Kambodjadagi buddizm - Buddhism in Cambodia

Kambodjadagi buddizm
Buddaviy rohiblar xandaq bo'ylab Angkor Wat ko'rinishini yoqmoqdalar
Buddist rohiblar tomosha qilishdan zavqlanmoqdalar Angkor vat xandaq bo'ylab
Jami aholi
v. 14 million (98%) 2013 yilda[1]
Aholisi sezilarli bo'lgan hududlar
Kambodja bo'ylab
Dinlar
Dharma Wheel.svg Theravada Buddizm
Tillar
Kxmer va boshqa tillar
Qismi bir qator kuni
Theravada buddizmi
Darmachakra
Mamlakatlar

Kambodjadagi buddizm (Kxmer: ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា នៅ កម្ពុជា) kamida 5-asrdan beri mavjud. Dastlabki shaklida u bir turi bo'lgan Mahayana buddizmi. Bugungi kunda Kambodjada buddizmning asosiy shakli mavjud Theravada buddizm. U Kambodja konstitutsiyasida rasmiy din mamlakatning. Theravada buddizmi 13-asrdan beri Kambodjaning davlat dini hisoblanadi Khmer Rouge davri ). 2013 yildan boshlab aholining 97,9 foizini tashkil etgan Buddaviy.[2][3]

Kambodjadagi buddizm tarixi bir qator ketma-ket shohlik va imperiyalarni qamrab oladi. Buddizm Kambodjaga ikki xil oqim orqali kirib keldi. Buddaviylikning dastlabki shakllari hindlarning ta'siri bilan birga kirib kelgan Funan qirolligi hind savdogarlari bilan. Keyingi tarixda Kambodja Angliya imperiyasi davrida buddizmning ikkinchi oqimi Kxmer madaniyatiga kirib keldi, chunki Kambodja Dushanba qirolliklari Dvaravati va Haripunchay.

Kxmerlar tarixining dastlabki ming yilligi davomida Kambodjani hindu podshohlari vaqti-vaqti bilan buddistlar qiroli bilan boshqargan, masalan. Jayavarman I ning Funan, Jayavarman VII, kim mahayanistga aylandi va Suryavarman I. Kambodja erlarida turli xil buddaviy urf-odatlar hind podshohlari va qo'shni Mon-Teravada shohliklarining bag'rikeng homiyligida tinch-totuvlikda mavjud edi.

Tarix

Asosiy maqola: Kambodjadagi buddizm tarixi
Wat Preah Chedey Borapaut

Mumkin bo'lgan erta topshiriqlar

Tasdiqlanmagan singhal manbalari, missionerlarning Shoh Ashoka miloddan avvalgi 3-asrda buddizmni Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoga kiritdi. Taxminan keyingi ming yillikda turli buddaviy mazhablar braxmanizm va mahalliy animistik dinlar bilan raqobatlashdi; bu davrda hind madaniyati juda ta'sirli edi.[4]

Funan

The Funan Miloddan avvalgi 100 yildan milodiy 500 yilgacha gullab-yashnagan shohlik Hindu, Funan shohlari ibodat qilishga homiylik qilishgan Vishnu va Shiva. Buddanda Funan ushbu davrda ikkinchi darajali din sifatida allaqachon mavjud edi.[5] Buddizm taxminan 450 yildan boshlab o'z mavjudligini tasdiqlay boshladi va xitoylik sayyoh tomonidan kuzatilgan Yekin VII asrning oxiriga kelib.

Funandan Mandrasena va Sa'gabarara ismli ikkita budda rohiblari V-VI asrlarda Xitoyda istiqomat qilishgan va bir necha budda diniy tarjimalarini tarjima qilishgan. Sanskritcha ichiga Xitoy.[6] Ushbu matnlar orasida Mahaya ham bor Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra.[7] Ushbu matn ikkala rohib tomonidan alohida tarjima qilingan.[6] The bodisattva Mañjuśrī ushbu matnda taniqli shaxs.

Kambodja haykali Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. Milodning 7-asrida qumtosh.

Chenla

Chenla qirolligi Funan o'rnini egalladi va 500 yildan buyon bardosh berdi–700. Buddizm Chenla davrida zaiflashdi, ammo saqlanib qoldi, chunki Sambor Prei Kuk (626) va Siem Reapning haykallarini o'rnatish bilan bog'liq yozuvlarida ko'rinib turibdi. Avalokiteśvara (791). Mekong deltasi mintaqasidagi Angkoriyaga qadar bo'lgan ba'zi haykallar sanskrit tilida asoslanganligini ko'rsatadi Sarvastivada Buddizm.[iqtibos kerak ] Xmer uslubidagi Budda tasvirlari 600-yillardan boshlab juda ko'p–800. Mahoyana bodhisattvaning ko'plab tasvirlari ham shu davrga tegishli bo'lib, ko'pincha Shiva va Vishnu hindulari aks etgan tasvirlar bilan birga topilgan. Siem-Reap provintsiyasidagi Ta Prohm ibodatxonasida taxminan 625 yilda yozilgan yozuvda Budda, Dxarma va Sangha gullab-yashnamoqda.[8][shubhali – muhokama qilish]

Angkor

Dan o'tish Hindu xudo-shoh Maxayana bodhisattva-podshoh uchun asta-sekin va sezilmas edi. Hukmron Vaishnavit va Shaivite e'tiqod an'analari o'rniga sig'inishga yo'l qo'ydi Gautama Budda va Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

Buddist Sailendra VIII asr oxiri va IX asrning boshlarida podsholik vassal davlat sifatida Kambodja ustidan hukmronlik qildi. Qirol Jayavarman II (802–869), Xmerlarning birinchi haqiqiy qiroli Angkor Imperiya, o'zini e'lon qildi Hindu xudo shohi va o'zini tanitdi Shiva. Shunga qaramay, u butun qirolligi davomida Mahayana buddistlarining ta'siriga tobora do'stona munosabatda bo'lgan va uni qo'llab-quvvatlagan.[9] Mahayana buddizmi uning imperiyasida tobora mustahkamlanib bordi. Shrivijaya erlarida targ'ib qilingan Mahayana buddizm shakli o'xshash bo'lgan Pala sulolasi Bengal buddizmi va Nalanda Shimoliy Hindistondagi universitet.

Megadadagi Nalandaning Bengal universiteti (hozirgi Bexar) Pala sulolasi himoyasida Mahayana buddizmining ilohiy markazi bo'lgan [750-1060]. Tantrik tasavvufi (oriyadan oldingi shimoliy-sharqiy hind e'tiqodining ba'zi bir qismlarini qayta tiklagan bo'lishi mumkin) bilan bog'liq buddizmning shivistik talqinlari Megadada ishlab chiqilgan va keyinchalik Janubiy-Sharqiy Osiyoda, xususan, Yava shahriga eksport qilingan. IX asr oxirlarida Rolous yaqinidan hukmronlik qilgan Yashovarman I (889-910), Shivit Buddist Nalanda sinkretizmidan ta'sirlangan. Uning vorislari (xususan Jayavarman IV) o'zlarini bag'ishladilar Hind uchligi Vishnu va Braxma singari Shiva singari, ular bilan ruhoniylarning irsiy oilalari ularni aniqlashda davom etishgan. Rajendravarman II buddizmni astoydil o'rgangan.[8]

Seylendra sulolasi hayoliy buddist ibodatxonasini ham qurgan Borobudur (750-850) Java-da. Borobudur, ayniqsa, Kambodjadagi Angkor qurilishining keyingi afsonaviy loyihalari uchun ilhom manbai bo'lgan ko'rinadi Angkor vat va Angkor Thom.[iqtibos kerak ]

Angkor davrida Kambodjada amal qilgan buddizmning asosiy shakli Tantrik tendentsiyalari kuchli ta'sirida bo'lgan Mahayana buddizmi edi.

