Buddist axloq qoidalari - Buddhist ethics - Wikipedia

Buddist qirol Ashoka qurilgan ustunlar davomida Hindiston qit'asi buddistlarning axloqiy fazilatlari va amrlarini targ'ib qiluvchi farmonlar bilan bitilgan.

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Buddist axloq qoidalari an'anaviy ravishda buddistlarning fikricha asoslanadi ma'rifatli ning istiqboli Budda kabi boshqa ma'rifatli mavjudotlar Bodxisattva.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Buddizmda ishlatiladigan axloq yoki axloq uchun hindcha atama Śīla yoki sīla (Pali ). Śīla yilda Buddizm ning uchta qismidan biri Asil sakkizta yo'l va bu asosiy motivatsiya bilan uyg'unlik va o'zini tutishga sodiqlikni o'z ichiga olgan xulq-atvor qoidalari zo'ravonlik yoki zarar etkazish erkinligi. Bu turli xil deb ta'riflangan fazilat,^[1] axloqiy intizom^[2] va ko'rsatma.

Sla ozodlik yo'liga sodiq bo'lishiga ko'ra ichki, xabardor va qasddan axloqiy xatti-harakatlardir. Bu inglizcha "axloq" so'zi (ya'ni itoatkorlik, majburiyat tuyg'usi va tashqi cheklov) bilan bog'liq bo'lgan narsadan ko'ra, o'zini va munosabatlardagi axloqiy kompasdir.

Sla biri uchta amaliyot buddizm va mazhabsizlarga asos soluvchi Vipassana harakati; sla, samadhi va paña shuningdek Theravadin asoslari sīla, dana va bhavana. Bu ikkinchi pāramitā.^[3] Sla shuningdek, foydali narsaga chin dildan sodiqlikdir. Ikki jihati sīla trening uchun juda zarur: to'g'ri "ishlash" (karita) va to'g'ri "qochish" (varitta). Ko'rsatmalariga rioya qilish sīla boshqalarga "katta sovg'a" (mahadana) deb qaraladi, chunki bu ishonch, hurmat va xavfsizlik muhitini yaratadi. Bu shuni anglatadiki, amaliyotchi boshqa odamning hayoti, mol-mulki, oilasi, huquqlari va farovonligiga tahdid solmaydi.^[4]

Axloqiy ko'rsatmalar buddistlarning oyatlariga kiritilgan yoki urf-odatlar orqali berilgan. Buddist axloqshunoslikning aksariyat tadqiqotchilari shu tariqa imtihonga ishonadilar Buddist yozuvlari va buddaviy axloqning mohiyati to'g'risidagi da'volarni oqlash uchun an'anaviy buddistlik jamiyatlarining antropologik dalillaridan foydalanish.^[5]

Jamg'arma

Dunyo bo'ylab buddistlarning axloqiy manbai bu Uch marvarid ning Budda, Dharma va Sangha. Budda erkin bilimlarni kashf etuvchi va shu sababli eng ustoz sifatida ko'riladi. Dharma ham Buddaning yo'lidagi ta'limot, ham bu ta'limotning haqiqatlari. Sangha - bu Dhammani amalda tutadigan va ma'lum bilimlarga ega bo'lgan va shu tariqa yo'l-yo'riq ko'rsatadigan va ta'limotlarni saqlab qoladigan zodagonlar (ariya) jamoasi. Ta'limlarni to'g'ri tushunish, axloqiy xulq-atvor uchun juda muhimdir. Budda buni o'rgatgan to'g'ri ko'rinish to'g'ri xulq-atvor uchun zaruriy shart edi, ba'zan uni to'g'ri niyat deb ham atashgan.

Karma va qayta tug'ilish

The bhavacakra (hayot g'ildiragi) karmik qayta tug'ilish sohalarini ko'rsatadi, uning markazida ochko'zlik, nafrat va aldanishning uchta zahari bor.

Buddist axloqning asosiy poydevori qonundir karma va qayta tug'ilish. Buddaning ta'kidlashicha, to'g'ri qarash (boshqa narsalar qatori) quyidagilarga ishonishdir: "'yaxshi va yomon ishlarning samarasi va pishishi bor': kim nima qilsa, o'z kelajagiga ta'sir qiladi; ' bu dunyo, undan narida dunyo ham bor: bu dunyo haqiqiy emas va o'limdan keyin boshqa dunyoga o'tadi "(MN 117, Maha-katarisaka Sutta).

Karma bu so'zma-so'z "harakat" ma'nosini anglatuvchi so'z bo'lib, koinotning sabab va natija sifatida namoyon bo'ladigan tabiiy qonuni sifatida qaraladi. Buddizm tushunchasida Karma - bu aktyorga axloqiy oqibatlarga olib keladigan axloqiy harakatlarning ma'lum bir turi.^[6] Karmaning yadrosi aqliy niyatdir, demak, Budda "Men bu karma deb atagan niyat (setana), ey rohiblar; irodali kishi tanasi, nutqi yoki aqli orqali harakat qiladi '(AN 6.63). Shuning uchun, tasodifan kimnidir xafa qilish yomon Karma emas, balki zararli fikrlarga ega bo'lishdir. Buddist axloq me'yorlari va harakatlarining ushbu naqshlarini kelajakdagi harakatlar va sharoitlarni shartli sharoit deb biladi - bu (Phala ) aktyorning kelajakdagi hayot sharoitlari va holatini o'z ichiga olgan hozirgi harakatlari (shu bilan birga boshqa tasodifiy omillar ham ta'sir qilishi mumkin).^[6] O'zining o'tmishdagi harakatlari ongni shakllantiradi va urug'larni qoldiradi (Bīja ) keyinchalik keyingi hayotda pishib etiladi. Buddist amaliyotining maqsadi, odatda, tsiklni buzishdir, ammo yaxshi ishlar bilan qayta tug'ilish uchun ham yaxshi ish qilish mumkin.

