Ida B. Uells - Ida B. Wells - Wikipedia

Ida B. Uells
Meri Garrity - Ida B. Uells-Barnett - Google Art Project - restavratsiya hosilasi.jpg
Uells, v. 1893
Tug'ilgan
Ida Bell Uells

(1862-07-16)1862 yil 16-iyul
Xolli Springs, Missisipi, BIZ.
O'ldi1931 yil 25 mart(1931-03-25) (68 yosh)
Chikago, Illinoys, BIZ.
Dafn etilgan joyOak Woods qabristoni
MillatiAmerika
Boshqa ismlarIda Bell Uells-Barnett
"Iola" (qalam nomi)
Ta'limRust kolleji
Fisk universiteti
KasbInson huquqlari va ayollar huquqlari faol, jurnalist va gazeta muharriri, o'qituvchi
Siyosiy partiyaRespublika;
Mustaqil.
Turmush o'rtoqlarFerdinand L. Barnett, m. 1895 yil
Bolalar6, shu jumladan Alfreda Duster
Ota-ona (lar)Jeyms Uells va Elizabeth Bell Uorrenton

Ida Bell Uells-Barnett (1862 yil 16-iyul - 1931-yil 25-mart) amerikalik tergovchi jurnalist, o'qituvchi va birinchi rahbar edi fuqarolik huquqlari harakati. U asoschilaridan biri edi Rangli odamlarni rivojlantirish bo'yicha milliy assotsiatsiya (NAACP).[1] Bir umr davomida xurofot va zo'ravonlikka qarshi kurashish va kurashga bag'ishlangan Afroamerikalik tenglik, ayniqsa ayollarning teng huquqliligi, Uells, shubhasiz, Amerikadagi eng taniqli qora tanli ayolga aylandi.[2]

Tug'ilgan qullik yilda Xolli Springs, Missisipi, Uells tomonidan ozod qilindi Emansipatsiya to'g'risidagi e'lon davomida Amerika fuqarolar urushi. 16 yoshida u ikkala ota-onasidan va uning ukasidan ayrildi 1878 yil sariq isitma epidemiyasi. U ishga ketdi va qolgan buvisini buvisining yordami bilan saqlab qoldi. Keyinchalik, ba'zi birodarlari bilan birga ko'chib o'tdi Memfis, Tennesi, u o'qituvchi sifatida yaxshiroq maosh topdi. Ko'p o'tmay, Uells sheriklik qildi va u uchun yozdi Memfisning bepul nutqi va faralari gazeta. Uning hisobotida irqiy ajratish va tengsizlik hodisalari yoritilgan.

1890-yillarda Uells hujjatlashtirgan Qo'shma Shtatlarda linch maqolalarida va uning risolasi orqali Janubiy dahshatlar: Lynch qonuni barcha bosqichlarida, Oqlarning linchinglar faqat qora tanli jinoyatchilar uchun ajratilganligi haqidagi tez-tez da'volarini tekshirmoqda. Uells janubdagi oq tanlilarning vahshiyona amaliyoti sifatida lyinchni fosh qildi, u oqlar uchun iqtisodiy va siyosiy raqobatni yaratgan afroamerikaliklarni qo'rqitib, ularga zulm o'tkazdi va keyinchalik hokimiyatdan mahrum bo'lish xavfini tug'dirdi. Oq olomon uning gazeta idorasini va matbuotni yo'q qildi, chunki uning tergovi qora tanli gazetalarda milliy miqyosda namoyish qilindi.

Doimiy tahdidlarga duchor bo'lgan Uells Memfisni tark etdi Chikago. U turmushga chiqdi Ferdinand L. Barnett 1895 yilda va umrining oxirigacha fuqarolik huquqlari va xotin-qizlar harakati uchun yozish, nutq so'zlash va tashkilot ishlarini davom ettirish bilan birga oila qurgan. Uells qora tanli ayol faol sifatida o'z e'tiqodlari to'g'risida ochiqchasiga gapirgan va jamoatchilikning doimiy noroziligiga duch kelgan, ba'zida boshqa rahbarlar ham shu jumladan fuqarolik huquqlari harakati va ayollarning saylov huquqi harakati. U faol edi ayollar huquqlari va bir nechta taniqli ayollar tashkilotlarini tashkil etgan ayollarning saylov huquqi harakati. Malakali va ishonarli ma'ruzachi, Uells ma'ruza safarlarida milliy va xalqaro miqyosda sayohat qildi.[3]

2020 yilda Uells vafotidan so'ng a Pulitser mukofoti maxsus iqtibos "[f] yoki uning linchin davrida afroamerikaliklarga qarshi dahshatli va shafqatsiz zo'ravonlik haqida ajoyib va ​​jasoratli reportajlari."[4]

Hayotning boshlang'ich davri

Ida Bell Uells yaqinidagi Bolling fermasida tug'ilgan Xolli Springs, Missisipi,[5] 16-iyul, 1862. U Jeyms Medison Uels (1840–1878) va Elizabet "Lizzi" (Uorrenton) ning to'ng'ich farzandi edi. Jeyms Uellsning otasi Peggi ismli qora tanli ayolga singdirilgan oq tanli odam edi. O'limidan oldin, Jeymsning otasi uni 18 yoshli Xolli Springsga duradgorning shogirdi bo'lish uchun olib keldi, u erda mahoratini oshirdi va "shaharda yashovchi yollangan qul" sifatida ishladi.[6] Lizzining qulga aylanish tajribasi umuman boshqacha edi. Plantsiyada tug'ilgan 10 boladan biri Virjiniya, Lizzi oilasi va aka-ukalaridan sotib yuborilgan va Fuqarolar urushidan keyin oilasini topishga muvaffaq bo'lgan.[6] Oldin Emansipatsiya to'g'risidagi e'lon chiqarildi, Uellsning ota-onasi qulga aylantirildi Spires Boling, me'mor va oila hozirda ushbu binoda yashagan Bolling – Geytvud uyi, bu Ida B. Wells-Barnett muzeyiga aylandi.[7]

Emansipatsiyadan so'ng, Uellsning otasi Jeyms Uells Shou kollejining ishonchli vakili bo'ldi (hozir Rust kolleji ). U Demokratik nomzodlarga ovoz berishdan bosh tortdi (qarang Janubiy demokratlar ) davrida Qayta qurish, a'zosi bo'ldi Sadoqatli Liga, va siyosatga aralashgani va unga sodiqligi uchun "irqiy odam" sifatida tanilgan Respublika partiyasi.[6] U 1867 yilda Xolli Springsda muvaffaqiyatli duradgorlik biznesiga asos solgan va uning rafiqasi Lizzi "taniqli oshpaz" sifatida tanilgan.[8]

Ida B. Uells sakkiz farzanddan biri edi va u u erda ro'yxatdan o'tgan tarixan qora liberal san'at kolleji Rust kolleji Xolli Springsda (avval Shou kolleji). 1878 yil sentyabr oyida Uelsning oilasida Adaning ikkala ota-onasi vafot etganda fojia yuz berdi sariq isitma birodarga da'vo qilgan epidemiya.[9] Uells o'sha paytda Xolli Springs yaqinidagi buvisining fermasiga tashrif buyurgan va uni qutqarmagan.

Uning ota-onasi va akasining dafn marosimidan so'ng, do'stlar va qarindoshlar Uelsning qolgan beshta bolasini ajratish va turli xil mehribonlik uylariga yuborish to'g'risida qaror qabul qildilar. Uells bu taklifga qarshilik ko'rsatdi. Kichik birodarlarini bir oilada saqlab qolish uchun u Xolli Springsdagi Qora boshlang'ich maktabida o'qituvchi bo'lib ish topdi. Uning otasi buvisi Peggi Uells (nee.) Peggi Cheers; 1814–1887), boshqa do'stlari va qarindoshlari bilan bir qatorda, Uells dars berayotgan bir hafta davomida birodarlari yonida bo'lib, ularga g'amxo'rlik qildi.[10]

Vellsning buvisi Peggi qon tomiridan ikki yil o'tgach va uning singlisi Evgeniya vafot etganidan keyin Memfisdagi xola Fanni Butlerning xolasi taklifiga binoan Uells vafot etdi. (nee.) Fanni Uels; 1837–1908), ikki kenja singlisi bilan, 1883 yilda u bilan birga yashagan.[11] Memfis Xolli Springsdan taxminan 90 km uzoqlikda joylashgan.

Erta martaba va segregatsiyaga qarshi faollik

Men
 Men bu erdagi fosh etilgan korruptsiyaga qo'llarimni botirganimdan mamnunman ... Kimdir afro-amerikalik irq gunoh qilishdan ko'ra ko'proq gunoh qilganligini ko'rsatishi kerak va buni qilish menga tushganga o'xshaydi.

