdi Mitt Romni va ikkinchi muddatga qasamyod qildi 2013 yil 20 yanvarda. Ikkinchi prezidentlik davrida Obama qurolli qurol nazorati bilan bog'liq ichki siyosatni ilgari surdi Sandy Hook boshlang'ich maktabida otishma va uchun to'liq tenglikka chaqirdi LGBT Amerikaliklar, uning ma'muriyati brifinglarni yozib qo'ygan Oliy sud urmoq 1996 yilgi Nikohni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun va Kaliforniya Taklif 8 Konstitutsiyaga zid.

The Maykl Braunning otib tashlanishi va Erik Garnerning o'limi keng noroziliklarga olib keldi (xususan Fergyuson, qaerda Braun otilgan) qarshi qabul qilingan politsiyani harbiylashtirish umuman olganda va taxmin qilingan politsiya shafqatsizligi aniqrog'i afro-amerikaliklarga qarshi.[201][202]

Tanqid

1970-yillardan beri liberal so'zini salbiy ma'noda bo'yash uchun chapdan ham, o'ngdan ham birgalikda harakat qilindi. Ushbu sa'y-harakatlar tobora ko'proq muvaffaqiyatga erishganligi sababli, taraqqiyparvar va ularning raqiblari salbiy ma'nodan katta foyda oldilar. 1988 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasida respublikachilar Jorj H. V. Bush raqibining "L-word label" ga egalik qilishdan bosh tortgani haqida hazillashdi. Qachon Maykl Dukakis nihoyat o'zini liberal deb e'lon qildi Boston Globe sarlavhasi bilan "Dukakis L-so'zidan foydalanadi".[203]

1970-yillardan beri konservativ faollar liberallikni epitet sifatida ishlatib, unga "erkin tadbirkorlik", "individual huquqlar", "vatanparvarlik" va "amerikaliklar yo'li" kabi iboralarni berib, dahshatli yoki dahshatli ma'no berib, liberalizm muxoliflarini tasvirlaydilar.[204] Tarixchi Jon Lukaks 2004 yilda o'sha paytdagi Prezident deb ta'kidlagan Jorj V.Bush Ko'pgina amerikaliklar liberalni pejorativ atama deb bilganiga ishonib, uni siyosiy raqiblarini saylov kampaniyasidagi chiqishlari paytida ishlatishgan, uning raqiblari keyinchalik o'zlarini liberal deb tan olishdan qochishgan.[205] Prezidentligi davrida Jerald Ford, Birinchi xonim Betti Ford ga nisbatan o'zining ochiq va ochiq liberal qarashlari bilan tanildi Teng huquqlarga o'zgartirish (ERA), tanlov uchun tanlov kuni abort, feminizm, teng ish haqi, ba'zi dorilarni dekriminallashtirish, qurolni boshqarish va inson huquqlari. U vokal tarafdori va rahbar edi ayollar harakati Ford shuningdek, 1974 yildan keyin ko'krak bezi saratoni to'g'risida milliy e'tiborni jalb qilganligi bilan ajralib turdi mastektomiya. Uning ochiqchasiga liberal qarashlari Respublikachilar partiyasining konservativ qanoti va Fordni "Xonim yo'q" deb atagan va uning harakatlari tobora konservativ bo'lib borayotgan respublikachilar partiyasidagi birinchi xonimga yarashmaydigan deb o'ylagan konservativ faollarning masxara va qarshiliklariga olib keldi.