Biror kishining niyatining ildizi - bu harakatni yaxshi yoki yomon bo'lishining qanday shartlari. Uchta yaxshi ildiz mavjud (qo'shilmaslik, xayrixohlik va tushunish) va uchta salbiy ildiz (ochko'zlik, nafrat va aldanish). Yaxshi natija beradigan harakatlar "deb nomlanadi"savob "(puñña - samarali, xayrli) va munosib (yaxshi karma) ga erishish buddistlik amaliyotining muhim maqsadi. dastlabki buddaviy matnlar uchta "karmik hosildorlikni ta'minlash asoslari" ni eslatib o'ting (puñña-kiriya-vattus): berish (dana), axloqiy fazilat (sila) va meditatsiya (bhāvanā).^[7] Yaxshi harakatlarni amalga oshirishda odamning ruhiy holati harakatning o'ziga qaraganda muhimroq deb qaraladi. Buddist Sangha eng munosib "xizmat sohasi" sifatida qaraladi. Salbiy harakatlar yomon karma natijalarini to'playdi, ammo afsuslanish va uni to'ldirishga urinish bu natijalarni yaxshilashi mumkin.

To'rt asl haqiqat

The To'rt asl haqiqat ular:

• duxha (azob-uqubat, qoniqishga qodir emas, og'riqli) har tug'ilish bilan mavjud bo'lishning tug'ma xususiyati;^[8][9][10]
• samudaya Buning kelib chiqishi (sababi, sababi) duxha bu "istak, xohish yoki qo'shilish";^[11][12][13]
• nirodha Buning to'xtashi (tugashi, tugashi) duxha barcha "ishtiyoq, istak va qo'shilishni" yo'q qilish orqali erishish mumkin;^[14][15]
• magga (yo'l, Asil sakkizta yo'l ) buni tugatish uchun vositadir duxha.^[16][17][18]

To'rt asl haqiqat dunyoviy mavjudlikni tubdan qoniqarsiz va stressli deb biladigan markaziy buddistlar dunyoqarashidan birini ifodalaydi (duxha). Dyukha ishtiyoqdan kelib chiqadi va ochko'zlikka chek qo'yish ozodlikka olib kelishi mumkin (Nirvana ). Istaklarga chek qo'yishning yo'li quyidagilar Asil sakkizta yo'l to'g'ri nutq, to'g'ri harakat va to'g'ri hayotning axloqiy elementlarini o'z ichiga olgan Budda tomonidan o'rgatilgan. To'rt Nobel Haqiqat nuqtai nazaridan, agar u harakatni yo'q qilishga olib keladigan bo'lsa, axloqiy hisoblanadi. duxha. Ning haqiqatini tushunish duxha hayotda uning paydo bo'lishi omillarini, ya'ni orzularni tahlil qilishga imkon beradi va boshqalarga rahm-shafqat va hamdardlik his qilishimizga imkon beradi. O'zini boshqalar bilan taqqoslash va keyin qo'llash Oltin qoida ushbu qadrlashdan kelib chiqadi deyiladi duxha.^[19] Buddaviylik nuqtai nazaridan, agar Sakkizta Yo'lga muvofiqlashib, Nirvanaga etaklash orqali ma'naviy rivojlanishga yordam beradigan harakat ham axloqiy hisoblanadi. Mahayana buddizmida barcha mavjudotlarning ozod qilinishiga va bodisattva barchaning ozodligi uchun tinimsiz mehnat qiladi deb ishoniladi.

Amrlar

In Zen buddist boshlash marosimi Jukai, boshlashni boshlaydi Bodhisattva amrlari.

Oddiy odamlar uchun buddaviy axloqning asosi Besh amr barcha buddaviy maktablari uchun umumiy bo'lgan. Amrlar yoki "beshta axloqiy fazilat" (pañca-silani) buyruqlar emas, balki ixtiyoriy majburiyatlar yoki ko'rsatmalar to'plamidir,^[20] baxtli, tashvishsiz va yaxshi mulohaza yurita oladigan hayot kechirishga yordam berish. Amrlar azob-uqubatlarning oldini olish va ochko'zlik, nafrat va aldanish ta'sirini susaytirishi kerak. Ular Budda oddiy odamlarga va rohiblarga bergan asosiy axloqiy ko'rsatmalar edi. Jinsiy xatti-harakatga bog'liq holda o'z surasini buzish, o'zga yoki boshqa odamning amaliyotiga zararli ta'sir qiladi, agar u buzilmagan munosabatlarni o'z ichiga olsa.^[21] Buddaning ta'limotiga "boshpana topishda", beshta amrni rasmiy ravishda qabul qiladi,^[22] qaysiki:^[23]

1. Men hayotdan voz kechish uchun mashg'ulotlar qoidasini o'z zimmamga olaman;
2. Berilmagan narsalarni olishdan saqlanish uchun men o'qitish qoidasini o'z zimmamga olaman;
3. Men shahvoniy xatti-harakatlardan saqlanish uchun mashg'ulotlar qoidasini o'z zimmamga olaman;
4. Soxta so'zlardan saqlanish uchun men mashg'ulot qoidasini o'z zimmamga olaman;
5. Men g'aflat uchun asos bo'lgan spirtli ichimliklar, vinolar va boshqa mast qiluvchi moddalardan voz kechish bo'yicha mashg'ulotlar qoidasini o'z zimmamga olaman.