- Ida B. Uells (1892)[2]

Memfisga ko'chib o'tganidan ko'p o'tmay, Uells Vudstokda yollangan Shelbi okrugi maktab tizimi. Yozgi ta'til paytida u yozgi mashg'ulotlarda qatnashdi Fisk universiteti, a tarixiy ravishda Qora kollej yilda Neshvill. U ham qatnashdi Lemoyne-Ouen kolleji, tarixiy ravishda Qora kollej Memfis. U kuchli siyosiy fikrlarga ega edi va ayollarning huquqlari haqidagi qarashlari bilan ko'p odamlarni qo'zg'atdi. 24 yoshida u shunday deb yozgan edi: "Men bu kechqurun o'z jonim nafratlanadigan ishni qilishdan boshlamayman; odamlarni, kuchsiz yolg'onchi jonzotlarni eskort sifatida saqlab qolish yoki qasos olish uchun xushomadgo'ylik qilish".[12]

1884 yil 4 mayda a poezd dirijyori bilan Chesapeake & Ogayo temir yo'li[13][14] Uellsga birinchi darajali ayollar avtoulovidagi joyidan voz kechishni va boshqa yo'lovchilar bilan allaqachon gavjum bo'lgan chekuvchi mashinaga o'tishni buyurdi.[10] O'tgan yili Oliy sud federalga qarshi qaror chiqargan edi 1875 yildagi fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi qonun (jamoat joylarida irqiy kamsitishni taqiqlagan). Ushbu hukm o'z yo'lovchilarini irqiy ajratishni tanlagan temir yo'l kompaniyalarini qo'llab-quvvatladi. Uells o'z joyidan voz kechishni rad etganda, konduktor va ikki kishi uni mashinadan sudrab olib chiqishdi. Uells Memfisda gazetaga maqola yozganida ommalashgan Yashash yo'li, Qora cherkov har hafta, poezdda davolanishi haqida. Memfisda u temir yo'lni sudga berish uchun afro-amerikalik advokatni yolladi. Uning advokati temir yo'l orqali pul to'laganida,[15] u oq tanli advokatni yolladi.

U 1884 yil 24 dekabrda mahalliy tuman sudi unga 500 dollar mukofot berganida, u o'z ishida g'olib chiqdi. Temir yo'l kompaniyasi murojaat qildi Tennessi Oliy sudi 1887 yildagi quyi sud qarorini bekor qilgan. Bu xulosa: "Bizning fikrimizcha, ayblanuvchining xatosidan maqsad bu da'voni ko'zlagan holda bezovtalanish bo'lgan va uning qat'iyatliligi qulaylikni olish uchun vijdonan emas edi. qisqa yurish uchun joy. "[16] Uells sud xarajatlarini to'lashga buyruq berdi. Uning yuqori sud qaroriga munosabati uning fuqarolik huquqlari va diniy e'tiqodga bo'lgan qat'iy ishonchini ochib berdi, chunki u shunday javob berdi: "Men o'zimni juda xafa qildim, chunki men o'zimning xalqim uchun kostyumimdan shunday buyuk narsalarni umid qilgan edim ... Xudo, yo'qmi ... bu yurtda adolat biz uchunmi? "[17]

Boshlang'ich maktabda o'qitishni davom ettirish paytida Uells jurnalist va yozuvchi sifatida tobora faollashdi. Unga muharrirlik lavozimi taklif qilindi Evening Star Vashingtonda va u har hafta maqolalar yozishni boshladi Yashash yo'li ostida haftalik gazeta qalam nomi "Iola". Uning ism-sharifi ostida u irqchilikka qarshi maqolalar yozgan Jim Krou siyosatlar.[18] 1889 yilda u J. L. Fleming bilan muharrir va egasi bo'ldi Bepul so'z va faralar, qora tanli gazeta Reverend Teylor Nightingale tomonidan tashkil etilgan (1844-1922) va asoslangan Beale Street Baptistlar cherkovi Memfisda.

1891 yilda Uells o'qituvchilik lavozimidan ozod qilindi Memfis Ta'lim Kengashi uning mintaqadagi qora maktablardagi sharoitlarni tanqid qilgan maqolalari tufayli. U tushkunlikka tushgan, ammo umidsiz edi va kuchini maqolalar yozishga sarfladi Yashash yo'li va Bepul nutq va faralar.[17]

Linchga qarshi kampaniya va jurnalistik tekshiruv

Asosiy maqolalar: Linchlashga qarshi harakat va Qo'shma Shtatlarda linching

Memfisdagi egri chiziqdagi linching

Asosiy maqola: Xalq oziq-ovqat linchalari

1889 yilda amerikalik afro-amerikalik Tomas Genri Moss (1853-1892) ochildi Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari, u birgalikda egalik qildi. Do'kon Janubiy Memfis mahallasida "Egri" laqabli joyda joylashgan edi. Uells Moss va uning oilasiga yaqin edi, chunki uning birinchi farzandi Maurine E. Moss (1891-1971) uchun xudojo'y ona sifatida qarashgan. Mossning do'koni yaxshi natijalarga erishdi va Uilyam Rassel Barrettga (1854-1920) tegishli bo'lgan Barrett's Grocery nomli ko'chada joylashgan Oqlarga qarashli oziq-ovqat do'koni bilan raqobatlashdi.[19]

1892 yil 2 martda Armor Xarris ismli qora tanli yosh yigit Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsuloti oldida Kornelius Xerst ismli oq tanli yosh yigit bilan marmar o'yin o'ynab yurgan. Ikki erkak yigit o'yin davomida janjallashib, janjallashib qolishdi. Qora tanli yosh Xarris jangda g'alaba qozona boshlaganda, Kornelius Xerstning otasi aralashib, Xarrisni "urish" qila boshladi. Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari xodimlari Uilyam Styuart va Kalvin R. Makdauell (1870-1892) bu janjalni ko'rib, yosh Xarrisni kattalar Xursatdan himoya qilish uchun tashqariga otildilar, mahalladagi odamlar tezda "irqiy ayblangan olomon" ga aylanib qolishganda.[20]

Oq baqqol Barret ertasi kuni, 1892 yil 3-mart kuni, Uelbi Styuartni qidirib, Shelbi okrugi sherifining o'rinbosari bilan Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlariga qaytdi. Ammo Barretni kutib olgan Kalvin Makdauell Styuartning yo'qligini ko'rsatdi. Barret javobdan norozi bo'lib, Xalq do'koni uning do'koni bilan raqobatlashayotganidan xafa bo'ldi. Oldingi kun haqida g'azablandim mélée, Barret "qora tanlilar o'g'ri edi" deb javob berdi va McDowellni avtomat bilan urdi. McDowell qurol bilan kurash olib bordi va Barrettga o'q uzdi - darrov yo'qolib qoldi. Keyinchalik McDowell hibsga olingan, ammo keyinchalik ozod qilingan.[20]

1892 yil 5 martda olti kishilik oq tanli odamlar, shu jumladan sherifning o'rinbosari elektr tramvaylarini Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlariga olib borishdi. Oq tanlilar guruhini Xalq oziq-ovqatidan o'q otish kutib oldi va Shelbi okrugi sherifi o'rinbosari Charley Koul, shuningdek, fuqaro Bob Harold jarohat oldi. Mahalliy Memfis gazetalari tomonidan qabul qilingan narsalarni qo'yish uchun yuzlab oq tanlilar deyarli darhol deputat bo'lishdi Tijorat va Apellyatsiya-qor ko'chkisi Memfisdagi qora tanlilar tomonidan qurolli isyon sifatida.[20]

Tomas Moss, Xalq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining egasi bo'lishdan tashqari, pochtachi, McDowell va Stewart bilan birga fitna uyushtirgan. Uch kishi hibsga olingan va sudgacha qamoqqa olingan.[19]

1892 yil 9 mart kuni ertalab soat 2:30 atrofida, qora niqob kiygan 75 kishi Moss, Makdouell va Styuartni Shelbi okrugidagi qamoqxonalaridan shaharning bir mil shimolida joylashgan Chezapeake va Ogayo shtatidagi temir yo'l hovlisiga olib borishdi va otishdi. ular o'lik. The Memfis apellyatsiyasi-ko'chki hisobotlar:

Aziz Miss Uells:
     Endi janubdagi rang-barang odamlarga nisbatan qo'llanilayotgan linchning jirkanchligi haqidagi sodiq qog'ozingiz uchun tashakkur. Ishonchli kuchda unga teng keladigan so'z bo'lmagan. Men gapirdim, lekin mening so'zim taqqoslaganda zaifdir ... Jasur ayol! ...

– Frederik Duglass (1892 yil 25-oktabr)[21]

U o'ldirilishidan oldin Moss olomonga dedi: "Mening xalqimga aytinglar, g'arbga boringlar, bu erda adolat yo'q".[20]

Do'stlarining linchidan so'ng, Uells yozgan Bepul nutq va faralar qora tanlilarni Memfisni tark etishga undaydi:

"Shuning uchun faqat bitta narsa qoldi; bizning pulimizni tejab, na hayotimiz va mol-mulkimizni himoya qiladigan, na bizga beradigan shaharni tark eting. adolatli sud sudlarda, lekin bizni olib chiqib, oq tanlilar tomonidan ayblanayotganida sovuq qonda qotillik qilmoqda. "[22]

Ushbu tadbir Uellsni jurnalistning tergov usullaridan foydalangan holda linchinglarni tekshirishni boshlashiga olib keldi. U linching bilan bog'liq bo'lgan odamlardan, shu jumladan, linchindan intervyu olishni boshladi Tunika, Missisipi, 1892 yilda u yosh oq tanli ayolning otasi linch to'dasini qizi bilan jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan qora tanli erkakni o'ldirishni iltimos qilgan degan xulosaga keldi. go'yo "qizining obro'sini saqlab qolish uchun".[20]

Demning Erkin so'z tahdidlar ostida (1892)

Uellsning anti-lyching sharhlari Erkin so'z qurilish, ayniqsa oq tanli ayollarni zo'rlashda gumon qilingan qora tanli erkaklarni linchalash va qamoqqa olish bilan bog'liq edi. Bir voqea 1892 yil 16 yanvarda sodir bo'lgan Klivlend gazetasi, turmush qurgan oq ayol Julia Andervud o'rtasidagi jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan noto'g'ri hukmni tavsiflovchi (nee Julie Caroline Wells) va yolg'iz qora tanli Uilyam Offet (1854-1914) Elyria, Ogayo shtati. Offet zo'rlashda aybdor deb topildi va zo'rlashni rad etganiga qaramay (qora tanli erkakning oq tanli ayolga qarshi so'zi), 15 yillik qamoq jazosining to'rt yilini o'tab berdi. Uning eri, ruhoniy Isaak T. Andervud - ikki yildan so'ng unga iqror bo'lganidan keyin - Offetni jazoni ijro etish muassasasidan olib chiqish uchun astoydil harakat qildi. Pittsburgning nufuzli advokati Tomas Xarlan Baird Pattersonni (1844-1907) yollaganidan so'ng, u g'alaba qozondi va Offet Ogayo shtati gubernatori tomonidan afv etildi.[23]

1892 yil 21-mayda Uells tahririyat maqolasini Erkin so'z u "o'sha eski" deb atagan narsani rad etish iplar negr erkaklar Oq ayollarni zo'rlashi haqida yolg'on. Agar janubiy erkaklar ehtiyot bo'lishmasa, xulosa chiqarilishi mumkin, bu ularning ayollarining axloqiy obro'siga juda ziyon etkazadi. "[24]

T
 u to'g'ri xatolarga yo'l - ularga haqiqat nurini yoqish.