Ronald Reygan Liberalizmni masxara qilish liberal so'zini milliy mansab izlayotgan har qanday siyosatchi chetlab o'tadigan kamsituvchi epitetga aylantirganligi bilan izohlanadi.[205][206] Uning nutq mualliflari bir necha bor "liberallar" va "haqiqiy amerikaliklar" ga qarshi chiqishgan. Masalan, Reyganning o'sha paytdagi ichki ishlar kotibi Jeyms G. Vatt dedi: "Men hech qachon respublikachilar va demokratlar so'zlarini ishlatmayman. Bu liberallar va amerikaliklar". Reygan Qo'shma Shtatlarni abort qilishni kechirayotgan, o'spirinning shahvoniyligini oqlaydigan, maktab namoziga qarshi bo'lgan va an'anaviy Amerika qadriyatlarini susaytirgan zamonaviy dunyoviy qarashlardan ogohlantirdi. Uning yagona shaxsiy xulq-atvori, diniy dunyoqarashi, iqtisodiy tizimi va butun dunyo bo'ylab Amerika manfaatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlamaydigan millat va elatlarga nisbatan to'g'ri munosabat mavjudligiga ishonchi bilan ishoniladi. qiyosiy adabiyot olim Betti Jan Kreyj Qo'shma Shtatlarni qutblashtirib. Reygan jamoatchilikning katta qismini o'z ma'muriyati siyosatining har qanday samimiy tahlillarini, u "siyosiy" deb nomlangan tanqidlar sifatida rad etishga ishontirdi. liberal ommaviy axborot vositalari.[206]

Jorj H. V. Bush 1988 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasida liberal so'zini kamsituvchi epitet sifatida ishlatganida,[207] u o'zini vatanparvar deb atadi va liberal raqiblarini vatanparvar emas deb ta'rifladi. Bush liberalizmni "L" so'zi "deb atagan va qarama-qarshi prezidentlik nomzodi Maykl Dukakisni" liberal gubernator "deb nomlash bilan va uni Bush" L-olomon "deb atagan qism sifatida kaptarlash orqali jinnilik qilmoqchi bo'lgan. Bush saylovchilarni Dukakisdan xavfli, oddiy bo'lmagan nomzod sifatida qo'rqishga undash, o'zining saylovoldi tashviqoti uchun siyosiy qo'llab-quvvatlanishini angladi. Bushning saylovoldi kampaniyasida Dukakisning diniy e'tiqodida unchalik dindor bo'lmaganligi haqida shubha tug'dirish uchun ibodat masalalari ham qo'llanilgan. Bushning sherigi, vitse-prezidentlikka nomzod Dan Kvayl, dedi xristianlarga 1988 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani: "Haqiqiy amerikaliklar bo'lgan odamlar bilan birga bo'lish har doim yaxshi".[206] Bill Klinton 1992 yilgi prezidentlik kampaniyasida Bushga yaqinlashib, liberallar bilan siyosiy yorliq bo'lishdan qochgan siyosiy markaz.[207]

Shiftga reaktsiyalar

Liberal respublikachilar liberalizmga qarshi konservativ hujumlardan umidlarini uzishdi. Bir misol - Minnesota shtatining sobiq gubernatori va Liberal respublikachilar klubining asoschisi Elmer L. Andersen, kim "bugungi kunda" liberal "ning kamsituvchi atama sifatida ishlatilishi afsuslanarli" deb izohladi.[208] 1980-yillardan keyin kamroq faollar va siyosatchilar o'zlarini liberal sifatida ko'rsatishga tayyor edilar. Tarixchi Kevin Boyl tushuntiradi: "Bir paytlar liberalizm Artur Shlezingerning so'zlari bilan" jangovar e'tiqod "edi. [...] So'nggi uch o'n yillikda liberalizm masxara qilinadigan narsaga aylandi, o'zining noto'g'ri idealizmi uchun mahkum qilindi, uning fikrini kelishib olish va murosaga keltirish tendentsiyasi va siyosiy to'g'riligini masxara qilgan. Endi eng ashaddiy islohotchilar ham unga etkazadigan zararidan qo'rqib, yorliqdan qochishadi ".[209] Respublika siyosiy maslahatchisi Artur J. Finkelshteyn Demokratik siyosiy maslahatchilar tomonidan kimnidir liberal deb tamg'alash va ismlarni chaqirish bilan shug'ullanadigan formuladan foydalanib, salbiy televizion reklama roliklarida liberal so'zini iloji boricha tez-tez ishlatib, 1996 yil Vakilga qarshi e'londa bo'lgani uchun tan olingan Jek Rid: "Bu liberal. Bu Jek Rid. Bu noto'g'ri. Liberal Jek Ridga qo'ng'iroq qiling va uning farovonligi borasidagi rekordini ayting, bu siz uchun juda liberal".[210]