Buddistlar ko'pincha monastir Sangha a'zolari bilan rasmiy marosimlarda ko'rsatmalarga rioya qilishadi, lekin ular shaxsiy shaxsiy majburiyatlar sifatida ham qabul qilinishi mumkin.^[24] Har bir amrga rioya qilish uning teskari ijobiy fazilatini rivojlantiradi deyiladi.^[25] Masalan, o'ldirishdan saqlanish, mehr va rahm-shafqatni rivojlantiradi,^[26] o'g'irlikdan saqlanish esa qo'shilishni rivojlantiradi.^[27] Amrlar bilan bog'langan utilitarist, deontologik^[28] va fazilat axloqqa yondashuvlar.^[29] Umuminsoniy xususiyati tufayli ular inson huquqlari bilan taqqoslangan,^[30][31] va ba'zi olimlar ular inson huquqlari kontseptsiyasini to'ldirishi mumkinligini ta'kidlaydilar.^[32][33]

Besh amrni bajarish va qo'llab-quvvatlash tamoyiliga asoslanadi zararli emas (Pali va Sanskritcha: ahiṃsa).^[34] The Pali Canon kishini o'zini boshqalar bilan taqqoslashni va shu asosda boshqalarga zarar bermaslikni tavsiya qiladi.^[35] Rahmdillik^[36] va ishonish karmik jazo^[37]amrlarning asosini tashkil etadi.

Birinchi ko'rsatma odamlarni ham, barcha hayvonlarni ham o'ldirishni taqiqlashdan iborat. Olimlar buddistlik ko'rsatmalariga oid ko'rsatmalarni o'lim jazosiga qarshi chiqish va taqiqlash sifatida talqin qilishdi,^[38] o'z joniga qasd qilish, abort qilish^[39][40] va evtanaziya.^[41] Ikkinchi ko'rsatma o'g'irlikni taqiqlaydi. Uchinchi ko'rsatma zinoning barcha ko'rinishlarini anglatadi va zamonaviy o'qituvchilar tomonidan quyidagi kabi atamalar bilan aniqlangan jinsiy javobgarlik va uzoq muddatli majburiyat. To'rtinchi amrga binoan aytilgan yoki ish bilan qilingan yolg'on, shuningdek, zararli nutq, qattiq so'z va g'iybat kiradi.^[42] Beshinchi ko'rsatma spirtli ichimliklar, giyohvand moddalar yoki boshqa vositalar bilan mast bo'lishni taqiqlaydi.^[27][43] Dastlabki buddaviy matnlar deyarli har doim alkogolni qoralaydi,^[44] va xitoy buddistlarining post-kanonik matnlari.^[45][46] Buddaviylarning chekishga bo'lgan munosabati vaqt va mintaqaga qarab farq qiladi, lekin odatda ruxsat etiladi.^[47][48] Zamonaviy davrda an'anaviy buddaviy mamlakatlar beshta amrni targ'ib qilish uchun jonlanish harakatlarini ko'rdilar.^[49][50] G'arbga kelsak, buddistlik tashkilotlarida ko'rsatmalar katta rol o'ynaydi.^[51]

Shuningdek, aniq diniy kunlarda yoki diniy chekinishlarda qabul qilingan sakkizta amr deb nomlangan qat'iyroq ko'rsatmalar to'plami mavjud. The sakkizta amr yanada intizomni rag'batlantirish va monastir kodi asosida yaratilgan. In sakkizta amr, jinsiy buzuqlikning uchinchi qoidasi yanada qat'iylashtirilib, turmush qurmaslik qoidasiga aylanadi. Sakkizta amrning uchta qo'shimcha qoidalari:^[23]

6. "Men noo'rin paytlarda ovqatdan voz kechish uchun o'qitish qoidasini qabul qilaman". (masalan, tushdan keyin qattiq ovqat yo'q va ertasi kuni tonggacha)
7. "Men mashg'ulot qoidalarini qabul qilaman (a) raqs, ashula, cholg'u musiqasi va shoulardan voz kechish, va (b) zargarlik buyumlari, kosmetika vositalari va go'zallik losonlaridan foydalanishdan."
8. "Men yuqori va hashamatli ko'rpa va o'rindiqlardan foydalanishdan voz kechish uchun mashg'ulotlar qoidasini qabul qilaman".

Ajam-rohiblar dan foydalaning o'nta amr to'liq tayinlangan buddist rohiblar, shuningdek, monastir buyruqlarining kattaroq to'plamiga ega Pratimokya (Theravādin retsessiyasida rohiblar uchun 227 qoidalar). Rohiblar turmush qurmasliklari kerak, shuningdek an'anaviy ravishda pulga tegmasliklari mumkin. Rohiblar va rohibalar uchun axloq qoidalari va qoidalari Vinaya. Ning aniq mazmuni oyatlar yoqilgan vinaya (vinayapiṭaka) har xil maktablarga ko'ra bir-biridan biroz farq qiladi va turli maktablar yoki maktab o'quvchilari tomonidan ularga rioya qilish darajasi uchun turli xil standartlar o'rnatiladi vinaya.