- Ida B. Uells, 1892 yil[25]

To'rt kundan so'ng, 25 may kuni Kundalik tijorat tahdidni e'lon qildi: "Qora jirkanchga [Ida B. Uells] yashashga ruxsat berilganligi va bunday jirkanch va jirkanch gaplarni aytishi kalumniyalar - bu janubiy oqlarning ajoyib sabr-toqatiga oid bir qator dalillar. Ammo bizda bu narsa etarli edi. "[26] Kechki Scimitar (Memfis ) o'sha kuni voqeani ko'chirgan, ammo, aniqrog'i, tahdidni kuchaytirgan: "Bunday sharoitda sabr-toqat qilish fazilat emas. Agar negrlarning o'zi bu vositani kechiktirmasdan qo'llamasa, u bog'lash uchun hujum qilganlarning vazifasi bo'ladi. Main va Medison Sts kesishgan joyida ustunga bu kalumlarni aytgan baxtsiz odam, uni peshonasiga issiq temir bilan tamg'alang va ustiga tikuvchi qaychi bilan jarrohlik operatsiya qiling. "[26]

Oq olomon ularni talon-taroj qildi Erkin so'z bino va uning tarkibini yo'q qiladigan ofis. Jeyms L. Fleming, Uells bilan birgalikda egasi va biznes menejeri Memfisdan qochishga majbur bo'ldi; va, xabarlarga ko'ra, Uellsning qaytishi uchun poyezdlar tomosha qilingan. Kreditorlar ofisni egallab olishdi va aktivlarini sotishdi Erkin so'z. Uells shahar tashqarisida, ta'tilga chiqqan edi Nyu York; lekin hech qachon Memfisga qaytib kelmagan.[26] Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra Oq ishbilarmonlarning "qo'mitasi" Paxta birjasi, Rev. Nightingale joylashgan va garchi u 1891 yilda Uells va Flemingga qiziqishini sotgan bo'lsa ham,[27] unga tajovuz qildi va uni 21 maydagi tahririyatni qaytarib olgan xatni imzolashga majbur qildi.[28][29]

Keyinchalik Uells ishga qabul qilindi Nyu-York asri va Nyu-Yorkdan uning linga qarshi kampaniyasini davom ettirdi.[30] Keyingi uch yil ichida u yashadi Harlem, dastlab uyida mehmon sifatida Timoti Tomas Fortun (1856–1928) va rafiqasi Kerri Fortun (nee Kerolin Charlotte Smiley; 1860-1940).[31]

Kennet W. Goings, PhD ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, bu nusxa yo'q Memfisning bepul nutqi omon qoladi. Bizning yagona ma'lumotimiz boshqa arxivlangan gazetalarda qayta nashr etilgan maqolalardan kelib chiqadi.[32]

Janubiy dahshatlar (1892)

Muqovasi Janubiy dahshatlar: Lynch qonuni barcha bosqichlarida

1892 yil 26-oktabrda Uells a-da linchalash bo'yicha tadqiqotlarini nashr eta boshladi risola sarlavhali Janubiy dahshatlar: Lynch qonuni barcha bosqichlarida.[33][34] "Oq ayollarni zo'rlashi" sababli linchinlar haqidagi ko'plab xabarlarni o'rganib chiqib, u janubliklar zo'rlashni o'zlarining haqiqiy sabablarini yashirish uchun bahona sifatida yig'lashdi, degan xulosaga kelishdi: Oq janubiy aholini raqobat bilan tahdid qilgan qora iqtisodiy taraqqiyot va kuch ishlatishga oid g'oyalar. Jamiyatda qora tanli ikkinchi darajali maqom. Qora iqtisodiy taraqqiyot janubda dolzarb muammo edi va ko'plab shtatlarda oq tanlilar Qora taraqqiyotni bostirish uchun ishladilar. Ushbu davrda, asrning boshlarida, 1890 yilda Missisipidan boshlab Janubiy shtatlar qonunlar va / yoki yangi konstitutsiyalar qabul qildilar. aksariyat qora tanli va kambag'al oq odamlarning huquqlarini bekor qilish yordamida so'rovnoma soliqlari, savodxonlik testlari va boshqa qurilmalar. Uells-Barnett qora tanlilarga linchdan himoya qilish uchun qurol ishlatishni tavsiya qildi.[35]

Quduq, ichida Janubiy dahshatlar, qora tanli erkaklarni "Oq" ning qurbonlari sifatida ko'rsatish uchun "kambag'al, ko'r afro-amerikalik Sampsonlar" iborasini qabul qildi Delilalar ". Injil"Shimsho'n, "kunning xalq tilida, kelgan Longfellow 1865 yilgi she'r "Ogohlantirish, "" degan satrni o'z ichiga olgan, "Bu erda kambag'al, ko'r Shimsho'n bor ... "Tushuntirish uchun metafora "Sampson" Jon Elliott Keyns, irlandiyalik siyosiy iqtisodchi haqida, uning 1865 yilgi maqolasida Qora saylov huquqi, Longflok edi deb yozgan bashorat qilish; aql bilan: "uzoqyaqinlashib kelayotgan fuqarolar urushidan keyin amerikaliklar uchun kurash, [u Longfello] negrda faqat qasos olish vositasi va halokat sababini ko'rishi mumkin edi ».[36] Ibora, qasos vositasi 1831 yilgi asarda ham murojaat qilingan, Nat Tyornerning e'tiroflari, tomonidan nashr etilgan Tomas Ruffin Grey Terner ilohiy alomatlarni qanday ko'rganini - qullikning yomonligini yo'q qilish uchun Xudoning irodasini - (a) uni o'zini oqlaganligini tushuntiradi. qasos vositasi va (b) payg'ambarlik maqomini o'rnatdi. Biroq, Keyns, maqolada, Longfellou bashoratini tushuntirishga o'tdi qilmadi transpire: "soat jirkanch shodlanish uzoq vaqt keldi va amerikalik Sampson [sic] qo'lini ko'tardi, lekin shoir qo'rqqanidan ancha farqli maqsadda - silkitmaslik uchun emas, balki turing The chayqalish Amerika erkinliklari ibodatxonasi - u faqat haqorat va so'zlab bo'lmaydigan xatolarni qabul qilgan ma'bad. "[36]

Shuningdek qarang: Nat Tyornerning qullar isyoni § Nat Tyorner

Qizil yozuv (1895)

Keyinchalik katta tadqiqotlar o'tkazgandan so'ng, Uells nashr etdi Qizil yozuv, 1895 yilda 1863 yil ozodlik e'lon qilinganidan beri Qo'shma Shtatlarda linchalashni tasvirlaydigan batafsilroq 100 sahifali risola. Fuqarolar urushidan beri qora tanli xalqlarning janubdagi kurashlari ham yoritilgan. Qizil yozuv Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarida (1880 yildan 1930 yilgacha eng yuqori cho'qqida bo'lgan) linchalashning xavotirli darajada yuqori ko'rsatkichlarini o'rganib chiqdi. Uells-Barnettning ta'kidlashicha, Qayta qurish davrida janubdan tashqarida bo'lgan aksariyat amerikaliklar janubdagi qora tanlilarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik o'sib borayotganini sezmaganlar. Uning fikriga ko'ra, qullik paytida oq odamlar qullarning iqtisodiy mehnat qiymati tufayli u qadar ko'p hujumlar qilmaganlar. Uellsning ta'kidlashicha, qullik davridan beri "o'n ming negr sovuq sudda, [sudlashuv va rasmiy ijro etilmasdan [linch orqali] o'ldirilgan".[37]

Frederik Duglass "Janubiy vahshiylik" ning uch davri va har bir davrda oqlar da'vo qilgan bahonalar haqida maqola yozgan edi.