Demokratik nomzodlar va siyosiy liberallar ba'zida liberal so'zidan qochib, ba'zi hollarda uning o'rniga progressiv yoki mo''tadil kabi atamalarni aniqladilar.[211][212] Jorj V.Bush va sobiq vitse-prezident Dik Cheyni raqiblarini liberal elitizmda, yumshoqlik va terrorizmni qo'llab-quvvatlashda aybladilar.[213] Kabi konservativ siyosiy sharhlovchilar Rush Limbaugh doimiy ravishda "liberal" so'zini pejorativ yorliq sifatida ishlatgan. Liberallar o'zlarining e'tiqodlarini tavsiflash uchun "progressiv" so'ziga o'tganda, konservativ radioeshittirish Glenn Bek haqoratli yorliq sifatida "progressiv" ishlatilgan.[214] Tarixchi Godfri Xojson quyidagilarni ta'kidlaydi: "Liberal so'zining o'zi obro'siz bo'lib qoldi. Konservativ bloggerlar va kolonnistlar - radio boshlovchilari - liberallar haqida gapirish uchun hech narsa yomon emas. Demokratlar o'zlari qo'rqib" L so'zidan "bir mil uzoqlikda yurishadi. Konservativ siyosatchilar va publitsistlar liberallarni har qanday bema'nilik bilan bog'lash orqali, ko'pgina aqlli odamlar liberalizm yorlig'i bilan etiketlanib qolish xavfidan qo'rqishganligi sababli, mamlakatni o'zlarini ko'proq konservativ ekanligiga ishontirishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. aslida bo'lgani kabi ".[215]

Yorliqlar va e'tiqodlar

2008 yilda liberal tarixchi Erik Alterman amerikaliklarning 20 foizga yaqini liberal so'zini siyosiy yorliq sifatida qabul qilishga tayyor, ammo amerikaliklarning haddan tashqari ko'pligi liberal pozitsiyalarni qayta-qayta qo'llab-quvvatlamoqda. Altermanning ta'kidlashicha, liberal yorlig'iga qarshilik, bu atamani kamsitishga tushgan milliardlab dollar tufayli ajablanarli emas. 2004 yilgi Milliy Saylov Tadqiqoti tomonidan o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra, respondentlarning atigi 35 foizi liberal, 55 foizini konservativ deb tan olganliklari haqida savol bergan. 2004 yilda o'tkazilgan Pew so'rovida respondentlarning 19 foizi liberal, 39 foizi konservativ, balansi mo''tadil deb topilgan. 2006 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra 19% liberal va 36% konservativ deb topilgan. 2005 yilda o'zini tanigan mo''tadillar tomonidan so'rov o'tkazildi Louis Harris & Associates liberallarni identifikatsiya qilish bilan bir xil siyosiy e'tiqodlarga ega ekanligi aniqlandi, ammo konservatorlar tomonidan so'zning o'ziga nisbatan qilingan haqorat tufayli liberal so'zini rad etishdi. Alterman siyosatshunosni tan oladi Drew Uesten Kuzatuvga ko'ra, aksariyat amerikaliklar uchun liberal so'zi "elita", "soliq va xarajatlar" va "aloqadan tashqarida" kabi ma'nolarni anglatadi.[213]

Falsafa

Erkin so'z

Amerikalik liberallar o'zlarini o'zgarishlarga ochiq va yangi g'oyalarni qabul qiladigan deb ta'riflaydilar.[216] Masalan, liberallar, ba'zilari rad etgan g'oyalarni, masalan, evolyutsiya va katastrofik antropogen iqlim o'zgarishini qabul qiladilar.[217][218]