Tantrayananing Yava, Sumatra va Kamboja [Kambodja] da keng tarqalganligi, bu haqiqatan ham Hindiston Sharqining ushbu qismlarida Mahayana buddizmi va saivizm xarakteriga oid zamonaviy tadqiqotlar tomonidan aniqlangan. 9-asrning Kamboja yozuvida allaqachon Jayavarman II saroyida tantrik matnlarini o'rgatishning aniq dalillari mavjud. XI asrdagi Kamboja yozuvlarida 'Paramida tantralariga' ishora bor; va Hevajraning tasvirlari, shubhasiz, tantrik ilohiyot, Angkor Thom xarobalari orasida qayta tiklandi. Bir qator Kamboja yozuvlarida Buyuk Sir (Vrah Guhya) ga boshlangan bir nechta shohlar haqida so'z boradi. Hindu Braxmin gurus; Saiva yozuvlari aniq yozuvlarni yaratadi Tantrik saivizmga singib ketgan ta'limotlar.[9]

Ammo Tantrayana Java va Sumatrada katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan ko'rinadi. U erda Mahayana buddizmi va Shaivizm Tantrik ta'sirga chuqur singib ketgan, bu davrda ko'pincha bir-biri bilan qorishib ketishini ko'rish mumkin. Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, Sanskrit tiliga qarshi va Eski Yava sharhi bilan izohlangan, Mahayana va Mantrayana o'qituvchisi deb tan olgan.[9]

Buddizmning mavjudligi va o'sib borayotgan ta'siri Angkor imperiyasi kuchini kuchayishi bilan davom etdi. Shoh Yosavarman 887–889 yillarda mandalani ifodalovchi ko'plab budda ibodatxonalarini qurgan Meru tog'i, dunyoning afsonaviy o'qi. Ushbu ibodatxonalarning eng kattasi Angrom majmuasi yuragi yonida joylashgan Pnom Kandal yoki "Markaziy tog '" dir.

Qirol Rajendravarman II (944)–968) "buddizmni astoydil o'rgangan. Shivaist bo'lib qolishga qaror qilgan bo'lsa-da, u buddistni, Kavindrarimatanani bosh vazir qilib tayinlagan. Kavindrarimatana Budda va Shivaga ziyoratgohlar qurdirgan. Jayavarman V (Rajendravarmanning o'g'li) ham Shivaning sadoqati bo'lib qolgan. U ham o'z bosh vaziri Kirtipanditaga Mahayana buddistlarini o'rganish va bashorat qilishni rivojlantirishga ruxsat berdi. "[9]

Suryavarman I

Suryavarman I (1006–1050)[10] Jayavarman VII bundan mustasno, buddaviy podshohlarning eng ulug'i hisoblanadi.

Suryavarman I ning kelib chiqishi noma'lum, ammo dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, u o'z faoliyatini Kambodjaning shimoli-sharqida boshlagan. U kxmerlar taxtiga raqib bo'lgan da'volar o'rtasidagi munozaralardan so'ng, taxtga keldi. Kxmerlar taxtiga da'vo faqat otalik yo'nalishlarini o'z ichiga olmagan, shuningdek, qirollik onasining nasl-nasabini tan olgan va qaysi satr da'vo qonuniyligini muvaffaqiyatli qo'llab-quvvatlaganiga ahamiyat bergan.[11]

Mahayana buddizmining kuchli tarafdori, u o'z hukmronligi davrida Theravada buddizmining tobora ko'payib borishi va tarqalishiga xalaqit bermadi yoki to'sqinlik qilmadi.

Darhaqiqat, yozuvlar uning dono Mahayanistlar va Hinayanistlardan donolik izlaganligi va hech bo'lmaganda Sivakaivalya oilasining bosh ruhoniylar (purohitar) bo'lish haqidagi irsiy da'volarini bekor qilganligini ko'rsatadi. Surayvarmanning vafotidan keyin Nirvanapada, "Nirvanaga ketgan shoh" unvoni uning buddist bo'lganligining eng kuchli dalilidir. "[9]

Jayavarman VII

Naga taxtiga qo'yilgan Budda haykali, 12-asr, Angkor

Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), Budxistlarning eng muhim qiroli Angkorning davlat dini sifatida barpo etish uchun tinimsiz harakat qildi.[iqtibos kerak ]Jayavarman VII Mahayana buddisti edi va u o'zini Dharma-shoh, bodhisattva deb bilar edi, uning vazifasi xizmat va xizmatga erishish orqali "odamlarni qutqarish", bu jarayonda o'zini ozod qilish edi. Jayavarman eski xudolarga bo'lgan sadoqatini qaytarib oldi va buddizm an'analari bilan yanada aniqroq tanishishni boshladi. Uning rejimi qadimgi hindu o'tmishi bilan aniq bo'linish chizig'ini belgilab qo'ydi. 1200 yilgacha ibodatxonalarda san'at asosan hind panteonining sahnalarini aks ettiradi; 1200 yildan keyin buddaviy sahnalar standart motivlar sifatida paydo bo'la boshladi.

Jayavarman VII davrida devaraja xudo-podshoh tushunchasidan voz kechib, Sangha, rohiblar tushunchasi. Avvalgi davrlarda elita brahman ruhoniylari va xudo podshohlari uchun ibodatxonalar qurishga katta kuch va mablag 'sarflangan. Jayavarman davrida bu manbalar oddiy odamlar uchun mavjud bo'lgan kutubxonalar, monastir uylari, jamoat ishlari va boshqa "er yuzidagi" loyihalarni qurishga yo'naltirildi.

Jayavarman VII ning o'zi Maxayana buddisti bo'lganida, Theravada Buddizm borligi tobora ravshanlashib bormoqda.

Ushbu singhalizga asoslangan Theravada buddistlik pravoslavligi birinchi bo'lib Janubiy-Sharqiy Osiyoda XI asrda Taling (Mon) rohiblari tomonidan targ'ib qilingan va XIII asrda mintaqaning janubiy izolyatsion qismida islom bilan birgalikda xalq orasida keng tarqalgan harakat sifatida tarqaldi. Lopburining bittasi singari yozuvlardan tashqari, Suvannabhumining diniy joyi o'zgarib borayotganiga oid boshqa belgilar ham mavjud edi. Jaynerman VII ning o'g'li deb hisoblangan kxmer rohibasi Tamalinda 1180 yilda Birma boshchiligida Shri-Lankada Pali kanonini o'rganish bo'yicha missiyada qatnashgan va 1190 yilda qaytib kelgach, uning saroyida Sinhal doktrinasi qoidalari bo'lgan. 1296-97 yillarda Angkorga Xitoy missiyasini olib borgan Chou Ta-Laun Kxmer poytaxtida Pali Theravada rohiblarining sezilarli darajada mavjudligini tasdiqlaydi. "[5]

Angkorning tanazzuli va Theravada qirolligining paydo bo'lishi

XIII asrdan keyin Theravada buddizmi Kambodjaning davlat diniga aylandi.