Uells-Barnett bularni batafsil o'rganib chiqdi Qizil yozuv.[38]

  • Qullik davrida u oqlar "irqiy tartibsizliklarni bostirish va yo'q qilish uchun ishlagan" deb ta'kidladi'"yoki qullarning isyonlarida gumon qilingan, odatda qora tanlilarni har qanday oq tanli odamlarning o'limiga qaraganda ancha yuqori darajada o'ldirgan. Fuqarolar urushi tugaganidan so'ng, oq tanlilar ko'plab hududlarda aksariyat bo'lgan qora tanlilardan qo'rqishgan. Oq odamlar ularni boshqarish va ularni bostirish uchun harakat qilishgan. zo'ravonlik.[37]
  • Davomida Qayta qurish davri Oq tanlilar qora tanli odamlarni qora tanli siyosiy faoliyatni bostirish va qayta tiklash harakatlari doirasida linchalashgan Oq ustunlik urushdan keyin. Ular ovoz berish va o'z lavozimlariga kirishish orqali "negr hukmronligidan" qo'rqishgan. Uells-Barnett yuqori xavfli hududlarda yashovchi qora tanlilarni oilalarini himoya qilish uchun uzoqlashishga chaqirdi.[39]
  • Uning ta'kidlashicha, oq tanlilar qora tanli erkaklar "ayollarga qilingan hujum uchun qasos olish uchun o'ldirilishi kerak edi". Uning ta'kidlashicha, oq tanlilar oq tanli ayol va qora tanli erkak o'rtasidagi har qanday munosabatlar zo'rlash natijasidir. Ammo, kuch-qudrat munosabatlaridan kelib chiqqan holda, oq tanli erkaklar kambag'al qora tanli ayollarning jinsiy afzalliklaridan foydalanishlari ancha keng tarqalgan edi. U shunday dedi: "Mamlakatning ushbu qismida hech kim qora tanli erkaklar oq tanli ayollarni zo'rlashi haqidagi eski yolg'onga ishonmaydi".[40] Uells lyinchlikni jinsiy zo'ravonlik bilan bog'lab, qora tanlilarning oq tanli ayollarga bo'lgan ishtiyoqi afsonasi afroamerikalik erkaklarning o'ldirilishiga olib kelganini ko'rsatdi.

Uells-Barnett 1892 yildan 1895 yilgacha bo'lgan linchalash ishlari bilan bog'liq 14 sahifa statistik ma'lumotlarni keltirdi; u shuningdek, ma'lum linchinlar haqida batafsil ma'lumot beradigan grafik yozuvlar sahifalarini o'z ichiga olgan. Uning ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, u Oq muxbirlari, Oq matbuot byurolari va Oq gazetalarining maqolalaridan olingan.[41] Qizil yozuv lyinch haqida munozarada katta ta'sirga ega edi.

Janubiy dahshatlar va Qizil yozuv'Lynchlarni hujjatlashtirish shimolliklarning e'tiborini tortdi, ular linch haqida ozgina ma'lumotga ega edilar yoki qora tanli erkaklar bu taqdirga loyiq degan umumiy tushuntirishni qabul qiladilar.[42]

Ga ko'ra Teng adolat tashabbusi, 4084 afro-amerikaliklar linch qilingan Janubiy yolg'iz, 1877 yildan 1950 yilgacha,[43] shulardan 25 foizi jinsiy tajovuzda va deyarli 30 foizi qotillikda ayblangan.[43] Umuman olganda janubiy shtatlar va Oq hakamlar hay'ati linch uchun aybdorlarni ayblashdan bosh tortdilar,[44] garchi ular tez-tez tanilgan va ba'zan bunday voqealar tez-tez suratga olinayotgan bo'lsa, aks etgan.[45][46]

Uells-Barnett oq tanli amerikaliklarni linchlashga qarshi qo'llab-quvvatlashga urinishlariga qaramay, u o'zining kampaniyasi oq tanlilarning janubiy tartibni saqlab qolish va qora iqtisodiy ishlarni to'xtatish vositasi sifatida linchindan foydalangan iqtisodiy manfaatlarini bekor qila olmaydi, deb hisoblar edi. Oxir oqibat, Uells-Barnett xulosa qilib, aql va rahm-shafqatga murojaat qilish janubiy oqlar tomonidan linchalash jinoyatini qo'lga kirita olmaydi.[47]

Uells-Barnett xulosa qilishicha, qurolli qarshilik linchalashga qarshi yagona mudofaa bo'lgan. Shu bilan birga, u Amerikaning irqchilik amaliyotlarini uyat va sanksiya qilish uchun Buyuk Britaniya kabi qudratli oq davlatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashga intildi.[47]

Britaniyada nutq so'zlash

Uells Britaniyaga linchiga qarshi kampaniyasida ikki marta borgan, birinchi marta 1893 yilda, ikkinchisi esa 1894 yilda. U va Amerikadagi tarafdorlari bu turlarni uning linchinga qarshi kampaniyasi bilan oq tanli auditoriyaga chiqish imkoniyati deb bilgan. u Amerikada muvaffaqiyatga erisha olmadi. U Britaniyada xayrixoh auditoriyani topdi, Amerikada linchinlik haqidagi xabarlardan allaqachon hayratda qoldi.[48]Uells Britaniyadagi birinchi nutq safari uchun taklif qilingan edi Ketrin Impey va Izabella Fivi Mayo. Impey, jurnalni nashr etgan Quaker abolitionisti Kastga qarshi,[49] Amerikada sayohat qilganida Uellsning bir qancha ma'ruzalarida qatnashgan.

Mayo Edvard Garret nomi bilan ijod qilgan taniqli yozuvchi va shoir edi. Ikkala ayol ham mudhish linchin haqida o'qishgan Genri Smit Texasda va amerikalik linchinlarga e'tibor berish uchun nutq safari tashkil qilmoqchi edi. Ular Frederik Duglasdan sayohat qilishni so'rashdi, lekin u yoshi va sog'lig'ini hisobga olib rad etdi. Keyin u taklifni g'ayrat bilan qabul qilgan Uellsni taklif qildi.[50][51]1894 yilda, AQShdan Buyuk Britaniyaga ikkinchi tashrifi uchun ketishdan oldin, Uells chaqirdi Uilyam Penn Nikson, muharriri Kundalik Inter Ocean, Chikagodagi Respublika gazetasi. Bu lyshni qat'iyan qoralagan yagona yirik Oq qog'oz edi.[52] U Niksonga rejalashtirilgan safari haqida gapirib bergandan so'ng, u Angliyada bo'lganida gazetaga yozishni iltimos qildi.[52] U asosiy oq gazetaning pullik muxbiri bo'lgan birinchi afroamerikalik ayol edi.[53]

Uells ikki oy davomida Angliya, Shotlandiya va Uelsni aylanib, minglab tomoshabinlarga murojaat qildi,[54] va inglizlar o'rtasida axloqiy salib yurishini uyushtirish.[55] U risolasiga katta ishongan Janubiy dahshatlar birinchi safari chog'ida va Amerikadagi haqiqiy linchinlarning hayratga soladigan fotosuratlarini namoyish etdi. 1894 yil 17-mayda u nutq so'zladi Birmingem Yosh erkaklarning xristian yig'ilishida va Markaziy zal, ichida qolish Edgbaston Gough Road 66-da.[56]

Ikkinchi safarining so'nggi kechasida Londonda Linchga qarshi Qo'mita tashkil etildi - xabarlarga ko'ra dunyodagi birinchi linga qarshi tashkilot.[57] Uning asoschilariga Argil Gersogi, ser Jon Gorst va boshqa ko'plab taniqli shaxslar kirgan Canterbury arxiepiskopi, Lady Genri Somerset va taxminan yigirma Parlament a'zolari,[58] faol bilan Florensiya Balgarni faxriy kotib sifatida.[59]

Britaniyadagi ikkita ma'ruza safari natijasida u ingliz va amerika matbuotida sezilarli yoritilgan. U Qo'shma Shtatlarga qaytib kelganida chop etilgan ko'plab maqolalar, uning anti-lyinch pozitsiyalari va e'tiqodlari haqidagi xabarlardan ko'ra, dushmanona shaxsiy tanqidlar edi. The New York Times, masalan, uni "tuhmatchi va yomon fikrli mulatress" deb atagan.[60] Oq matbuotdagi ushbu hujumlarga qaramay, Uells shunga qaramay keng tan olingan va ishonchga sazovor bo'lgan va uning tarafdorlari bo'lgan Oq tarafdorlarining xalqaro auditoriyasi.

Nikoh va oila

Advokat Ferdinand Li Barnett (taxminan 1900). Uells 1895 yilda Barnettga uylandi.
Ida B. Uells-Barnett to'rt nafar farzandi bilan, 1909 yil

1895 yil 27-iyun kuni Chikagoda Bethel AME cherkovida Uells advokatga uylandi Ferdinand L. Barnett,[61] Ferdinand Barnett va Albert Grem Barnett (1886–1962) ikki o'g'li bo'lgan beva ayol. Chikagoda yashagan Ferdinand Li Barnett taniqli advokat, fuqarolik huquqlari faoli va jurnalist edi. Uells singari u ham lyinchlarga qarshi va afroamerikaliklarning fuqarolik huquqlari uchun keng gapirgan. Uells va Barnett 1893 yilda uchrashib, birgalikda qora tanli vakillarning etishmasligiga qarshi risola ustida ishladilar. Dunyo Kolumbiya ko'rgazmasi 1893 yilda Chikagoda. Barnett asos solgan Chikago konservatori, 1878 yilda Chikagodagi birinchi Qora gazeta. Uells 1893 yilda gazetaga yozishni boshladi, keyinchalik qisman mulk ulushiga ega bo'ldi va Barnetga uylanganidan keyin muharrir rolini o'z zimmasiga oldi.[62]

Uellsning Barnett bilan nikohi huquqiy ittifoq, shuningdek g'oyalar va harakatlar sherikligi edi. Ikkalasi ham jurnalist edi va ikkalasi ham fuqarolik huquqlariga sodiq bo'lgan faollar edi. Intervyuda Uellsning qizi Alfreda ikkalasining "o'xshash qiziqishlari" borligini va ularning jurnalistlik faoliyati "bir-biriga bog'langan "ligini aytdi. Xotin va er o'rtasidagi bunday yaqin ish munosabatlar o'sha paytlarda odatiy bo'lmagan, chunki ayollar ko'pincha nikohda ko'proq an'anaviy uy rollarini o'ynashgan.[63]