Liberallar Oliy sud sudiga qarshi turishga moyildirlar Citizens United 2010 yilda korporatsiyaning so'z erkinligiga bo'lgan birinchi o'zgartirish huquqi har qanday siyosiy partiya, siyosatchi yoki shaxs uchun cheksiz mustaqil xarajatlar qilish erkinligini qamrab oladi degan qaror. lobbist ular mos deb bilishadi. Prezident Obama buni "uchun katta g'alaba katta yog ', Wall Street banklari, tibbiy sug'urta kompaniyalari va boshqa kuchli manfaatlar Vashingtonda har kuni amerikaliklarning ovozini o'chirish uchun o'z kuchlarini marshal qiladi ".[219]

Davlat sotsializmiga qarshi chiqish

Umuman olganda, liberalizm sotsializmga alternativani anglatishini tushunganda qarshi chiqadi kapitalizm ishlab chiqarish vositalariga davlat mulkchiligiga asoslangan. Amerikalik liberallar, odatda, hokimiyat hokimiyat ostidagi davlatga berilganda siyosiy muxolifat va erkinlik asoslari omon qolishi mumkinligidan shubhalanadilar davlat-sotsialistik rejimlar. Liberalizmning "umumiy pragmatik, empirik asoslari" ga muvofiq, Amerika liberal falsafasi g'oyani o'zida mujassam etgan bo'lsa, agar juda ko'p imkoniyatlar va imkoniyatlar tengligi tizimi orqali erishish mumkin bo'lsa. aralash mulk, unda qat'iy va zolim byurokratiyaga ehtiyoj qolmaydi.[30] 1950-yillardan boshlab, ba'zi liberal jamoat ziyolilari bu da'vo tomon ko'proq harakat qilishdi erkin bozorlar tegishli tartibga solinganida yuqoridan pastga qarab iqtisodiy rejalashtirishdan ko'ra yaxshiroq echimlarni taqdim etishi mumkin. Iqtisodchi Pol Krugman shu paytgacha davlatlar tomonidan boshqariladigan funktsiyalarda, masalan, milliy miqyosda energiya taqsimlash va telekommunikatsiya bozorlashtirish samaradorlikni keskin oshirishi mumkin.[220] Shuningdek, u pul-kredit siyosatini himoya qildi -inflyatsiyani nishonga olish - "zamonaviy barqarorlashtirish siyosatining odatiy maqsadiga, ya'ni resurslarning taqsimlanishini buzmaydigan, talabni toza, sodda tarzda ta'minlashga yaqinlashmoqda" deyish. Ushbu buzilishlar urush davri va urushdan keyingi Keynsiyalik iqtisodchilar ma'lum soliqlarni tanlab kamaytiradigan va xarajatlarni hukumat tomonidan boshqariladigan rag'batlantirish loyihalariga yo'naltiradigan fiskal siyosatning muqarrar yon mahsuloti sifatida qabul qilgan hattoki, hatto bu iqtisodchilar ayrimlardan tortishuvlarga qadar bo'lgan masofada biznesga sarmoyalarni rag'batlantirishni ta'kidlashga moyil bo'lgan Keynsning o'ziga xos ko'proq ish joylari.[221] Tomas Fridman umuman himoya qiladigan liberal jurnalist erkin savdo boy va kambag'al mamlakatlarning ahvolini yaxshilash ehtimoli ko'proq.[222][223]

Davlatning roli

Liberallar orasida davlatning roli borasida tub kelishmovchilik mavjud. Tarixchi H. W. Brendlar "davlatning o'sishi, ehtimol, eng keng tarqalgan ta'rifi bilan zamonaviy Amerika liberalizmining mohiyati" ekanligini ta'kidlaydi.[224] Ga binoan Pol Starr, "iberal konstitutsiyalar biron bir davlat amaldorining yoki hokimiyatning, shuningdek umuman davlatning hokimiyatiga cheklovlar qo'yadi".[225]