Yilda Mahayana buddizmi, axloqiy ko'rsatmalarning yana bir keng tarqalgan to'plami Bodxisattva qasam ichadi va Bodhisattva amrlari yoki "o'nta buyuk amr". Mahayana dan olingan Bodhisattva amrlari Braxmajala Sutra Besh amrni, shuningdek, Buddaning ta'limotini tuxmat qilishga qarshi ko'rsatma kabi ba'zi boshqa qo'shimchalarni o'z ichiga oladi. Ular mavjud monastir kodi ustida va undan tashqarida mavjud yoki ergashuvchilarning buyruqlari.^[52] Braxmajala sutrasida shuningdek, go'sht yeyish, qurol saqlash, foyda olish maqsadida o'qitish, Mahayana ta'limotidan voz kechish va Mahayana bo'lmagan Dharmani o'qitishni taqiqlovchi 48 ta kichik qoidalar ro'yxati keltirilgan. Ushbu amrlarning o'xshashligi yo'q Theravada Buddizm.

O'n foydali harakat

Dastlabki buddizm matnlaridagi buddistik axloqiy harakatlarning yana bir keng tarqalgan formulasi]] - "o'nta yaxshi harakatlarning yo'li" yoki "o'nta malakali karma yo'llari" (Dasa Kusala Kammapata) "ga muvofiq Dharma ".^{[53][54][55][56]} Ular uchta tana harakatlariga bo'linadi (kaya kamma), to'rtta og'zaki harakatlar (vaci kamma) va uchta aqliy harakatlar (mano kamma) bularning barchasi "mohir fazilatlar o'sib borarkan, mahoratga ega bo'lmagan fazilatlarning pasayishiga olib keladi" deb aytiladi.^[57] Ushbu o'nta yo'l kabi suttalarda muhokama qilinadi Majjxima Nikaya MN 41 (Sāleyyaka Sutta) va MN 114:^[58][59]

Tana harakatlari:

1. "Kimdir tirik jonzotlarni o'ldirishdan voz kechadi", ular "tayoq va qilichdan voz kechishadi", "Ular ehtiyotkorlik va mehribon, barcha tirik jonzotlarga rahm-shafqat bilan yashaydilar".
2. "Ular o'g'irlikdan voz kechishadi. O'g'rilikni maqsad qilib, qishloqdan yoki cho'ldan boshqalarning mol-mulki yoki mol-mulkini olib ketishmaydi".
3. "Ular jinsiy buzuqlikdan voz kechishadi. Onasi, otasi, ham onasi, ham otasi, ukasi, singlisi, qarindoshlari yoki klani vasiysi bo'lgan ayollar bilan jinsiy aloqada emaslar. Ular ayol bilan jinsiy aloqada emaslar. printsipial ravishda himoyalangan yoki eri bo'lgan yoki qonunbuzarligi uchun qonun bilan jazolanadigan yoki hattoki nikoh belgisi sifatida gulchambarga aylangan kishi. "

Og'zaki harakatlar:

1. "Muayyan odam yolg'ondan voz kechadi. Ular kengashga, yig'ilishga, oilaviy yig'ilishga, gildiyaga yoki qirol sudiga chaqirilib, guvohlik berishlarini so'rashdi:" Iltimos, janob, bilganingizni ayting. "Yo'q. bilgan holda, ular "bilmayman" deyishadi. bilgan holda, "bilaman" deyishadi. ko'rmaydilar, "ko'rmayapman" deyishadi. Va ko'rishganda, "ko'rayapman" deyishadi. Shuning uchun ular ataylab qilmaydilar. o'zlari yoki boshqalari uchun yoki biron bir ahamiyatsiz dunyoviy sabab uchun yolg'on gapirish ".
2. "Ular bo'linadigan nutqdan voz kechishadi. Odamlarni bir-birlariga ajratish uchun boshqa joyda eshitganlarini bir joyda takrorlamaydilar. Aksincha, bo'linib ketganlarni yarashtiradilar, birdamlikni qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar, hamjihatlikdan zavqlanadilar, uyg'unlikni sevadilar, so'zlarni gapirishadi uyg'unlikni targ'ib qiluvchi. "
3. "Ular qattiq so'zlardan voz kechishadi. Ular yumshoq, quloqqa yoqimli, yoqimli, qalbga boradigan, odobli, odamlarga yoqadigan va ma'qul keladigan tarzda gapirishadi".
4. "Ular bema'ni gaplardan voz kechishadi. Ularning so'zlari o'z vaqtida, to'g'ri va mazmunli bo'lib, o'qitish va tarbiyaga mos keladi. Ular o'z vaqtida qimmatli, oqilona, ​​lo'nda va foydali narsalarni aytishadi."

Aqliy harakatlar:

1. "Kimdir qoniqqanida. Ular boshqalarning mol-mulki va mol-mulkiga havas qilmaydilar:" Qani endi ularning mol-mulki meniki bo'lsa edi! "Ularning mehribon qalbi va mehr-muhabbatli niyatlari bor:" Bu jonzotlar dushmanlik va kasallikdan xoli bo'lsin. irodali, muammosiz va baxtli! '"
2. "Bu qachondir kimdir mamnun bo'lib, yuragi qoniqish bilan yashaydi. Ular mehr-muhabbatli va sevgisi bilan yuragi bilan yashaydilar. Ular mehribon va mehrga to'la qalblari bilan yashaydilar".
3. "Kimdir shunday fikrda bo'lsa:" Qurbonlik, qurbonlik va qurbonlikning ma'nosi bor. Yaxshi va yomon ishlarning mevalari va natijalari bor. Oxirat bor. Ona va ota oldida burchlar bor. O'z-o'zidan tug'iladigan mavjudotlar bor Yaxshi erishilgan va mashq qilingan va oxiratni o'z tushunchalari bilan anglab etgandan keyin tasvirlaydigan zohidlar va braxmanlar mavjud. "

Savobli harakatlar asoslari

Pali urf-odatlaridagi yana bir keng tarqalgan axloqiy ro'yxat - bu "savobli harakatlarning o'n asoslari" (Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vattu).^[60][61][62] Qayd etilganidek Nyanatiloka Thera, ba'zi matnlar (Itivuttaka 60) ulardan faqat uchtasini eslatib o'ting, ammo keyinroq Pali sharhlari o'ntasini kengaytirdi va o'nlik ro'yxati mashhur ro'yxatdir Theravada mamlakatlar.^[62][63] Ittivuttaka # 60 deydi:

“Bxikxus, munosibat uchun uchta asos bor. Qanday uchta? Xizmat qilish uchun asos berishdan iborat bo'lgan fazilat uchun asos, fazilatdan iborat bo'lgan asos va aqlni rivojlantirishdan iborat bo'lgan fazilat uchun asos. Bu uchtasi.