Qirol Jayavarman VII o'g'li Tamalindani oldiga yuborgan edi Shri-Lanka buddist rohib etib tayinlansin va Theravada buddizmini Pali Yozuv an'analari. Keyin Tamalinda Kambodjaga qaytib keldi va Angkor imperiyasida asrlar davomida mavjud bo'lgan uzoq yillik Theravada mavjudligini galvanizatsiya va energiya bilan ta'minlagan Theravada ta'limiga binoan buddaviy an'analarini targ'ib qildi.

Vaqt davomida Tamalinda mashhurda tahsil oldi Mahavixara Shri-Lankadagi monastir (1180–1190), Shri-Lankada "haqiqiy imon" sifatida Theravada buddizmining yangi dinamik turi targ'ib qilinmoqda. 9-10 asrlarda Shri-Lankada buddizmni deyarli yo'q qilgan tamillar bilan urushlarga munosabat sifatida buddizmning bu shakli ma'lum darajada jangari va juda intizomli edi. Theravada Buddizm Shri-Lankada omon qolish uchun kurash olib borganida, u Buddistlar dunyosida uyg'onish davri yaratgan va oxir-oqibat Birma, Chang May, Mon podshohliklari, Lana, Sukothai, Laos va Kambodja bo'ylab tarqalib ketadigan barqarorlikni rivojlantirdi.[12]

13-asrda bu jarayonda mon-kxmer tilida so'zlashadigan Siam, Birma, Kambodja va Shri-Lankadan kelgan adashgan missionerlar muhim rol o'ynagan.

Shahzoda Tamalinda o'n yillik ordinatsiyadan keyin qaytib kelganida, u Thera, katta rohib, pravoslavlikni talab qiladigan va tantrik amaliyotlari kabi Mahayana "yangiliklarini" rad etgan bu kuchli Theravada nasabiga tayinlanishni boshqarishga qodir edi.

Kxmerlar jamiyatining Theravada buddizmiga ommaviy ravishda aylanishi a zo'ravonliksiz inqilob jamiyatning barcha darajalari. Olimlar Kxmerlar tsivilizatsiyasining to'satdan va tushunarsiz o'zgarishini hisobga olish uchun kurashmoqdalar. Theravada buddizmi muvaffaqiyat qozondi, chunki u keng qamrovli va universal bo'lib, nafaqat elita va saroydan, balki qishloqlarda va dehqonlar orasida shogirdlar va rohiblarni jalb qilib, kxmerlar orasida mashhurligini oshirdi.[12]

Angkordan keyingi davrda Janubiy-Sharqiy Osiyoda Pali Theravada an'analarining keskin ko'tarilishi va Braxman va Mahayana buddistlik diniy an'analarining bir vaqtning o'zida pasayishi kuzatildi. Shri-Lankaga topshirilgan 1423 yilgi Tailand hisobotida yana sakkaliya tartibidagi pravoslav Mahavihara mazhabini Kampucheyaga olib kelgan sakkiz kxmer rohiblari haqida so'z boradi. Shu bilan birga, ushbu voqea ruhoniylar sinfiy tuzilishidan Theravada erlaridagi qishloqlarga asoslangan monastir tizimiga o'tayotgan chuqur ijtimoiy o'zgarishlarni inkor etdi. Monastirlik tartibiga rioya qilgan holda, rohiblar o'zlarining vatlarini yoki ma'bad-monastirlarini nafaqat axloqiy diniy, balki odamlar uchun ta'lim, ijtimoiy xizmat va madaniy markazlarga aylantirdilar. Wats ta'lim va ommaviy ta'limning asosiy manbaiga aylandi. Dastlabki g'arbiy kashfiyotchilar, ko'chmanchilar va missionerlar Birma, Tailand, Kampucheya, Laos va Vetnam erkaklari orasida keng savodxonlik haqida xabar berishdi. 19-asrga qadar savodxonlik darajasi Theravada erlarining hammasida ham Evropaning ko'rsatkichlaridan oshib ketdi. Kampucheyada buddizm kxmer tili va madaniyatini tarqatuvchiga aylandi.[5]

G'arbda Siam va sharqda Vetnamning ko'tarilishi bilan klassik Angkor imperiyasi yo'q bo'lib ketdi va hozirgi Kambodjaning boshlanishi boshlandi. Kambodja shu vaqtdan boshlab Theravada buddist xalqiga aylandi.

Buddist O'rta asrlar

Gvatama buddosining hayoti. Kambodja. 18-asr. Toulon Osiyo san'at muzeyi.

Jinakalamali XV asrda Kambodja va Shri-Lanka o'rtasidagi madaniy aloqalar haqida ma'lumot beradi. Unda aytilishicha, Buddaning Mahaparinibbanasidan 1967 yil o'tgach, Kambodjadan Maxananasiddhi boshchiligidagi sakkizta rohib Tailandning Nabbispuradan bo'lgan 25 ta rohib bilan Shri-Lankaga Sinhalese Mahateralar qo'lidan umpasampada ordinatsiyasini olish uchun kelishgan.

Angkor rivojlanib borayotgan o'rmonlar ostida qulab tushganda, Theravada Kambodja kuch markazi janubga hozirgi kunga qarab harakat qildi. Pnompen. Pnompen dastlab Mekong daryosi va Tonle Sap daryosi tutashgan kichik daryo bo'yidagi bozor markazi edi.

Pnompenga Leydi Peyn toshqin paytida Koki daraxtida daryo bo'ylab suzib yurgan "to'rt yuzli Budda" ni topganida asos solingan. U Budda tasvirini oldi va Vat Pnomga rasm qo'yish uchun qurdi. To'rt yuzli Budda [to'rt tomonga qaragan Budda] kxmer buddaviy ikonografiyasida muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lib, kelajak Budda shohligining o'rnatilishini anglatadi. Maydon, kim tez-tez Kambodja Budda-shohi bilan tanilgan. O'rta asrlarda Kambodjada amal qilgan buddaviylik turi professor tomonidan keng o'rganilgan Fransua Bizot va uning hamkasblari École française d'Extrême-Orient. Ular aniqladilar tantrik va ezoterik ushbu an'ana elementlari va shuning uchun uni chaqirish "Tantrik Theravada ".

1431 yildan keyin Kambodja shohlari Siyam bosqini tufayli Angkorni butunlay tark etishganida, qirol saroyi Pnomenfdan bir necha mil shimolda Udon tog'ida joylashgan edi. G'arbdan siam hujumi va sharqdan Vetnam bosqini Kxmerlar imperiyasini zaiflashtirdi. Vetnam bosqinchilari Theravada buddizmini bostirishga va kxmerlarni Mahayana buddizmiga majburlashga urinishdi. Siyamlar esa vaqti-vaqti bilan Kambodjani bosib olib, Theravada dinini himoya qilish uchun "kofirlarni" quvib chiqarishga harakat qilishadi. Ikkita ko'tarilgan kuchlar o'rtasidagi bu kuchlar uchun kurash XVI asrda evropaliklar kelguniga qadar davom etdi.