Ferdinandning avvalgi turmushidan Barnettning ikkita farzandidan tashqari, juftlikda yana to'rttasi bor edi: Charlz Aked Barnett (1896-1957), Herman Kohlsaat Barnett (1897-1975), Ida Bell Uells Barnett, kichik (1901-1988) va Alfreda Marguerita Barnett (turmush qurgan familiya Duster; 1904-1983). Charlz Aked Barnettning ikkinchi ismi Charlz Frederik Akedning ismlari edi (1864-1941), Britaniyada tug'ilgan, Amerikaga aylangan nufuzli progressiv protestant ruhoniysi, 1894 yilda, Pembrooke Baptist cherkovining ruhoniysi bo'lgan. "Liverpul", Angliya Uells bilan do'stlashdi, uning linga qarshi kampaniyasini ma'qulladi va 1894 yilda Angliyadagi ikkinchi nutq safari davomida uni mehmon qildi.[64]

Uellsning o'limidan keyingi avtobiografiyasining bir qismida, Adolat uchun salib yurishi, "Ajratilgan vazifa" deb nomlangan u o'z vaqtini oila va ish o'rtasida taqsimlash qiyinligini tasvirlab berdi. U birinchi farzandi tug'ilgandan keyin ishlashni davom ettirdi, sayohat qildi va chaqaloq Charlzni o'zi bilan birga olib keldi. U ona sifatida va milliy faol sifatida o'z rollarini muvozanatlashga harakat qilgan bo'lsa-da, u har doim ham omadli emasligi ta'kidlangan. Syuzan B. Entoni dedi u "chalg'itib qo'ygandek".[65]

Bethel AME cherkovining ma'ruzalar zalida joylashgan Chikagodagi qora tanli bolalarni birinchi o'ringa qo'ygan birinchi bolalar bog'chasini tashkil etishi uning jamoat faolligi va shaxsiy hayoti qanday bog'liqligini namoyish etadi; uning nabirasi Mishel Duster ta'kidlaganidek: "Katta bolalari maktab yoshiga kira boshlaganda, u qora tanli bolalar boshqa talabalar singari ta'lim olish imkoniyatiga ega emasligini tan oldi .... Va shunday qilib, uning munosabati shunday edi: "U mavjud bo'lmaganligi sababli, biz uni o'zimiz yaratamiz."[66]

Afro-amerikaliklar rahbariyati

19-asrning afroamerikalik fuqarolik huquqlari bo'yicha taniqli rahbari, Frederik Duglass Uellsning ishini maqtab, unga kirish so'zlarini va ba'zan uning tergovlari uchun moliyaviy yordam ko'rsatdi. U 1895 yilda vafot etganida, Uells, ehtimol, taniqli bo'lgan davrda bo'lgan, ammo ko'plab erkaklar va ayollar qora tanli fuqarolik huquqlari bo'yicha etakchini o'z zimmasiga olgan ayolga qarshi bo'lib, ayollarga o'xshamagan va ko'pincha ularga ruxsat berilmagan bir paytda. , keng jamiyat tomonidan etakchilar.[67] Yangi etakchi ovozlar uchun, Booker T. Vashington, uning raqibi, W. E. B. Du Bois Va an'anaviy ravishda fikr yuritadigan faol ayollar, Uells ko'pincha juda radikal deb topila boshladilar.[68]

Uells boshqalar bilan uchrashgan va ba'zan ular bilan hamkorlik qilgan, ammo ular orasida ko'plab kelishmovchiliklar bo'lgan, shu bilan birga o'zlarining g'oyalari va dasturlari uchun e'tibor olish uchun raqobatlashgan. Masalan, nima uchun Uells nomi asl asoschilar ro'yxatidan chiqarilganligi sababli turli xil ma'lumotlar mavjud NAACP. Uning tarjimai holida Tong shom, Du Bois shuni nazarda tutdiki, Uells o'z tarkibiga kiritilmaslikni tanladi.[69] Biroq, Uells o'zining avtobiografiyasida Du Bois uni qasddan ro'yxatdan chiqarib tashlaganligini ta'kidlagan.[70]

Chikagoda tashkil qilish

Chikagoga joylashgandan so'ng, Uells afroamerikaliklarning fuqarolik huquqlariga ko'proq e'tibor qaratib, o'zining lyinchga qarshi ishini davom ettirdi. U milliy fuqarolik huquqlari rahbarlari bilan katta ko'rgazmaga qarshi chiqish uchun ishlagan, u milliy ayollar klublari harakatida faol bo'lgan va oxir-oqibat Illinoys shtati senatiga nomzod bo'lgan. Shuningdek, u ayollarning huquqlari va saylov huquqlari to'g'risida jonkuyar edi. U ayollarning ish joylarida muvaffaqiyatli bo'lishlari, teng imkoniyatlarga ega bo'lishlari va o'zlari uchun nom yaratishlari uchun vakili va himoyachisi edi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Uells faol a'zosi edi Milliy teng huquqli ligasi (NERL), 1864 yilda tashkil etilgan va prezidentni chaqiruvchi ularning vakili bo'lgan Vudro Uilson davlat ishlarida kamsitishlarga barham berish.[71][72] 1914 yilda u NERL ning Chikagodagi byurosi prezidenti bo'lib ishlagan.[73]

Dunyo Kolumbiya ko'rgazmasi

1893 yilda Dunyo Kolumbiya ko'rgazmasi Chikagoda bo'lib o'tdi. Frederik Duglas va boshqa qora tanli etakchilar bilan birgalikda Uells afroamerikaliklarni eksponatlardan chetlatish uchun yarmarkani Qora boykotini uyushtirdi.[74] Uells, Duglass, Irvine Garland Penn Va Uellsning bo'lajak eri Ferdinand L. Barnett risolaning bo'limlarini yozgan Sababi: rangli amerikalik dunyodagi Kolumbiya ko'rgazmasida emasQora tanlilarning Amerikaga kelganidan beri erishgan taraqqiyotini batafsil bayon etgan va shuningdek, Janubiy linchinlarning asosini ochib bergan.[75] Keyinchalik Uells xabar berdi Albion V. Turji risolaning nusxalari yarmarkada 20000 dan ortiq odamlarga tarqatilganligi.[76] O'sha yili u ish boshladi Chikago konservatori, shahardagi eng qadimgi afroamerikalik gazeta.[77]

Ayollar klublari

19-asrning oxirida Chikagoda yashab, Uells milliy hayotda juda faol bo'lgan Ayollar klubi harakati. 1893 yilda u uyushgan Ayollar davri Klub, Chikagodagi afroamerikalik ayollar uchun birinchi turdagi fuqarolik klubi. Keyinchalik uning sharafiga Ida B. Wells Club deb nomlangan. 1896 yilda Uells Vashingtonda tashkil etilgan uchrashuvda ishtirok etdi Rangli ayollar klublari milliy assotsiatsiyasi.[78] Uning o'limidan so'ng, Ida B. Uells klubi ko'p ishlarni davom ettirdi. Klub Chikagodagi asoschisi Ida B. Uells nomidagi uy-joy loyihasini amalga oshirishni qo'llab-quvvatladi va muvaffaqiyatga erishdi va 1939 yilda rangli ayol nomidagi birinchi uy-joy loyihasi sifatida tarixga kirdi.[79] Uells ham ushbu tadbirni tashkil etishga yordam berdi Milliy Afro-Amerika Kengashi, tashkilotning birinchi kotibi sifatida ishlaydi.[80]

Uells boshqa ijtimoiy faollar va uning klubdosh ayollari tomonidan katta qo'llab-quvvatlandi. Frederik Duglass uning ishini yuqori baholadi: "Siz o'z xalqingizni bajardingiz va xizmat qildingiz ... Men uchun yozgan narsalaringiz qanday mavjud sharoitlarni ochib berdi".[26]

Duglassning maqtoviga qaramay, Uells mahalliy va milliy ayollar klublari orasida munozarali shaxsga aylanmoqda. Bu 1899 yilda Rangli ayollar klublari milliy assotsiatsiyasi Chikagoda uchrashmoqchi bo'lganida aniq bo'ldi. Uyushma prezidentiga yozish, Meri Terrell, Chikagodagi tadbir tashkilotchilari uchrashuvda Uells ishtirok etsa, hamkorlik qilmasliklarini bildirishdi. Uells Terrell Uelsni chetlatishga rozi bo'lganini bilgach, u buni "hayratlanarli zarba" deb atadi.[81]

Shuningdek qarang: Ida B. Uells § Alpha ovoz berish klubi

Maktabni ajratish

1900 yilda Uells g'azablandi Chicago Tribune tizimini qabul qilishni taklif qiladigan bir qator maqolalar chop etdi irqiy ajratish davlat maktablarida. Uning janubdagi ajratilgan tizimlarda maktab o'qituvchisi sifatida ishlash tajribasini hisobga olgan holda, u noshirga ajratilgan maktab tizimlarining nosozliklari va birlashtirilgan davlat maktablarining yutuqlari to'g'risida yozgan. Keyin u ofisiga bordi va uni lobbi qildi. Unsatisfied, she enlisted the social reformer Jeyn Addams in her cause. Wells and the pressure group she put together with Addams are credited with stopping the adoption of an officially segregated school system.[82][83]

Saylov huquqi

Willard controversy

Ida B. Wells circa 1895

Wells' role in the U.S. suffrage movement was inextricably linked to her lifelong crusade against racism, violence and discrimination towards African Americans. Her view of women's enfranchisement was pragmatic and political.[84] Like all suffragists she believed in women's right to vote, but she also saw enfranchisement as a way for Black women to become politically involved in their communities and to use their votes to elect African Americans, regardless of gender, to influential political offices.[85]

As a prominent Black suffragist, Wells held strong positions against racism, violence and lynching that brought her into conflict with leaders of largely White suffrage organizations. Perhaps the most notable example of this conflict was her very public disagreement with Frensis Uillard, the first President of the Xotin-qizlar xristian Temperance Union (WCTU).[86]

The WCTU was a predominantly White women's organization, with branches in every state and a growing membership. With roots in the call for temperance and sobriety, the organization later became a powerful advocate of suffrage in the U.S.