Axloq

Kognitiv tilshunosning fikriga ko'ra Jorj Lakoff, liberal falsafa axloqning beshta asosiy toifasiga asoslanadi. Birinchisi, adolatni targ'ib qilish, odatda, xushyoqishni istalgan xususiyat sifatida ta'kidlash sifatida tavsiflanadi. Bu bilan ijtimoiy shartnoma asosida Oltin qoida ko'plab liberal pozitsiyalar uchun asos bo'lib keladi. Ikkinchi toifa - o'zlariga yordam bera olmaydiganlarga yordam. Oziqlantiruvchi, xayriya ruhi liberal falsafada yaxshi deb hisoblangan ruhdir. Bu uchinchi toifaga, ya'ni o'zini himoya qila olmaydiganlarni himoya qilish istagiga olib keladi. To'rtinchi toifa - bu o'z hayotini to'la bajarish, insonga qo'lidan kelgan barcha narsani his etish imkoniyatini berishning ahamiyati. Beshinchi va oxirgi toifa - bu o'zingizga g'amxo'rlik qilishning muhimligi, chunki faqat shu tarzda boshqalarga yordam berish uchun harakat qilish mumkin.[226]

Tarixnoma

Liberalizm 1930-1940 yillarda Amerikaning intellektual hayotini tobora shakllantirmoqda, bu asosan akademiklar, ilg'or talabalar, ziyolilar va keng jamoatchilik tomonidan keng o'qilgan ikkita ikki jildli tadqiqotlar tufayli. Charlz A. Soqol va Mary Beard's Amerika tsivilizatsiyasining yuksalishi (2 jild; 1927)[227] va Vernon L. Parrington "s Amerika tafakkuridagi asosiy oqimlar (2 jild; 1927). Soqollar Amerika tarixini shakllantirgan moddiy kuchlarni fosh qildi, Parrington esa Amerika adabiyotini shakllantirgan moddiy kuchlarga e'tibor qaratdi. Soqollarning fikriga ko'ra, deyarli barcha siyosiy tarix Jeffersonians boshchiligidagi agrarchilar, dehqonlar va ishchilar va Hamiltoniyaliklar boshchiligidagi kapitalistlar o'rtasidagi ziddiyatni o'z ichiga olgan. Fuqarolar urushi kapitalistlarning katta g'alabasini belgilab berdi va Ikkinchi Amerika inqilobidan iborat bo'ldi. Yosh tarixchilar qudratli kuch sifatida qattiq iqtisodiy manfaatlarni ta'kidlaydigan va g'oyalar rolini pasaytiradigan realistik yondashuvni ma'qullashadi.[228] Parrington mavjud bo'lgan inqirozlar haqida gapirdi. Tarixchi Ralf Gabrielning so'zlariga ko'ra:

Asosiy oqimlar umidsiz ahvolda qolgan fuqarolar uchun Amerika sahnasida liberalizm tarixini izlashga urindi. Bu davrda Amerika liberalizmi Qo'shma Shtatlarni Yangi bitim orqali Evropaning zamonaviy ekstremizmlari, bir tomondan kommunizm va boshqa tarafdan fashizm o'rtasida demokratik yo'lga qo'ygan asr edi. [...] uslubi Asosiy oqimlar Parringtonning insonparvar liberalizm yo'lidagi sadoqati, uning yakuniy gumanistik, demokratik e'tiqodi bilan quvvatlandi. U 19-asrning romantik birinchi yarmidagi demokratik orzularni ilk amerikaliklar ko'chib o'tgan va keyinchalik amerikaliklar tushib ketgan epik voqeaning avj nuqtasi sifatida ko'rdi.[229]