Mustamlaka davri

Jhotañano Chuon Nath (kxmer: ជួន ណា ត; 1883-1969) Kambodjaning Mahanikaya Oliy Patriarxi, yillik rohiblar sinodi paytida, 1960 y. Wat Ounalom (វត្តឧណ្ណាលោម).

XVI asrda Kambodjada buddizm rivojlanib bordi. Dhammarajaning qarindoshi qirol Ang Chan (1516–1566) dindor budist edi. U poytaxtida pagodalar va Kambodjaning turli qismlarida ko'plab buddistlar ibodatxonalarini qurgan. Buddizmni ommalashtirish uchun Qirol Satoma (1576–1549), qirol Barom Reacheaning o'g'li va vorisi, XVI asrga kelib buddistlar ibodatxonasiga aylangan Angkor Vatning buyuk minoralarini tikladi.

Evropa ta'sirining har bir ketma-ket to'lqini katolik missionerlari bilan birga bo'lgan, ammo Theravada buddizmi ajablanarli darajada kxmerlarni konvertatsiya qilishga qaratilgan xorijiy urinishlarga chidamli edi. Mustamlakachilik davrida tinchlik vaqti-vaqti bilan diniy sabablarga ko'ra zo'ravonlik, shu jumladan davriy ming yillik qo'zg'olonlarning boshlanishi bilan buzilgan.

XVII, XVIII va XIX asrlarda Tailandning Kambodja siyosatidagi ishtiroki Tailandning diniy masalalarga ta'sirini kengaytirdi. Shoh haqida Norodom Tailandlik rohiblar taklifnomasi Dhammayuttika Nikaya Kambodjada Dhammayuttika mavjudligini o'rnatdi.[13] Yangi tashkil etilgan Thommayut buyrug'i qirol homiyligidan foydalandi, ammo mavjud Mohanikay bilan tez-tez to'qnashib turdi (Maha Nikaya ) nasab.[13] Tommayutlar ba'zan kxmer millatiga emas, balki Tailand sudiga sodiqlikda ayblangan.[14]

Frantsuzlar hukmronligi davrida buddistlarning muqaddas odamlari boshchiligidagi zo'ravonlik konvulsiyalari vaqti-vaqti bilan frantsuzlarga qarshi boshlanib ketar edi. Kambodja rohiblarini tarbiyalashda buddaviylik mavzularida va umuman ko'proq umumiy tadqiqotlar sohasida sezilarli yutuqlarga erishildi.[15] Kambodja bolalarini boshlang'ich ta'limi ma'bad maktablarida davom ettirildi. Shuningdek, rohiblar hamjamiyatni rivojlantirish loyihalarida ishtirok etishga da'vat etilgan.[15]

Khmer Rouge davri

1975 yilda Kommunistik Kxmer Ruj Kambodjani o'z qo'liga olganida, ular buddizmni butunlay yo'q qilishga urindilar va deyarli muvaffaq bo'lishdi. 1979 yilda Vetnam bosqini paytida deyarli har bir rohib va ​​diniy ziyolilar o'ldirilgan yoki surgun qilingan yoki deyarli har qanday ma'bad va buddistlarning ma'badi va kutubxonasi vayron qilingan.

Khmer Rouge buddizmga nisbatan siyosati - rohiblarni majburan bekor qilish, monastirlarni vayron qilish va pirovardida hamkorlik qilmagan rohiblarni qatl qilishni o'z ichiga olgan - Kambodjaning buddaviylik institutlarini amalda yo'q qildi.[16] Qochib ketmagan va qatl qilinishdan qochgan rohiblar xudojo'ylar orasida yashar edilar, ba'zida yashirin ravishda kasallar yoki azob chekayotganlar uchun buddaviy marosimlarni o'tkazdilar.[16]

Kxmer-Ruj ko'tarilishidan oldin Kambodjadagi rohiblar sonining taxminlari har xil bo'lib, ular 65000 dan 80000 gacha.[17] 1980-yillarning boshlarida buddistlar tomonidan tiklangan paytgacha butun dunyo bo'ylab Kambodja rohiblari soni 3000 dan kam bo'lgan deb taxmin qilingan.[18] Ikkala Kambodjaning ham patriarxlari nikayalar 1975-1978 yillar oralig'ida halok bo'ldi, ammo ularning o'limi sababi ma'lum emas.[17]

Tailand monarxiyasi bilan aloqadorligi sababli, Thommayut buyrug'i rohiblari ta'qib uchun alohida ajratilgan bo'lishi mumkin.[19]

Khmerdan keyingi ruj davri

Vetnam kuchlari Khmer Rouge mag'lubiyatga uchraganidan so'ng buddizm dastlab Kambodjada rasman bostirilgan bo'lib qoldi.[16] Vetnamliklarning qo'llab-quvvatlashi qonuniyligi bilan bog'liq muammolardan so'ng Kampucheya Xalq Respublikasi, buddizmga qarshi siyosat 1979 yil yozidan boshlab yumshay boshladi.[20] Xmer-Ruj davrida Vetnamda surgun qilingan va qayta tayinlangan bir guruh rohiblar Kambodjaga jo'natildi,[21] va 1981 yilda ularning sonlaridan biri, Hurmatli Tep Vong birinchi bo'lib saylandi singharaja Thompmayut ordeni va Mohanikay o'rtasidagi bo'linishni rasman bekor qilgan yangi birlashgan Kambodja sanghaning.[20] Yangi rohiblarning tayinlanishi hukumat tomonidan taqvodorlikning ommaviy namoyishi sifatida homiylik qilingan va tayinlanishdagi cheklovlarni bekor qilgan.[18]

Vetnam harbiylari olib chiqib ketilgandan so'ng, yangi nomi o'zgartirildi Kambodja Xalq partiyasi o'zini buddaviy sanga bilan uyg'unlashtirishga intilib, 1991 yilgi siyosat bayonotida buddizmni Kambodjaning "davlat dini" deb e'lon qildi.[22] 1991 yilda qirol Sixanuk surgundan qaytdi va yangi tayinladi singharaja Thommayut va Mohanikay buyurtmalarining har biri uchun, 1981 yilda Vetnam hukmronligi ostida yaratilgan yagona tizim tugaganligini belgilaydi.[23]

Kambodja ashulasi

1855 yildan beri Kambodjadagi buddistlar monastiri jamoasi 1981-1991 yillarda birlashishning qisqa davrini hisobga olmaganda, ikki bo'linishga bo'lingan. Maha Nikaya va Dhammayuttika Nikaya. Maha Nikaya, Kambodja rohiblarining aksariyat qismi sodiqligini da'vo qilib, ikkita monastirlik birodarligidan ancha kattadir. Dhammayuttika Nikaya, qirol homiyligiga qaramay, ozgina ozchilik bo'lib qolmoqda va qat'iy intizom va Tailand bilan aloqasi bilan ajralib turadi.