Uzoq muddatli baxtni beradigan savobli ishlarga o'rgatish kerak: saxiylik, muvozanatli hayot, mehrli aqlni rivojlantirish. Aqlli kishi ushbu uch narsani, baxtni keltirib chiqaradigan amallarni o'stirib, baxt-saodatda, muammosiz baxtli dunyoda qayta tug'iladi ».^[64]

Nyanatilokaning so'zlariga ko'ra, Digha Nikaya 30 shuningdek, bir nechta munosib xatti-harakatlarni eslatib o'tadi.^[62] D.N.30 Budda tomonidan amalga oshirilgan turli xil ibratli savobli harakatlarni eslatib o'tadi:^[65]

"... tana orqali yaxshi xulq-atvor, nutq, berish va bo'lishish, amrlarni olish, shanbani kuzatish, onaga va otaga, zohidlar va braxmanlarga munosib hurmat ko'rsatish, oiladagi oqsoqollarni hurmat qilish va mohirlik bilan bog'liq boshqa narsalar. xatti-harakatlar. "

"Haqiqat, printsip, o'zini tuta bilish va cheklash; berish, zararsizlik, zo'ravonlikdan zavqlanish ..."

"boshqalarga berish va yordam berish, xushmuomalalik bilan nutq va teng munosabatda bo'lish, odamlarni birlashtirgan harakatlar va xatti-harakatlar ..."

Keyinchalik kengaytirilgan o'nta bazaning ro'yxati quyidagicha:^{[60][61][62][63]}

• Xayriya yoki xayriya (dana), Bu rohiblarga "to'rtta rekvizit" berish orqali keng amalga oshiriladi; oziq-ovqat, kiyim-kechak, turar joy va dori-darmon. Ammo muhtojlarga berish ham buning bir qismidir.
• Axloq (sīla), Beshta amrga rioya qilish, umuman zararli emas.
• Aqliy etishtirish (bhāvanā).
• To'lanishi kerak hurmat bunga loyiq bo'lganlarga (apakayana), ayniqsa, Budda, Dhamma va Sangha va qariyalar va ota-onalarga nisbatan munosib hurmat ko'rsatgan holda. Odatda qo'llarni bir-biriga qo'yish orqali amalga oshiriladi Ajjali Mudra va ba'zan ta'zim qilish.
• Boshqalarga yaxshi ishlarni bajarishda yordam berish (veyyāvacca), boshqalarga qarash.
• Biron bir xayrli ish qilganidan keyin savobni bo'lishish (anumodana)
• Boshqalarning xizmatlaridan xursand bo'lish (pattanumodana), bu kommunal faoliyatda keng tarqalgan.
• O'qitish Dhamma (dammadesana), Dhamma sovg'asi eng yuqori sovg'a sifatida qaraladi.
• Tinglash Dhamma (dhammassavana)
• O'zini to'g'rilash qarashlar (ditthujukamma)

Asosiy qadriyatlar va fazilatlar

Berish (Dana) buddistlarning muhim fazilati. Monastirlar hamjamiyati karmik hosildorlikning eng munosib sohasi sifatida qaraladi.

A qismi seriyali kuni
Buddist falsafasi
An'analar Vibhajyavoda Theravada Vaibxaika Sautrantika Pudgalavada Prajñaptivāda Lokottaravada Mahayana Madhyamaka Yogaraka Pramāṇavāda Vajrayana Tiāntāi Huayan Zen / Chan Dzogchen
Mavzular Buddist mantiqiy-epistemologiya Buddist axloq qoidalari Buddist psixologiyasi Buddist vegetarianizm Abhidxarma Aximsa O'zim emas O'zaro bog'liq kelib chiqish Bo'shlik Karma O'rta yo'l Ikki haqiqat doktrinasi Dharma nazariyasi Svabxava Buddist atomizm Azob Budda-tabiat Nirvana Buddist modernizm
Zamonamizgacha bo'lgan faylasuflar Moggaliputta-Tissa Katyāyāniputra Nagasena Nagarjuna Aryadeva Xarivarman Vasubandxu Saṃgabhadra Asanga Buddaxosa Buddhadatta Dhammapala Dignaga Dharmakirti Buddhapalita Bhiviveka Nalandaning Dharmapala Chandrakirti Shantideva Sengzhao Jizang Xuanzang Zhiyi Fazang Gifeng Zongmi Wonhyo Jinul Kokay Dogen Jānagarbha Tarāntarakṣita Xaribxadra Atina Jñanasrimitra Ratnakīrti Ratnākaraśānti Abxayakaragupta Sakya Pandita Rongzom Acariya Anuruddha Dolpopa Tsongxapa Longchenpa Gorampa Sakya Chokden Mikyo Dorje
Zamonaviy faylasuflar Anagarika Dharmapala Ledi Sayadav B. R. Ambedkar Taixu Yin Shun Kitaro Nishida Keiji Nishitani Xajime Tanabe Masao Abe D. T. Suzuki Mahasi Sayadav K. N. Jayatilleke Devid Kalupaxana Ñāṇananda Buddhada Prayud Payutto Thich Nhat Hanh Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo Jamgon Kongtrul Ju Mipham Gendün Chophel 14-Dalay Lama
Din portali  Falsafa portali

Amrlarga rioya qilish buddistik axloqning yagona o'lchovi emas, shuningdek, buddizm matnlari va an'analari tomonidan keng targ'ib qilinadigan bir qancha muhim fazilatlar, motivlar va odatlar mavjud. Ushbu fazilatlarning asosi - yopishmaslik (araga), xayrixohlik (advesa) va tushunishning (amoha) uchta ildizi.