In 1893 Wells and Willard travelled separately to Britain on lecture tours. Willard was promoting temperance as well as suffrage for women, and Wells was calling attention to lynching in the U.S. The basis of their dispute was Wells' public statements that Willard was silent on the issue of lynching.[17] She referred to an interview Willard had conducted during her tour of the American South, in which she had blamed African Americans' behavior for the defeat of temperance legislation. "The colored race multiplies like the locusts of Egypt," she had said, and "the grog shop is its center of power. The safety of women, of childhood, of the home is menaced in a thousand localities, so that men dare not go beyond the sight of their own roof tree."[87][88][89]

Although Willard and her prominent supporter Ledi Somerset were critical of Wells' comments, Wells was able to turn that into her favor, portraying their criticisms as attempts by powerful White leaders to "crush an insignificant colored woman."[90]

Wells also dedicated a chapter in The Red Record to juxtapose the different positions that she and Willard held. The chapter titled "Miss Willard's Attitude" condemned Willard for using rhetoric that promoted violence and other crimes against African Americans in America.[91]

Negro Fellowship League

Wells, her husband, and some members of their Bible study group, in 1908, founded the Negro Fellowship League (NFL), the first Black hisob-kitob uyi Chikagoda.[92] The organization, in rented space, served as a reading room, library, activity center, and shelter for young Black men in the local community at a time when the local Yosh erkaklar nasroniylar uyushmasi (YMCA) did not allow Black men as members. The NFL also assisted with job leads and entrepreneurial opportunities for new arrivals in Chicago from Southern States, notably those of the Katta migratsiya.[93] During her involvement, the NFL advocated for women's suffrage and supported the Republican Party in Illinois.[94]

Alpha Suffrage Club

In the years following her dispute with Willard, Wells continued her anti-lynching campaign and organizing in Chicago. She focused her work on Black women's suffrage in the city following the enactment of a new state law enabling partial women's suffrage. The Illinois Presidential and Municipal Suffrage Bill of 1913 (qarang Women's suffrage in Illinois ) gave women in the state the right to vote for presidential electors, mayor, aldermen and most other local offices; but not for governor, state representatives or members of Congress.[95][96][a] Illinois was the first state east of the Mississippi to give women these voting rights.[97]

The prospect of passing the act, even one of partial enfranchisement, was the impetus for Wells and her White colleague Belle Squire tashkil qilish Alpha Suffrage Club in Chicago on January 30, 1913.[98][99][sahifa kerak ] One of the most important Black suffrage organizations in Chicago, the Alpha Suffrage Club was founded as a way to further voting rights for all women, to teach Black women how to engage in civic matters, and to work to elect African Americans to city offices. Two years after its founding, the club played a significant role in electing Oscar De Priest as the first African-American alderman Chikagoda.[100]

As Wells and Squire were organizing the Alpha Club, the Amerikalik ayollarning saylov huquqlari bo'yicha milliy assotsiatsiyasi (NAWSA) was organizing a suffrage parade in Washington D.C. Marching the day before the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson in 1913, suffragists from across the country gathered to demand universal suffrage.[101] Wells, together with a delegation of members from Chicago, attended. On the day of the march, the head of the Illinois delegation told the Wells delegates that the NAWSA wanted "to keep the delegation entirely White",[102] and all African-American suffragists, including Wells, were to walk at the end of the parade in a "colored delegation".[103]

Instead of going to the back with other African Americans, however, Wells waited with spectators as the parade was underway, and stepped into the White Illinois delegation as they passed by. She visibly linked arms with her White suffragist colleagues, Squire and Virjiniya Bruks for the rest of the parade, demonstrating, according to Chikago himoyachisi, the universality of the women's civil rights movement.[104]

From "race agitator" to political candidate

Davomida Birinchi jahon urushi, the U.S. government placed Wells under surveillance, labeling her a dangerous "race agitator".[8] She defied this threat by continuing civil rights work during this period with such figures as Markus Garvi, Monroe Trotter va Madam C. J. Walker.[8] In 1917, Wells wrote a series of investigative reports for the Chikago himoyachisi ustida Sent-Luisdagi poygadagi tartibsizliklar.[105] After almost thirty years away, Wells made her first trip back to the South in 1921 to investigate and publish a report on the Elayn qatliomi in Arkansas (published 1922).[105]

In the 1920s, she participated in the struggle for African-American workers' rights, urging Black women's organizations to support the Uyqudagi avtoulovchilarning birodarligi, as it tried to gain legitimacy.[8] However, she lost the presidency of the Rangli ayollarning milliy assotsiatsiyasi in 1924 to the more diplomatic Mary Bethune.[106] To challenge what she viewed as problems for African Americans in Chicago, Wells started a political organization named Third Ward Women's Political Club in 1927. In 1928, she tried to become a delegate to the Republican National Convention but lost to Oscar De Priest. Her feelings toward the Republican Party became more mixed due to the Guver Administration's stance on civil rights and attempts to promote a "Lily-White " policy in Southern Republican organizations. In 1930, Wells unsuccessfully sought elective office, running as an Independent for a seat in the Illinoys Senati, against the Republican Party candidate, Adelbert Roberts.[105][8]

Influence on Black feminist activism

Wells-Barnett explained that the defense of White women's honor allowed Southern White men to get away with murder by projecting their own history of sexual violence onto Black men. Her call for all races and genders to be accountable for their actions showed African-American women that they can speak out and fight for their rights. By portraying the horrors of lynching, she worked to show that racial and gender discrimination are linked, furthering the Black feminist cause.[107]

Autobiography and death

Wells began writing her autobiography, Adolat uchun salib yurishlari (1928), but never finished the book; it would be posthumously published, edited by her daughter Alfreda Barnett Duster, in 1970, as Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells.[9][108]

Uells vafot etdi uremiya (kidney failure) in Chicago on March 25, 1931, at the age of 68. She was buried in Oak Woods qabristoni Chikagoning janubiy tomonida.[109]

Meros va sharaflar

Lord Birmingem meri Yvonne Mosquito, bilan Edgbaston ko'k blyashka, February 12, 2019

Since Wells' death, with the rise of mid-20th-century civil rights activism, and the 1971 posthumous publication of her autobiography, interest in her life and legacy has grown. Awards have been established in her name by the Qora jurnalistlarning milliy assotsiatsiyasi,[110] The Medill jurnalistika maktabi da Shimoli-g'arbiy universiteti,[111] the Coordinating Council for Women in History,[112] The Type Investigations (formerly the Investigative Fund),[113] The Louisville universiteti,[114] va Nyu-York okrugi advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi (awarded annually since 2003),[115] boshqalar qatorida. The Ida B. Wells Memorial Foundation and the Ida B. Wells Museum have also been established to protect, preserve and promote Wells' legacy.[116] In her hometown of Holly Springs, Mississippi, there is an Ida B. Wells-Barnett Museum in her honor that acts as a cultural center of African-American history.[117]

1941 yilda Jamoat ishlarini boshqarish (PWA) built a Chikagodagi uy-joy ma'muriyati jamoat uy-joy qurilishi loyihasi ichida Bronzevil mahalla Janubiy tomon ning Chikago; unga nom berildi Ida B. Wells uylari uning sharafiga. The buildings were demolished in August 2011 due to changing demographics and ideas about such housing.[118]

1988 yilda u shu guruhga kiritildi Milliy ayollar shon-sharaf zali.[119] In August that year, she was also inducted into the Chikago Ayollar shon-sharaf zali.[120] Molefi Kete Asante included Wells on his list of 100 eng buyuk afro-amerikaliklar 2002 yilda.[121] In 2011, Wells was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame for her writings.[122]

Ida B. Wells display at the Afro-amerikaliklar tarixi va madaniyati milliy muzeyi

On February 1, 1990, at the start of Qora tarix oyligi AQShda AQSh pochta xizmati dedicated a 25¢ shtamp commemorating Wells in a ceremony at the Fan va sanoat muzeyi Chikagoda. The stamp, designed by Thomas Blackshear II, features a portrait of Wells illustrated from a composite of photographs of her taken during the mid-1890s. Wells is the 25th African-American entry – and fourth woman African American – on a U.S. postage stamp. She is the 13th in the Postal Service's Black Heritage series.[123][124][125]

2006 yilda, Garvard Kennedi maktabi commissioned a portrait of Wells.[126] In 2007 the Ida B. Wells Association, was founded by Memfis universiteti philosophy graduate students to promote discussion of philosophical issues arising from the African-American experience and to provide a context in which to mentor undergraduates. The Philosophy Department at the University of Memphis has sponsored the Ida B. Wells conference every year since 2007.[127]

On February 12, 2012, Meri E. Gullar, a'zosi Illinoys Vakillar palatasi, introduced House Resolution 770 during the 97th General Assembly, honoring Ida B. Wells by declaring March 25, 2012 – the eighty-ninth anniversary of her death – as Ida B. Wells Day in the State of Illinois.[128]