Maha Nikaya monastir iyerarxiyasi - boshchiligida ashaddiy (sangharaja) - 1980-yillarning boshlarida Kambodja qayta tiklangandan beri hukumat bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi [24] Maxa Nikayaning yuqori martabali amaldorlari tez-tez hukumatni tanqid qilish va hukumat siyosati tarafdori bo'lib, shu jumladan oppozitsiya pozitsiyasini qo'llab-quvvatlovchi rohiblarni hibsga olishga chaqirishgan.[25] Maha Nikaya iyerarxiyasining rasmiylari ibodatxonalar faoliyatini nazorat qilish uchun qo'mitalarga a'zolarni tayinlaydilar, ular ma'badlar rohiblar tomonidan hukumatga qarshi faoliyatni tashkil etish punktiga aylanmasligi uchun harakat qilishadi.[26] Shunga qaramay, Maha Nikaya birodarligi o'rtasida bo'linishlar mavjud.

Modernistlar va an'anaviychilar

Kambodjadagi o'spirin rohiblar

Singha ichidagi "modernistlar" va "an'anaviychilar" o'rtasidagi bo'linishlar Kambodjada 1918 yildayoq qayd etilgan.[27] Keng ma'noda aytganda, "modernistlar" G'arbning buddaviylik institutlarini tanqid qilishlariga javoban buddistlik ta'limotlarini, xususan, falsafa va meditatsiya bilan bog'liq bo'lgan narsalarni qayta sharhlab, zamonaviy dunyoviy bilimlar va matn manbasini hisobga olgan holda javob berishga harakat qildilar. Theravada ta'limotlar, Pali Canon.[27] "An'anaviylikshunoslar" monastirlarning og'zaki an'analari orqali o'tmishdagi amallar va ta'limotlarga sodiq qolishni ma'qul ko'rishadi, ular an'anaviy ravishda qadr-qimmatga erishish marosimlarini o'tkazish va kontsentratsiya meditatsiyasi orqali "baland davlatlarga" erishishga qaratilgan.[27] An'anaviylar zamonaviy qiziqishni rad etishga moyildirlar vipassana meditatsiya begona ta'sir sifatida va pali tarkibini o'rganish, tarjima qilish va sharhlashga urinishdan ko'ra, pali parchalarini yodlash va yodlashga qaratilgan. tripitaka.[28]

Ko'p yillar davomida, Maha Ghosananda Maha Nikaya modernistlarining eng ko'zga ko'ringan va taniqli figurasi bo'lib qoldi.[29] U orqali Dhammayatra Maha Goshananda Kambodja jamiyatidagi ijtimoiy o'zgarishlarni amalga oshirish uchun sanghaning ta'siridan foydalanishga qaratilgan dastur va boshqa urinishlar. Buddizm ilgari Kambodja diniy muassasalari orasida ko'rilmagan.[30] Modernizm bilan shug'ullanadigan buddizmning ushbu shakli G'arbiy buddistlar va juda mashhur edi NNTlar Maxa Goshananda va boshqa modernist rahbarlarning sa'y-harakatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlagan va moliyalashtirgan.[31]

Kambodja hukumatining yuqori mansabdor shaxslari, aksincha, Maxa Nikaya rohiblarining eng konservatorini, xususan "segment" a'zolarini qo'llab-quvvatlamoqdalar. boran, turli xil pali va kxmer ibodatlari va nutqlarini yodlab o'qishning dunyoviy samaradorligini ta'kidlaydigan ultra-konservativ harakat.[32] Monaxlar boran harakat odatda Pali tilida muhim bilimlarga ega emas, aksincha kuchli oyat va oyatlarni yodlash va yodlashga e'tibor beradi.[33] Boran rohiblar ushbu oyatlarning qiroatiga homiylik qilib, oddiy tarafdorlar moliyaviy va martaba muvaffaqiyatlari kabi zudlik bilan dunyoviy foyda keltiradigan katta xizmatlarni yig'ishlari mumkinligini ta'kidlaydilar.[28] Kambodjaning katta mansabdor shaxslari (shu jumladan) Xun Sen ) homiylik qilganlar boran ibodatxonalar, eng mashhur ibodatxonalarni keng kengaytirish va boy bezashni ta'minlaydi.[34] Boran rohiblar, shuningdek, "guruh tavba qilish" marosimlarining samaradorligini o'rgatadilar, bu erda pali matnlarini o'qish orqali avvalgi qilmishlarning karma mevalaridan saqlanish yoki ularni boshqarish mumkin.[35] Yangi yil tavba qilish marosimlaridan kelib chiqqan ushbu marosimlar Kambodja jamiyatining ayrim qatlamlari orasida juda mashhur bo'lib, amaldagi Maha Nikaya sangharaja tomonidan olib borilgan, Tep Vong.[35]

Kambodjadagi Dhammayuttika buyrug'i Maha Nikaya modernistlari va an'anachilari o'rtasida o'rta mavqega ega.[36] Tailanddagi Dhammayuttika buyrug'i singari, ular an'anaviylar lagerining rohiblaridan ko'ra, pali tilini o'rganish va kitoblarni o'rganish uchun yuqori mukofot berishadi. Shu bilan birga, ular modernistlarni qabul qilmadilar, ijtimoiy rivojlanish agentlari sifatida rohiblar tushunchasini qabul qildilar, buning o'rniga an'anaviy monastir rollarini o'rganish, meditatsiya qilish va sodda tarafdorlari uchun munosib imkoniyatlar yaratishni afzal ko'rishdi.

"Yosh rohiblar" harakati

Kambodja singanidagi yana bir bo'linishni "yosh rohiblar" harakati deb nomlangan, siyosiy faol monaxlarning kichik guruhi (birinchi navbatda, Maha Nikaya) hozirgi hukumatga qarshi xalqning qarshi chiqishlarini ko'rish mumkin.[25] "Yosh rohiblar" asosan Pnomen va uning atrofidagi ibodatxonalardan tortib olingan ruhoniylarning kichik a'zolari. Ishga tushgan modernistlardan farqli o'laroq, ularning manfaatlari ijtimoiy rivojlanish dasturlariga ko'maklashish uchun emas, balki hukumat siyosati va korruptsiyaga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qarshilik bildirish uchun sanghaning vakolatidan foydalanishdan iborat. 1993 yilgi BMT nazorati ostidagi saylovlardan buyon Kambodjada rohiblarga ovoz berishga ruxsat berildi (bu ba'zi bir katta rohiblar qarshi chiqqan). Bu siyosiy kuch sifatida sanghaning keng miqyosda safarbar qilinishiga olib kelmasa ham, ba'zi bir yosh rohiblarni parlament siyosatiga qatnashishga ko'proq jalb qildi. Ushbu yosh rohiblarning aksariyati muxolifat arbobi bilan bog'liq Sem Reynsi va uning siyosiy partiyasi SRP.[37]

Yosh rohiblar harakati a'zolari Pnomenfdagi hukumatning yomon ishlariga e'tibor qaratishga qaratilgan ommaviy namoyishlarda qatnashdilar va uyushtirdilar. Maha Nikaya iyerarxiyasi bu siyosiy faollikni qoralab, ba'zi bir rohiblarni hibsga olishga va boshqalarini buzishga chaqirdi.[25]

Khmer millatchiligi va buddizm

Gautama Budda tasvirlangan devoriy rasm Wat Botum

Kambodja buddizmi 20-asrda Khmer milliy o'ziga xosligi va mustaqillik harakatini qo'zg'atishda muhim rol o'ynadi va Kambodja suveren davlat sifatida mustaqillikka erishdi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Xmerlarni o'zlarining qo'shni Siam qirolligi Theravada bilan madaniy sadoqatlaridan ajratishga urinishlarida frantsuzlar kxmer tilidagi tadqiqotlar va kxmer buddistlik tadqiqotlarini ta'kidlab, kxmer o'ziga xosligini his qilishni rag'batlantirdilar. Kambodja rohiblarini Siamga oliy ma'lumot olish uchun yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun ular Kambodjada Pali maktablarini tashkil etishdi. Ushbu kmer tillarini o'rganish markazlari Kambodja millatchiligining vataniga aylandi.