Buddizmda keng targ'ib qilingan fazilatlarning ro'yxati quyidagilardir Paramitas (mukammalliklar) - Dana (saxovat), Sla (to'g'ri xatti-harakatlar), Nekxamma (voz kechish), Paña (donolik), Viriya (energiya), Xanti (sabr), Sakka (halollik), Adxixona (qat'iyat), Metta (Yaxshi iroda), Upekxa (tenglik).

To'rt ilohiy turar joy (Braxavixaralar ) buddist axloqi, psixologiyasi va meditatsiyasida markaziy fazilatlar va niyatlar sifatida qaraladi. To'rt ilohiy ajdodlar yaxshi niyat, rahm-shafqat, hamdard quvonch va tenglik. Ushbu fazilatlarni meditatsiya va to'g'ri harakat orqali rivojlantirish baxtni targ'ib qiladi, yaxshi fazilatlarni keltirib chiqaradi va ongni axloqiy harakatlarga o'rgatadi.

To'g'ri harakatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi muhim sifat bu ehtiyotkorlikdir (Appamada ), energiya / kuchning kombinatsiyasi (Viriya ) va aql-idrok. Diqqat bu odamning qasddan qilingan holatlari bilan nima yuz berayotganidan xabardor bo'lishiga imkon beradigan aqlning hushyorligi. Diqqatga "aniq tushunish" yoki "kamsitish" yordam beradi (Sampajaña ), bu nima qilish kerakligi haqida axloqiy bilimlarni keltirib chiqaradi. Buddist axloqni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi yana bir muhim sifat Ishonch yoki ishonch Buddaning ta'limotlarida va ularni amalda qo'llash qobiliyatida. Hikmat va anglash axloqiy harakat qilishning zaruriy sharti sifatida qaraladi. Haqiqatning asl mohiyatini tushunishga ega bo'lish axloqiy harakatlarga olib boruvchi sifatida ko'riladi. Ning haqiqatini tushunish o'z-o'zidan emas masalan, xudbin motivlardan uzoqlashishga imkon beradi va shuning uchun unga ko'proq alturistik munosabatda bo'lishga imkon beradi. Aqlning ishi va karma qonuni haqida tushunchaga ega bo'lish, axloqsiz harakatni amalga oshirishga imkon bermaydi.

Budda "o'z-o'zini hurmat qilishni" targ'ib qildi (Salom ) va oqibatlari uchun (Apatrapya ) muhim fazilatlar sifatida. O'z-o'zini hurmat qilish - bu insonning benuqsonligiga zarar etkazishi mumkin bo'lgan harakatlardan qochishiga sabab bo'lgan narsa va Ottappa - bu harakatlarining ta'siri va boshqalar oldida uyalish hissi.

Berib (Dana ) Theravada buddizmida fazilatning boshlanishi va bu yo'lda yanada rivojlanish uchun asos sifatida qaraladi. Buddist mamlakatlarda bu Buddist monastirlarga sadaqa berishda ko'rinadi, lekin umuman olganda (oila, do'stlar, hamkasblar, mehmonlar, hayvonlarga) saxiylikka ham tegishli.^[66] Xayr-ehson qilish odamni xursand qiladi, yaxshi fazilat yaratadi va qo'shilishni rivojlantiradi deb aytiladi, shuning uchun bu nafaqat yaxshi, chunki u yaxshi karma mevalarini yaratadi, balki u insonning ma'naviy fazilatlarini ham rivojlantiradi. Buddist tafakkurida dana va axloqiy xulq-atvor o'zlarini ongni shunday darajaga etkazadiki, pastki do'zaxlardan birida qayta tug'ilish, hatto boshqa buddistlik amaliyoti bo'lmasa ham. Maqsadlarni ushbu darajaga etish bilan cheklashda nojo'ya yoki buddist bo'lmagan narsa yo'q.^[21]

Buddist axloqshunoslikning muhim qiymati bu zarar etkazmaslik yoki zo'ravonlik qilmaslikdir (ahimsa ) eng past hasharotlardan odamgacha bo'lgan barcha tirik jonzotlarga o'ldirmaslik haqidagi birinchi ko'rsatma bilan bog'liq. Buddaviylik amaliyoti namoyish etgan haddan tashqari narsalarga taalluqli emas Jaynizm (buddizmda qasddan odam o'ldirish karma jihatdan yomon emas), ammo buddist va jayn nuqtai nazaridan zo'ravonlik barcha tirik mavjudotlar bilan yaqin aloqada bo'lishni va ular bilan munosabatlarni nazarda tutadi.^[67]

Budda shuningdek, "yaxshi do'stlik (Kalyaṇa-mittata ), yaxshi uyushma, yaxshi yaqinlik 'bu butun edi, muqaddas hayotning yarmi emas edi (SN 45.2). Ma'naviy yo'lda yaxshi odamlar bilan mustahkam do'stlikni rivojlantirish buddizmning asosiy yo'nalishi va o'z amaliyotida qo'llab-quvvatlash va o'sishning asosiy usuli sifatida qaraladi.