In August 2014, Wells was the subject of an episode of the BBC radiosi 4 dastur Buyuk hayot, in which her work was championed by Baroness Oona qiroli.[129]

On July 16, 2015, which would have been her 153rd birthday, Wells was honored with a Google Doodle.[130][131][132][133]

In 2016 the Ida B. Wells Society for Investigative Reporting was launched in Memphis, Tennessee, with the purpose of promoting investigative journalism.[134] Following in the footsteps of Wells, this society encourages minority journalists to expose injustices perpetuated by the government and defend people who are susceptible to being taken advantage of.[134] This organization was created with much support from the Ochiq jamiyat asoslari, Ford jamg'armasi va CUNY jurnalistika oliy maktabi.[134]

2018 yilda Tinchlik va adolat uchun milliy yodgorlik ochilgan; it includes a reflection space dedicated to Wells, a selection of quotes by her, and a stone inscribed with her name.[135][136]

2018 yil 8 martda, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her,[2] in a series marking Xalqaro xotin-qizlar kuni and entitled "Overlooked" that set out to acknowledge that, since 1851, its obituary pages had been dominated by White men, while notable women – including Wells – had been ignored.[137][138]

In July 2018, Chicago's City Council officially renamed Congress Parkway as Ida B. Wells Drive;[139] it is the first downtown Chicago street named for a woman of color.[140]

Ida B. Wells-Barnett House a Chicago landmark va Milliy tarixiy yo'nalish.

On February 12, 2019, a ko'k blyashka tomonidan taqdim etilgan Nubian Jak Community Trust, was unveiled at the Edgbaston Community Centre, Birmingem, England, commemorating Wells' stay in a house on the exact site of 66 Gough Road where she stayed in 1893 during her speaking tour of the British Isles.[141][57]

Historical marker honoring Ida B. Wells

On July 13, 2019, a marker for her was dedicated in Mississippi, on the northeast corner of Holly Springs' Courthouse Square.[142]The marker was donated by the Tarixiy saqlash bo'yicha yahudiy Amerika jamiyati.

Qo'shimcha mil – Nur nuqtalari Volunteer Pathway, a memorial adjacent to the oq uy in Washington, D.C., selected Wells as one of its 37 honorees. The Extra Mile pays homage to Americans such as Wells who set aside their own self-interest in order to help others and who successfully brought positive social change to the United States.

In 2019, a new middle school in Washington, D.C., was named in her honor.[143]

On November 7, 2019, a Missisipi Yozuvchilar izi historical marker was installed at Rust College in Holly Springs commemorating the legacy of Ida B. Wells.[144]

On May 4, 2020, she was posthumously awarded a Pulitser mukofoti special citation, "[f]or her outstanding and courageous reporting on the horrific and vicious violence against African Americans during the era of lynching."[4][145] The Pulitzer Prize board announced that it would donate at least $50,000 in support of Wells' mission to recipients who would be announced at a later date.[4]

In June 2020, during the Jorj Floyd Tennesi shtatidagi norozilik namoyishlarida, protesters egallab olingan the area outside the Tennessi shtati kapitoliy, re-dubbing it "Ida B. Wells Plaza".[146] The Memphis Memorial Committee, alongside the Neshoba Community Center, will be seeking to honor Ida B. Wells' as a prominent figure in Memphis's history by installing a statue in her memory.[147]

Representation in stage and film

The PBS hujjatli serial Amerika tajribasi aired on October 24, 1989 – season 2, episode 4 (one-hour) – "Ida B. Wells: A Passion for Justice", written and directed by Uilyam Grivz. The documentary featured excerpts of Wells' memoirs read by Toni Morrison.[148] (viewable orqali YouTube )

In 1995, the play In Pursuit of Justice: A One-Woman Play About Ida B. Wells, written by Wendy D. Jones (born 1953) and starring Janice Jenkins,[149] ishlab chiqarilgan. It draws on historical incidents and speeches from Wells' autobiography, and features fictional letters to a friend. It won four awards from the AUDELCO (Audience Development Committee Inc.), an organization that honors Black theatre.[150]

In 1999, a staged o'qish spektakl Iola's Letter, written by Michon Boston (nee.) Michon Alana Boston; born 1962), was performed at Xovard universiteti in Washington, D.C., under the direction of Vera J. Katz,[b][151] including then-student Chadvik Boseman (Qora Pantera ) among the cast. The play is inspired by the real-life events that compelled a 29-year-old Ida B. Wells to launch an anti-lynching crusade from Memphis in 1892 using her newspaper, Erkin so'z.[152]

Wells' life is the subject of Constant Star (2002), a widely performed musical drama by Tazewell Thompson,[153] who was inspired to write it by the 1989 documentary Ida B. Wells: A Passion for Justice.[58] Thompson's play explores Wells as "a seminal figure in Post-Qayta qurish Amerika. "[153]

Wells was played by Adilah Barnes in the 2004 film Jawed temir farishtalar. The film dramatizes a moment during the 1913 yilgi ayollarning saylov huquqi bo'yicha parad when Wells ignored instructions to march with the segregated parade units and crossed the lines to march with the other members of her Illinois chapter.[154]

Tanlangan nashrlar

  • Mob Rule in New Orleans: Robert Charles and His Fight to Death, the Story of His Life, Burning Human Beings Alive, Other Lynching Statistics. 1900.
  • The Red Record: Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynching in the United States. 1895.
  • Janubiy dahshatlar: Lynch qonuni barcha bosqichlarida. Nyu York: New York Age Print. 1892 – via Schomburg qora madaniyatni tadqiq qilish markazi, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Nyu-York ommaviy kutubxonasi.

Shuningdek qarang

Bibliografiya

Izohlar

  1. ^ 48-Illinoys Bosh assambleyasi, Regular Ikki yillik Sessiya:
    1. May 7, 1913: Senate Bill 63 – State Senator Hugh Stewart Magill, Jr. (1868–1958), from Princeton, sponsored a limited women's suffrage bill. The Illinoys Senati (the Upper House) passed it May 7, 1913, by a vote of 29 to 15 – three more than the required majority.
    2. June 11, 1913: The House posed a stiffer challenge, right up to the day of the vote. The Illinoys Vakillar palatasi (the Lower House) passed it June 11, 1913, by a vote of 83 to 58.
    3. June 26, 1913: Governor Edvard F. Dann signed the bill June 26, 1913, in Springfild. The signing ceremony was filmed for the movies.
  2. ^ Vera J. Katz (nee.) Vera Joy Weintraub; born 1936) is Professor Emerita dan Xovard universiteti, Department of Theatre Arts, where she taught acting and directing for 32 years – from 1969 to about 2001. [Like many of the writers cited in this article], Katz has devoted much of her career to fighting bigotry. (Hentoff )