Kambodja moslashuvi

Budda. Ibodatxonada Ream, Kambodja

Kambodja buddizmi boshqa buddaviylik organlari bilan rasmiy ma'muriy aloqalarga ega emas, ammo boshqa mamlakatlardan, xususan Tailand, Laos, Myanma va Shri-Lankadan kelgan Theravada rohiblari diniy marosimlarda kerakli miqdordagi ruhoniylarni jalb qilishlari mumkin. Kambodja buddizmi 1943 yilda tuzilgan va 1948 yilda o'zgartirilgan qoidalarga muvofiq milliy tarzda tashkil etilgan. Monarxiya davrida qirol buddist ruhoniylariga rahbarlik qilgan. Shahzoda Sixanuk taxtdan voz kechgach va davlat rahbari sifatida boshqarilgandan keyin ham ushbu rolni davom ettirdi. U monastir buyruqlari rahbarlarini va boshqa yuqori martabali ruhoniylarni tayinladi. 1970 yilda Sixanuk ag'darilgandan so'ng, yangi davlat rahbari Lon Nol ushbu rahbarlarni tayinladi.[38]

Kambodjada ruhoniylarni ikkita monastir buyrug'i tashkil etdi. Ruhoniylarning 90 foizdan ko'prog'iga tegishli bo'lgan katta guruh Mohanikay edi. Thommayut buyrug'i ancha kichik edi. Thommayut 1864 yilda Tailanddan Kambodjaning hukmron doiralariga kiritilgan; u qirollik va zodagonlar tomonidan qabul qilinganligi sababli obro'ga ega bo'ldi, ammo uning tarafdorlari geografik jihatdan Pnomen hududi bilan cheklanib qolishdi. Ikki buyruq o'rtasidagi ozgina farqlar orasida Thommayut bhikkhus (rohiblar) tomonidan ruhoniylarni boshqaradigan qoidalarni qat'iy rioya qilish bor. 1961 yilda Mohanikayda taxminan 2700 vatlarda 52000 dan ziyod ruhoniylar bo'lgan, Thommayut buyrug'ida 100 vattdan sal ko'proq 1460 rohiblar bo'lgan. 1967 yilda Kambodjada 2800 dan ortiq Mohanikay vati va 320 Thommayut vati mavjud edi. Pnomenfdan keyin eng ko'p Thommayut vatlari Batdambang, Stoeng Treng, Prey Veng, Kampot va Kampong Tum provinsiyalarida topilgan.[38]

Har bir buyurtmaning o'ziga xos ustunligi bor va o'n bitta darajadagi iyerarxiyada tashkil etilgan. Etti quyi daraja birgalikda sifatida tanilgan thananukram; to'rtta yuqori daraja birgalikda deyiladi rajagana. Mohanikay ordeni tarkibida o'ttiz beshta rohib bor rajagana; Thommayutda yigirma bitta bor. Ushbu yuqori darajalarga erishish uchun har bir rohib kamida yigirma yil xizmat qilishi kerak.[38]

Kambodja buddizmining asosiy toshlari buddist bhikxu va vattdir. An'anaga ko'ra, har bir qishloqda ma'naviy markaz mavjud bo'lib, u erda beshdan etmishdan ortiq bxikxular istiqomat qiladi. Kambodja qishloqlaridagi odatiy suv, muqaddas joyni, bikxular uchun bir nechta turar joyni, zalni, oshxonani, rohibalar uchun turar joyni va suv havzasini o'z ichiga olgan devorlardan iborat. Rohiblar soni mahalliy aholi soniga qarab turlicha. Buddaning haykallari va kamdan-kam hollarda diniy qoldiqlari bo'lgan qurbongohni o'z ichiga olgan ma'bad katta marosimlar uchun va odatda faqat bhikxuslardan foydalanish uchun ajratilgan. Zalda boshqa marosimlar, rohiblar va dindorlar uchun darslar, ovqatlanishlar bo'lib o'tadi. Katta oila a'zolarining kullari bo'lgan stupalar muqaddas joy yaqinida qurilgan. Mahalliy bolalar parvarish qilgan mevali daraxtlar va sabzavot bog'lari ham mahalliy suvning bir qismidir. Odatda kirish marosimi faqat tantanali ravishda foydalanish uchun sharq tomonga buriladi; boshqa kirish joylari devor atrofidagi boshqa nuqtalarda. Darvozalar yo'q.[38]

Shtaynberg bhikxuslarning Kambodjaning umumiy aholisiga nisbatan ajoyib nisbatini qayd etadi. 50-yillarning oxirlarida taxminan 100000 bhikxus (shu jumladan, 40 mingga yaqin yangi boshlanuvchilar) besh millionga yaqin aholiga xizmat qilgan. Shubhasiz, bu yuqori nisbatga, asosan, sanxaga kirish va chiqish osonligi sabab bo'lgan. Bhikxu bo'lish va sanxadan ketish shaxsiy tanlov masalasidir, ammo nazariy jihatdan o'n olti yoshdan oshgan Kambodjaning deyarli barcha erkaklari bhikxus sifatida xizmat qilishadi. Ko'pgina yigitlar to'liq tayinlangan bikxus (bhikkhu) bo'lishni niyat qilmaydilar va ular bir yildan kam vaqt davomida rohib bo'lib qolmoqdalar. Hatto o'g'lining bhikxu sifatida vaqtincha tayinlanishi ham ota-onasiga katta foyda keltiradi va shu qadar muhim deb hisoblanadiki, agar ota-onasi tirikligida o'g'li bu jarayonni boshdan kechirmagan bo'lsa, ota-onasining dafn marosimida kelishuvlar amalga oshiriladi. Vattda ikki sinf bhikxular mavjud: yangilar (samani yoki nen) va bhikkhu. Tartiblash aprel oyining o'rtalaridan iyul oyining o'rtalariga qadar, yomg'irli mavsumda o'tkaziladi.[38]