Yilda Mahayana buddizmi, axloqiy harakatlar uchun yana bir muhim asos bu Bodhisattva ideal. Bodxisattvalar - barcha tirik mavjudotlarni qutqarish yo'lida ishlashni tanlagan mavjudotlar. Mahayana buddistlik matnlarida bu ulkan rahm-shafqat yo'li bu yo'ldan ustun deb targ'ib qilingan Arhat chunki Bodxisattva barcha mavjudotlar foydasi uchun ishlaydi.^[68] Bodhisattva - bu chaqirilgan kuchli hissiyotni uyg'otadigan kishi Bodhicitta (ma'rifat aqli) bu o'zini va barcha mavjudotlarni uyg'otishga yo'naltirilgan aql.

Muammolar

Qotillik

Iyo-no-Kami Minamoto Kuro Yoshitsune va yapon rasmlari Saito Musashi-bo Benkei, buddist jangchi rohib.

Birinchi buyruq hayotni olishdan saqlanishdir va Budda odam yoki hayvonlarning hayotini olish karmik salbiy oqibatlarga olib kelishini va ozodlikka olib kelmasligini aniq aytgan. To'g'ri tirikchilik qurol-yarog 'bilan savdo qilmaslik yoki hayvonlarni ovlash va so'yish bilan bog'liq emas. Turli xil suttalarda har doim barcha mavjudotlarga nisbatan mehr-oqibat va mehr-oqibat bilan to'la aqlga ega bo'lish kerak, deyilganidek, bu yomon, yovuz odamlarga ham tegishli bo'lishi kerak. Angulimala qotil va har qanday hayvonlarga, hatto zararkunandalar va zararkunandalarga ham (rohiblarga biron bir hayvonni o'ldirishga yo'l qo'yilmaydi). Shuning uchun buddaviylik ta'limoti va muassasalari mojaro paytida xavfsiz boshpana vazifasini bajarib, tinchlik va rahmdillikni targ'ib qiladi.^[69] Shunga qaramay, ba'zi buddistlar, jumladan yapon kabi monastirlar jangchi rohiblar tarixan amalga oshirilgan zo'ravonlik harakatlari. Xitoyda Shaolin monastiri ishlab chiqilgan jang san'ati o'zlarini hujumdan himoya qilish an'anasi.

Mahayana buddizmida mohir vositalar tushunchasi (upaya ) ba'zi hollarda, agar u rahm-shafqat sabablari bilan qilingan bo'lsa, qotillik aktini uzr uchun ishlatilgan. Ushbu "shafqatli o'ldirish" shakliga ruxsat berilgan Upaya-kausalya sutra va Maha-Upaya-kausalya sutra faqat "ezgu fikrdan kelib chiqqanda".^[70] Ba'zi matnlarda odam o'ldirishning salbiy karmik oqibatlari tan olinadi va shafqat tufayli uni targ'ib qilinadi. The Bodxisattva-bxumi Mahayana-ning asosiy matnida, agar Bodhisattva boshqa Bodhisattvalarni o'ldirmoqchi bo'lgan odamni ko'rsa, ular ushbu qotilni o'ldirishni o'zlariga zimmalariga oladilar, degan fikrda.

"Agar men ushbu jonzotning hayotini olsam, men o'zimni do'zaxning jonzotlaridan biri sifatida qayta tug'ilishim mumkin. Bu jonzot zudlik bilan qasos ishini qilganidan ko'ra, uni qayta tiriltirganim yaxshiroqdir. jahannamga. "^[71]

Agar shunday bo'lsa, boshqalarni yovuzlikdan himoya qilish niyati bo'lsa, qotillik ba'zan savobli deb hisoblanadi.

Urush

Ning haykal portreti 5-Dalay Lama.

Buddizm mojarosini tahlil qilish "Uch zahar 'ochko'zlik, nafrat va aldanish. Azob-uqubatlarning sababi bo'lgan ishtiyoq va bog'lanish ham nizoning sababi hisoblanadi. Buddist faylasuf Shantideva uning ta'kidlashicha Siksasamuccaya: "Tirik mavjudotlar o'rtasida ziddiyat paydo bo'ladigan joyda egalik qilish hissi sabab bo'ladi". Moddiy boyliklarga intilish, shuningdek siyosiy yoki diniy qarashlarni anglash urushning asosiy manbai sifatida qaraladi. O'zining o'ziga xosligini anglash, qabila, millat davlati yoki din bilan birlashish ham buddizmga binoan insoniyat ziddiyatining yana bir ildizi hisoblanadi.^[72]

Budda targ'ib qildi zo'ravonlik qilmaslik u turli yo'llar bilan izdoshlarini urushlarda qatnashmaslikka va qurol sotmaslik va savdo qilmaslikka undagan. Budda urushda ham g'olib, ham mag'lubiyat azob chekishini ta'kidlagan: "G'olib g'animlik tug'diradi. Mag'lub bo'lganlar qayg'u ichida yashaydilar. Tinchlik g'alaba va mag'lubiyatni tashlab, baxtli hayot kechiradi" (Dhammapada, 201). Buddist faylasuf Kandrakerti askarlik hurmatga sazovor kasb emasligini yozgan: "jangda hayot qurbonligini hurmat qilmaslik kerak, chunki bu zararli harakatlar uchun asosdir".^[73] The Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra olganlarni aytadi Bodxisattva qasam ichadi urushda qatnashmaslik, jangni tomosha qilish, qurol-yarog 'sotib olish yoki saqlash, qotillarni maqtash yoki ma'qullash va boshqalarning o'ldirilishiga har qanday yordam bermaslik kerak. Uning ichida Abhidharma-kosa, Vasubandxu armiyadagi barcha askarlar nafaqat haqiqiy o'ldirishni amalga oshirganlar, balki armiyaning o'ldirilishida aybdor deb yozadi.^[74] Zamonaviy Buddist tinchlik faollari The ni o'z ichiga oladi 14-Dalay Lama, Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, A. T. Ariyaratne, Preah Maha Ghosananda va Nichidatsu Fujii.