Liberal o'quvchilar Jeffersonian demokratiyasi va Hamiltonian imtiyozi o'rtasidagi kurashda qaerda turganlarini darhol angladilar.[230] Soqollar ham, Parrington ham qullik, irqiy munosabatlar yoki ozchiliklarga e'tibor bermadilar. Masalan, soqollar "bekor qiluvchilarning tashviqotlarini jamoatchilikka murojaat qilmasliklari sababli kichik to'g'ridan-to'g'ri oqibat sifatida rad etishdi".[231]

Princeton tarixchisi Erik F. Goldman Urushdan keyingi avlod talabalari uchun Amerika liberalizmini aniqlashga yordam berdi. Uning eng nufuzli asarining birinchi nashri 1952 yilda nashr etilishi bilan paydo bo'lgan Taqdir bilan qayta tiklanish: zamonaviy Amerika islohoti tarixiGrant yillaridan 1950 yillarga qadar bo'lgan islohotlarni qamrab olgan. O'nlab yillar davomida bu tarixdagi bakalavriat o'quv dasturining asosiy qismi bo'lib, uslubi va zamonaviy Amerika liberalizmi ekspozitsiyasi bilan yuqori baholandi. Priskilla Robertsning so'zlariga ko'ra:

Jonli, yaxshi yozilgan va juda o'qiy oladigan, ko'plab odamlarning vinyetlarini hibsga olish bilan yakunlangan sakkiz yillik islohotchilar haqida umumiy ma'lumot berdi va Amerikadagi muvaffaqiyatli islohotlar harakatlari davomiyligini ta'kidladi. Sovuq urush avjiga chiqqan paytda u Qo'shma Shtatlarning asosiy liberal urf-odatlari mo''tadil, markazchi va bosqichma-bosqich va qat'iy ravishda sotsialistik bo'lmagan va totalitar bo'lmagan deb ta'kidladi. Amerikalik islohotlar ishiga keng ma'noda xushmuomalada bo'lgan Goldman, o'z fuqarolariga nisbatan tanqidiy munosabatidan yiroq edi, Birinchi jahon urushining taraqqiyparvarlarini Millatlar Ligasini iliq kutib olgani uchun aybdor, 1920-yillardagi amerikalik islohotchilar iqtisodiy jihatdan emas, balki turmush tarziga erkinlik berishgan. islohotlar va Sovet Rossiyasiga nisbatan bag'rikenglik munosabati uchun 1930-yillarda tuzilgan. Uning o'tmishdagi Amerika islohotchilarining qarashlari chet ellarda antikommunizm va xalqaro faollikni qo'llab-quvvatlashdan tortib, uyda yangi muomala uslubidagi katta hukumatni, makkartizmni qoralashgacha bo'lgan 1950-yillarning boshidagi an'anaviy, liberal, markazchi pravoslavlikni qamrab olgan.[232]

Keng jamoatchilik uchun, Artur M. Shlezinger kichik. eng ko'p o'qilgan edi tarixchi, ijtimoiy tanqidchi va jamoat intellektuali. Shlezingerning ishlarida Jekson davrining tarixi va ayniqsa, 20-asrdagi Amerika liberalizmi o'rganilgan. Uning asosiy kitoblari Endryu Jekson, Franklin D. Ruzvelt, Jon F. Kennedi va Robert F. Kennedi kabi rahbarlarga qaratilgan. U Oq uyning Kennedi va uning yordamchisi edi Ming kun: Oq uyda Jon Kennedi 1966 yil Pulitser mukofotiga sazovor bo'ldi. 1968 yilda Shlezinger Robert F. Kennedi uchun 1968 yilda va tarjimai holida nutq so'zladi Robert Kennedi va uning vaqtlari. Keyinchalik bu atamani ommalashtirdi imperatorlik prezidentligi, Richard Nikson tomonidan yozilgan Oq Uydagi haddan tashqari hokimiyatdan ogohlantirish. Faoliyatining oxirlarida u ko'p madaniyatlilikka qarshi chiqdi.[233]

Himoyachilar

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

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