Buddist rohiblar rohib bo'lib qolish uchun abadiy qasamyod qilmaydilar, ammo ba'zilari doimiy ravishda rohib bo'lishadi. An'anaga ko'ra, ular hayotning boshida rohib bo'lishdi. Etti yoshda yangi boshlovchi bo'lish mumkin, ammo amalda o'n uch yosh - yangi boshlanuvchilar uchun eng yosh. Bhikxu kamida yigirma bo'lishi kerak. Rohibning hayoti buddaviylik qonunlari bilan tartibga solinadi va suvdagi hayot qat'iy tartibga rioya qiladi. Bhikxu monastir intizomining 227 qoidalariga hamda 10 ta asosiy qoidalarga amal qiladi. Bularga barcha buddistlar bajarishi kerak bo'lgan beshta amr kiradi. Monastiy zohidlikning beshta amri tushdan keyin ovqat eyishni, har qanday ko'ngil ochishda qatnashishni (qo'shiq aytish, raqsga tushish va kino yoki televizor tomosha qilish), shaxsiy bezaklardan foydalanishni, hashamatli karavotda uxlashni va pul bilan ishlashni taqiqlaydi. Bundan tashqari, rohib ham turmush qurmasligi kutilmoqda. Bundan tashqari, rohiblar go'yo siyosiy ishlarga aralashishdan qochishadi. They are not eligible to vote or to hold any political office, and they may not witness a legal document or give testimony in court. Since the person of a monk is considered sacred, he is considered to be outside the normal civil laws and public duties that affect lay people. Some of these practices have changed in the modern period, however, and in the 1980s Buddhist monks have been active even in the PRK government.[38]

Women are not ordained, but older women, especially widows, can become nuns. They live in wat and play an important role in the everyday life of the temple. Nuns shave their heads and eyebrows and generally follow the same precepts as monks. They may prepare the altars and do some of the housekeeping chores.[38]

Role of Buddhism in Cambodian life

Buddhist nun. Bayon Temple, Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia (January 2005).

Buddhist monks traditionally were called upon to perform a number of functions in Cambodian life. They participated in all formal village festivals, ceremonies, marriages, and funerals. They also might have participated in ceremonies to name infants and in other minor ceremonies or rites of passage. Monks did not lead the ceremonies, however, because that role was given to the achar, or master of ceremonies; the monk's major function was to say prayers of blessing. They were often healers and, in traditional Khmer culture, they were the practitioners whose role was closest to that of modern psychiatrists.[iqtibos kerak ][shubhali – muhokama qilish] They might also have been skilled in astrology. The monk traditionally occupied a unique position in the transmission of Khmer culture and values. By his way of life, he provided a living model of the most meritorious behavior a Buddhist could follow. He also provided the laity with many opportunities for gaining merit. For centuries monks were the only literate people residing in rural communities; they acted as teachers to temple servants, to novices, and to newly ordained monks. Until the 1970s, most literate Cambodian males gained literacy solely through the instruction of the sangha.[38]

After independence from France, young Cambodian intellectuals changed their attitude toward the clergy. In describing a general shift away from Buddhism in the late-1950s and early-1960s, Vickery cites the early work of anthropologist May Mayko Ebihara and his own observations. He suggests that the Khmer Rouge was able to instill antireligious feelings in younger males because the latter were losing interest in becoming monks even during their teenage years, the traditional temporary period of service. The monks themselves had abandoned some of their traditional restrictions and had become involved in politics. At intervals during the colonial period, some monks had demonstrated or had rebelled against French rule, and in the 1970s monks joined pro- government demonstrations against the communists. Anticlerical feelings reached their highest point among the Khmer Rouge, who at first attempted to indoctrinate monks and to force them to pass anticlerical ideas on to the laity. Under the Khmer Rouge regime, monks were expelled forcibly from the wats and were compelled to do manual labor. Article 20 of the 1976 Constitution of Demokratik Kampucheya permitted freedom of religion but banned all reactionary religions, that were "detrimental to the country". The minister of culture stated that Buddhism was incompatible with the revolution and was an instrument of exploitation. Under this regime, to quote the Finnish Inquiry Commission, "The practice of religion was forbidden and the pagodas were systematically destroyed." Observers estimated that 50,000 monks died during the Kxmer-ruj tartib. The status of Buddhism and of religion in general after the Vietnamese invasion was at least partially similar to its status in pre-Khmer Rouge times.[38]

According to Michael Vickery, who has written positively about the Kampucheya Xalq Respublikasi, public observance of Buddhism and of Islam was reestablished, and government policies allowed Cambodians freedom to believe or not to believe in Buddhism. Vickery cites some differences in this reestablished Buddhism: religious affairs were overseen by the PRK's Kampuchean (or Khmer) United Front for National Construction and Defense (KUFNCD), the mass organization that supported the state by organizing women, youths, workers, and religious groups.[39] In 1987 there was only a single Buddhist order because the Thommayut order had not been revived. The organization of the clergy also had been simplified. The sangharaja (primate of the Buddhist clergy) had been replaced by a prathean (chairman). Communities that wanted wats had to apply to a local front committee for permission. The wat were administered by a committee of the local laity. Private funds paid for the restoration of the wats damaged during the war and the Khmer Rouge era, and they supported the restored wats. Monks were ordained by a hierarchy that has been reconstituted since an initial ordination in September 1979 by a delegation from the Buddhist community in Vietnam. The validity of this ordination continued to be questioned. In general, there are only two to four monks per wat, which is fewer than before 1975. In 1981 about 4,930 monks served in 740 wats in Cambodia. The Buddhist General Assembly reported 7,000 monks in 1,821 active wats a year later. In 1969 by contrast, observers estimated that 53,400 monks and 40,000 novice monks served in more than 3,000 wats. Vickery sums up his observations on the subject by noting that, "The government has kept its promise to allow freedom for traditional Buddhism, but does not actively encourage it."[38]

Visak Boceya commemorates the birth, enlightenment and passing of the Buddha.

Martin offers another, more pessimistic, view of the religious situation in the late-1980s. In a 1986 study, she asserts that the PRK showed outsiders only certain aspects of religious freedom; she also states that the few wats that were restored had only two or three old monks in residence and that public attendance was low. The monks were allowed to leave the wats only for an hour in the mornings, to collect their food, or during holy days. Lay people who practiced their faith were about the same ages as the monks, and they were allowed to visit the wats only in the evenings. A hukumat doiraviy had also instructed civil servants to stop celebrating the traditional New Year Festival. Ba'zi an'anaviy Buddist bayramlari still were tolerated, but the state collected a 50 percent tax on donations. Martin believes that Buddhism was threatened externally by state repression and by nonsupport and internally by invalid clergy. She noted that the two Buddhist superiors, Venerable Long Chhim and Venerable Tep Vong, were both believed to be from Vietnam. Venerable Tep Vong was concurrently the superior of the Buddhist clergy, vice president of the PRK's Khmer National Assembly, and vice president of the KUFNCD National Council. She quoted a refugee from Batdambang as having said, "During the meetings, the Khmer administrative authorities, accompanied by the Vietnamese experts, tell you, `Religion is like poison, it's like opium; it's better to give the money to the military, so they can fight'."[38]

Buddhism is still strong among the various Cambodian refugee groups throughout the world, although some younger monks, faced with the distractions of a foreign culture, have chosen to leave the clergy and have become laicized. In the United States in 1984, there were twelve Cambodian wats with about twenty-one monks. In the 1980s, a Cambodian Buddhist wat was constructed near Washington, D.C., financed by a massive outpouring of donations from Cambodian Buddhists throughout North America. This wat is one of the few outside Southeast Asia that has the consecrated boundary within which ordinations may be performed.[38]