Izohlar

  1. ^ Giddings, Entsiklopediya 2013.
  2. ^ a b v Dikerson.
  3. ^ Wells Papers, Univ. Chikago.
  4. ^ a b v Pulitzer 2020.
  5. ^ Makkinni.
  6. ^ a b v McMurry.
  7. ^ Matthews, Dasha.
  8. ^ a b v d e Giddings, Sword Among Lions, 2008, 5-10 bet.
  9. ^ a b Qora, Patti Karr.
  10. ^ a b Mitchell, p. D13.
  11. ^ Heather-Lea, pp. 4 & 7 (section A).
  12. ^ Bay, p. 67.
  13. ^ Yaeger, October 21, 2015.
  14. ^ Franklin, pp. 61, 63–65.
  15. ^ Fradin & Fradin, p. 21.
  16. ^ Chesapeake, O. & S. R. Co. v. Wells, 1887, p. 5.
  17. ^ a b v Wells–Duster, 1970, p. xviii.
  18. ^ Kardon.
  19. ^ a b Peavey & Smith, 46-49 betlar.
  20. ^ a b v d e Giddings, Sword Among Lions, 2008, p. 178–180, 183, 207.
  21. ^ Douglass, Frederick 1892, p. 25.
  22. ^ Wells–Duster, 1970, p. 52.
  23. ^ "Horrible but True," January 16, 1892, p. 1.
  24. ^ Wormser.
  25. ^ ketidan quvmoq, p. 3.
  26. ^ a b v d Uells, Southern Horrors 1892, p. 3-5.
  27. ^ Sxema, p. 70.
  28. ^ "A Bright Woman", p. 1 (section 2).
  29. ^ Sherif, p. 63 (footnote 46).
  30. ^ Sxema, p. 79.
  31. ^ Sherif, 63-64 bet.
  32. ^ Goings.
  33. ^ Novvoy.
  34. ^ Uells, Southern Horrors 1892.
  35. ^ Uells, Southern Horrors 1892, p. 23.
  36. ^ a b Cairnes, p. 343.
  37. ^ a b Uells, Red Record, p. 8.
  38. ^ Uells, Red Record.
  39. ^ Uells, Red Record, p. 9.
  40. ^ Uells, Red Record, p. 12.
  41. ^ Uells, Red Record, p. 71.
  42. ^ Uells, Red Record, p. 82.
  43. ^ a b "Key Findings", p. 4.
  44. ^ Johnston & Oliver, p. 24.
  45. ^ Tompson, p. 238.
  46. ^ Allen-Littlefield.
  47. ^ a b Kori.
  48. ^ Zackodnik, p. 264.
  49. ^ Quakers.
  50. ^ Bay, p. 4.
  51. ^ Duster, Michelle, p. 13.
  52. ^ a b Wells–Duster, 1970, p. 125.
  53. ^ Elliott, p. 242.
  54. ^ Basbi, p. 150.
  55. ^ McBride.
  56. ^ Yaxshi.
  57. ^ a b Washington, Linn.
  58. ^ a b Myrick-Harris.
  59. ^ Paisana, p. 197.
  60. ^ Smit, Devid.
  61. ^ "Miss Wells," June 13, 1895.
  62. ^ Ritchi, p. 165.
  63. ^ Sxema, p. 176.
  64. ^ Jordan, Brucella Wiggins, 195-196 betlar.
  65. ^ Tichi, p. 340 (note 16).
  66. ^ Nettles, Arionne Alyssa.
  67. ^ Seymur, pp. 333.
  68. ^ Palmer, 106-107 betlar.
  69. ^ Du Bois 1940, p. 224.
  70. ^ Wells–Duster, 1970, p. 322.
  71. ^ Biography 2020.
  72. ^ Rooney & Lemerand, p. 650.
  73. ^ Doenecke, p. 358–359.
  74. ^ Sxema, 94-95 betlar.
  75. ^ Wells, Douglass, Penn, Barnett, 1893.
  76. ^ Portvud.
  77. ^ Bonfiglio, p. C2.
  78. ^ Rangli ayollar klublari milliy assotsiatsiyasi.
  79. ^ Honoring Ida B. Wells.
  80. ^ Milliy Afro-Amerika Kengashi.
  81. ^ Wells–Duster, 1970, p. 258.
  82. ^ Pinar 2009.
  83. ^ Gyima, p. 977.
  84. ^ Sxema, p. 14.
  85. ^ Sxema, p. 199.
  86. ^ Vagner.
  87. ^ Pinar 2001.
  88. ^ Villard.
  89. ^ Truth-Telling.
  90. ^ Sxema, p. 102.
  91. ^ Uells, Red Record, p. 84.
  92. ^ Mann, p. 12.
  93. ^ Wells 1911.
  94. ^ Sxema, p. 194.
  95. ^ Illinois Senate Journal 1914.
  96. ^ Illinois House Journal 1914.
  97. ^ Grossman.
  98. ^ Alpha Suffrage Record, 1914, p. 1.
  99. ^ Bay.
  100. ^ Sxema, p. 205.
  101. ^ Boissoneault.
  102. ^ Bay, p. 290.
  103. ^ Flexner & Fitzpatrick, p. 318.
  104. ^ Stillion Southard, p. 85.
  105. ^ a b v DeCosta-Willis.
  106. ^ Makkluski, p. 8.
  107. ^ Stansell, p. 127.
  108. ^ Duster, Alfreda.
  109. ^ Rojers.
  110. ^ NABJ.
  111. ^ Shimoli-g'arbiy universiteti.
  112. ^ CCWH Student Fellowship.
  113. ^ Type Investigations.
  114. ^ Louisville universiteti.
  115. ^ Nyu-York okrugi advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi.
  116. ^ Wells-Barnett Museum.
  117. ^ Wells-Barnett Museum (home page).
  118. ^ Vikimapiya.
  119. ^ Milliy ayollar shon-sharaf zali.
  120. ^ Burli, p. 2; section 6.
  121. ^ Asante.
  122. ^ Chikagodagi Shon-sharaf adabiy zali.
  123. ^ USPS: Women stamps, p. 3.
  124. ^ USPS: African American stamps, p. 2018-04-02 121 2.
  125. ^ Sama, p. 11 (section 14).
  126. ^ Portret.
  127. ^ Memfis universiteti.
  128. ^ Gullar.
  129. ^ King, Oona.
  130. ^ Kruikshank.
  131. ^ Jalabiy.
  132. ^ Berenson.
  133. ^ Cavna.
  134. ^ a b v "Our Creation Story".
  135. ^ Brown, DeNeen L.
  136. ^ Slevin.
  137. ^ Danielle.
  138. ^ Linton & Dickerson.
  139. ^ Pavithra.
  140. ^ Pratt & Byrne.
  141. ^ I Am Birmingham.
  142. ^ Klinger.
  143. ^ Collins, Sam P.K., p. 24.
  144. ^ Missisipi Yozuvchilar izi.
  145. ^ Yashil.
  146. ^ Hineman.
  147. ^ Burgess.
  148. ^ Brody.
  149. ^ Jons.
  150. ^ Viagas.
  151. ^ Hentoff, p. A10.
  152. ^ Perkins & Stephens.
  153. ^ a b Geyts, Anita.
  154. ^ Stetz.

References to linked inline notes

Books, journals, magazines, academic papers, online blogs

  • Allen, James E. (born 1954); Littlefield John Spencer (born 1961) (editors and compilers); forward by Congressman John Lewis; hissadorlar: Xilton Als va Leon F. Litwack (2011) [1994]. Without Sanctuary: Photographs and Postcards of Lynching in America. Sante Fe: Twin Palms Publisher.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
    Chop etish:
    1. Book (1st ed.) (July 31, 1999); OCLC  936079991
    2. Book (10th ed.) (February 1, 2000): OCLC  994750311, 751138477; ISBN  0-944092-69-1; ISBN  978-0-944092-69-9
    3. Book (11th ed.) (2011): OCLC  1075938297

    Exhibitions, film, digital:

    1. Roth Horowitz Gallery, 160A East 70th Street, Manxetten (January 14, 2000 – February 12, 2000); Andrew Roth and Glenn Horowitz, gallery co-owners, Witness: Photographs of Lynchings from the Collection of James Allen and John Littlefield, organized by Andrew Roth
    2. Nyu-York tarixiy jamiyati (March 14, 2000 – October 1, 2000); OCLC  809988821, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America, curated by James Allen and Julia Hotton
    3. Andy Warhol muzeyi (September 22, 2001 – February 21, 2002), The Without Sanctuary Project, curated by James Allen; co-directed by Jessica Arcand and Margery King
    4. Martin Lyuter King kichik milliy tarixiy bog'i (May 1, 2002 – December 31, 2002), Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America; OCLC  782970109, curated by Joseph F. Jordan, PhD (né.) Joseph Ferdinand Jordan, Jr.; born 1951); Douglas H. Quin, PhD (born 1956) exhibition designer; Milliy park xizmati MLK site team: Frank Catroppa, Saudia Muwwakkil, and Melissa English-Rias
    5. The 2002 short film, Without Sanctuary, directed by Matt Dibble (né.) Matthew Phillips Dibble; born 1959) and produced by Joseph F. Jordan, PhD (né.) Joseph Ferdinand Jordan, Jr.; born 1951), accompanied the 2002–2003 exhibition by the same name, Without Sanctuary, da Martin Lyuter King kichik milliy tarixiy bog'i (co-sponsored by Emori universiteti )
    6. Digital format (2008): OCLC  1179211921, 439904269 (Overview, Movie, Photos, Forum)
    7. Rasmiy veb-sayt; part of collection at the Robert W. Woodruff kutubxonasi da Emori universiteti
    1. "Mikon Boston" (1962–  ), 366-367-betlar
    2. Iola maktubi (1994), 368-408 betlar

Yangiliklar ommaviy axborot vositalari

    1. Tomonidan qayta nashr etilgan Nyu-York qo'ng'irog'i (1911 yil 23-iyul). "Negrning ish izlashi". LCCN  sn83-30226. OCLC  9448923 (barcha nashrlar).
    2. Yozgan va nashr etgan Qora ishchi (1900-1919). Vol. 5. Foner, Filipp Sheldon (1910-1994); Lyuis, Ronald L. (tahr.). I qism: "Yigirmanchi asrning boshlarida qora ishchining iqtisodiy ahvoli". Temple universiteti matbuoti. 38-39 betlar - orqali JSTOR  j.ctvn1tcpp.5. OCLC  1129353605 (barcha nashrlar).

Davlat va nasab arxivlari

Umumiy ma'lumotnomalar (eslatmalar bilan bog'lanmagan)

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Kutubxona resurslari haqida
Ida B. Uells
Ida B. Uells tomonidan
    1. "Ida B. Uells, 1862–1931"
      1. "Ida B. Uellsning yozuvi "
        1. Qizil yozuv: Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlaridagi jadvallashtirilgan statistika va Lynchingsning da'vo qilingan sabablari, 1892-1893-1894
      2. "Ida B. Uells va uning yozuvlari to'g'risida". Scheter, Patricia Ann, doktorlik dissertatsiyasi. Portlend shtati universiteti.
        1. "Ida B Uellsning tarjimai holi"
        2. "Ida B. Uellsning Lynchinga qarshi risolalari, 1892–1920"
      3. "Video" - Schechter videolarda Uellsning tajribasi va merosi haqida gapiradi - arxiv havolasi orqali Orqaga qaytish mashinasi. 2008 yil 19-iyulda asl nusxasidan arxivlangan (14 ta fayl arxivlangan RealMedia format). Qabul qilingan 2008 yil 28 mart.
Ushbu asar dastlab BMTning Uzoq fuqarolik huquqlari harakati loyihasi - LCRM loyihasi (JSTOR  3660172 ). U tomonidan moliyalashtirildi Endryu V. Mellon jamg'armasi va UNC besh yil davomida, 2008 yildan 2012 yilgacha va uning nashr etilgan asarlari (i) the UNC Maxsus to'plamlar kutubxonasi, (ii) the Shimoliy Karolina universiteti matbuoti va (iii) the Janubiy og'zaki tarix dasturi UNC-da Amerika janubini o'rganish markazi. Loyihaning dastlabki uch yilidagi to'rtinchi sherik - Fuqarolik huquqlari markazi UNC yuridik maktabi.

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