Kambodja Yangi yil bayramlar

Most of the major Cambodian annual festivals are connected with Buddhist observances. The chol chnam (New Year Festival) takes place in mid-April; it was one of the few festivals allowed under the Khmer Rouge regime. Pchum Ben, celebrated in September or in October, is a memorial day for deceased ancestors and for close friends. Meak bochea, in January or February, commemorates the last sermon of the Buddha. Vissakh bochea, in April or in May, is the triple anniversary of the birth, death, and enlightenment of the Buddha. The chol vossa takes place in June or in July; it marks the beginning of a penitential season during which the monks must remain within the temple compounds. The kathen marks the end of this season; celebrated in September, it features offerings, especially of robes, to the monks. The kathen was still celebrated in the PRK in the late 1980s.[38]

Cambodian Buddhism exists side-by-side with, and to some extent intermingles with, pre-Buddhist animizm and Brahman practices. Kambodjaliklarning aksariyati, ular o'zlarini buddistlar (yoki musulmonlar) deb hisoblasalar ham, qilmasalar ham, boy g'ayritabiiy dunyoga ishonadilar. When ill, or at other times of crisis, or to seek supernatural help, Cambodians may enlist the aid of a practitioner who is believed to be able to propitiate or obtain help from various spirits. Local spirits are believed to inhabit a variety of objects, and shrines to them may be found in houses, in Buddhist temples, along roads, and in forests.[38]

G'ayritabiiy mavjudotlarning bir nechta turlari mavjud deb ishoniladi; ular o'zlarini tushunarsiz tovushlar yoki voqealar yordamida tanitadilar. Ushbu hodisalar orasida khmaoc (ghosts), oldindan va besach (particularly nasty demons, the spirits of people who have died violent, untimely, or unnatural deaths), aroq (evil spirits, usually female), ne-ne (tutelary spirits residing in inanimate objects), mneang phteah (guardians of the house), meba (ancestral spirits), and mrenh kongveal (elf-like guardians of animals). Barcha ruhlarga munosib hurmat ko'rsatilishi kerak, va bundan mustasno mneang phteah va mrenh kongveal, they can cause trouble ranging from mischief to serious life-threatening illnesses. An important way for living people to show respect for the spirits of the dead is to provide food for the spirits. If this food is not provided, the spirit can cause trouble for the offending person. For example, if a child does not provide food for the spirit of its dead mother, that spirit can cause misfortunes to happen to the child.[38]

Aid in dealing with the spirit world may be obtained from a kru (shaman or spirit practitioner), an achar (ritualist), thmup (witch, sorcerer or sorceress), or a rup arak (medium, usually male). The kru is a kind of sorcerer who prepares charms and amulets to protect the wearer from harm. He can cure illnesses, find lost objects, and prepare magic potions. Traditionally, Cambodians have held strong beliefs about protective charms. Amulets are worn routinely by soldiers to ward off bullets, for example. The kru are believed to have the power to prepare an amulet and to establish a supernatural link between it and the owner. A kru may acquire considerable local prestige and power. Many kru are former Buddhist monks.[38]

Another kind of magical practitioner is the achar, a specialist in ritual. He may function as a kind of master of ceremonies at a vat and as a specialist in conducting spirit worship rituals connected with life-cycle ceremonies. Rup arak are mediums who can be possessed by supernatural beings and communicate with the spirit world. The thmup are sorcerers who cause illnesses.[38]

Fortunetellers va munajjimlar —haor teay—are important in Cambodian life. They are consulted about important decisions such as marriages, building a new house, or going on a long journey. They are believed to be able to foretell future events and to determine lucky or unlucky days for various activities.[38]

Villagers are sensitive to the power and to the needs of the spirit world. According to observations by an American missionary in the early 1970s, villagers consulted the local guardian spirit to find out what the coming year would bring, a new province chief held a ceremony to ask the protection of the spirits over the province, and soldiers obtained magic cloths and amulets from mediums and shamans to protect them from the bullets of the enemy. Before embarking on a mission against enemy forces, a province chief might burn incense and call on a spirit for aid in defeating the enemy. Examples of Brahman influences were various rituals concerned with the well-being of the nation carried out by the ruler and the baku (a Brahman priestly group attached to the royal court). These rituals were reportedly stopped after Sihanouk's ouster in 1970 (see The March 1970 Coup d'État, ch. 1).[38]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

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  3. ^ "Mamlakatlar bo'yicha diniy tarkibi, 2010-2050". Pew tadqiqot markazi. 2015-04-02. Olingan 13 avgust 2018.
  4. ^ Tully, John. Frantsiya Mekongda.
  5. ^ a b v Gyallay-Pap, Peter. "Notes of the Rebirth of Khmer Buddhism," Radical Conservativism.
  6. ^ a b T'oung Pao: International Journal of Chinese Studies. 1958. p. 185
  7. ^ Koreyalik buddistlar kanoni: tavsiflovchi katalog (T 232)
  8. ^ a b (Rawson 1990 )
  9. ^ a b v d e O'Murray, Stephen. Angkor Life.
  10. ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1992-01-01). Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi Kembrij tarixi: 1-jild, dastlabki davrlardan to 1800 yilgacha. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  9780521355056.
  11. ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1992-01-01). Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi Kembrij tarixi: 1-jild, dastlabki davrlardan to 1800 yilgacha. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. p.191 -192. ISBN  9780521355056.
  12. ^ a b Keys, Charlz. The Golden Peninsula.
  13. ^ a b (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 83)
  14. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 83–4)
  15. ^ a b (Rajavaramuni 1984 )
  16. ^ a b v (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 74)
  17. ^ a b (Rajavaramuni 1984, pp. 78–82)
  18. ^ a b (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 75–6)
  19. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 84)
  20. ^ a b (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 75)
  21. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 93)
  22. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 76)
  23. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 77)
  24. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 92–6)
  25. ^ a b v (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 88–92)
  26. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 95)
  27. ^ a b v (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 78)
  28. ^ a b (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 96–101)
  29. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 79)
  30. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, 79-83 betlar)
  31. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 80)
  32. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 96–7)
  33. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 97)
  34. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 98–101)
  35. ^ a b (Xarris 2001 yil, 99-101 betlar)
  36. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, p. 87)
  37. ^ (Xarris 2001 yil, pp. 91–2)
  38. ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n o p q r s Federal tadqiqot bo'limi. Russell R. Ross, ed. "Role of Buddhism in Cambodian Life". Cambodia: A Country Study. Research completed December 1987. Ushbu maqolada ushbu manbadan jamoat mulki bo'lgan matn kiritilgan.
  39. ^ See The Kampuchean, or Khmer, United Front for National Construction and Defense, ch. 4

Manbalar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Buswell, Robert E., tahrir. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Cambodia). Macmillan ma'lumotnomasi AQSh. 105-110 betlar. ISBN  0-02-865718-7.CS1 maint: qo'shimcha matn: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  • Harris, Ian (2005), Kambodja buddizmi, Gavayi universiteti matbuoti, ISBN  0-8248-2765-1
  • Marston, John Amos; Guthrie, Elizabeth (2004). Kambodjadagi tarix, buddizm va yangi diniy harakatlar. Gavayi universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-8248-2868-4.
  • Uayt, Devid (2003), Tailand: Qisqa tarix, Nyu-Xeyven: Yel universiteti matbuoti, ISBN  0-300-08475-7

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