Esa pasifizm buddaviy ideal, buddistlik davlatlari va qirolliklari tarix davomida urush olib borgan va buddistlar ushbu to'qnashuvlarni oqlash yo'llarini topganlar. The 5-Dalay Lama tomonidan Tibetda buddizmning rahbari etib tayinlangan Gushri Xon keyin O'ratlarning Tibetga bosqini (1635–1642), Xonning xatti-harakatlarini maqtagan va uni buyuk Bodxisattvaning emmanatsiyasi deb aytgan. Vajrapani.^[73] Beshinchi Dalay Lama va Ganden saroyining xazinachisi bo'lgan kuchli Gelug Regent Sonam Chophel (1595-1657) davrida Tibet qirolligi bosqinlarni boshladi. Butan (taxminan 1647, muvaffaqiyatsiz tugaydi) va Ladax (taxminan 1679 yil, ilgari yo'qolgan Tibet hududini qaytarib olgan) mo'g'ullar yordami bilan.^[75]

Yana bir misol buddistning misolidir jangchi rohiblar yilda feodal Yaponiya ba'zan o'z hududlarini himoya qilgan va raqib buddistlik oqimlariga hujum qilgan uyushgan urush harakatlarini sodir etganlar. Kechki payt Heian davri, Tendai maktab, ayniqsa, kuchli monastir bo'lib, uning nufuzli monastirlari rohiblar qo'shinini boshqarishi mumkin edi. Ushbu mazhabning asosiy matni Mahayna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sitra Dharmani himoya qilish uchun zo'ravonlikdan foydalanishga ruxsat beruvchi qismlarni o'z ichiga olgan.^[76] The Ashikaga davri Tendai maktabi o'rtasidagi harbiy mojaroni ko'rdi, Jōdo Shinshū maktab va Nichiren Buddistlar. Zen buddizm orasida ta'sirchan bo'lgan samuray va ularning Bushido kod.

Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi deyarli barchasi Yaponiya buddistlari ibodatxonalari (tashqari Soka Gakkay ) Yaponiya imperializmi va militarizatsiyasini qattiq qo'llab-quvvatladi.^{[77][78][79][80][81][82]} Yaponiya Pan-Buddistlar Jamiyati (Myova shtati Kay) Xitoy buddistlarining tanqidlarini rad etib, "Bizda endi" ko'pchilik yashashi uchun birini o'ldirish "xayrixoh kuchidan foydalanishdan boshqa ilojimiz yo'q" (issatsu tashō) va urush. ni amalga oshirish uchun juda zarur edi dharma Osiyoda.

Abort

Jizo haykallari Zojo-dji ma'bad Tokio

Yagona yo'q Buddist abortga nisbatan nuqtai nazar, garchi an'anaviy buddizm abortni rad etadi, chunki bu inson hayotini qasddan yo'q qilishni o'z ichiga oladi va inson hayotini kontseptsiyadan boshlanadi deb hisoblaydi. Bundan tashqari, ba'zi buddaviy qarashlar hayotning tugamas tsikli tufayli hayot kontseptsiyadan oldin mavjud deb qarash sifatida talqin qilinishi mumkin.^[83] An'anaviy buddistlarning qayta tug'ilish haqidagi qarashlari ongni vaqt o'tishi bilan rivojlanib borayotgani kabi emas, balki kontseptsiyada embrionda mavjud deb biladi. In Vinaya (Theravada va Sarvastivada ) keyin, abort qilish monastirdan chiqarib yuborish bilan jazolanadigan qotillik harakati sifatida ko'riladi Sangha.^[84] The Abhidharma-kosa "hayot kontseptsiya paydo bo'lgan paytdan boshlab mavjud va u yashashga haqli ekanligi uchun bezovtalanmasligi kerak".^[85]

Buning yovuzlik sifatida ko'rilishining sabablaridan biri shundaki, inson qayta tug'ilishi yaxshilik qilish va ozodlikka erishish uchun qimmatli va noyob imkoniyat sifatida qaraladi. The Jataka hikoyalar abort qilgan ayollarning qayta tug'ilish haqidagi ertaklarini o'z ichiga oladi jahannam. Onaning hayoti xavf ostida bo'lgan taqdirda, ko'plab an'anaviy buddistlar abort qilish joizdir. Bu abort qilishning qonuniy yo'l qo'yilgan yagona sababi Shri-Lanka, shuningdek, Ganden Tri Rinpoche ta'kidlaganidek, Tibet an'analarida qabul qilingan qarashdir.^[86] Zo'rlashda esa buddistlarning aksariyati zo'ravonlik harakatlaridan keyin "boshqa shaxsga nisbatan boshqa turdagi zo'ravonlik" ga yo'l qo'yib, axloqiy emas deb ta'kidlaydilar. Noto'g'ri shakllangan homilani abort qilish ham buddistlarning aksariyati tomonidan axloqsiz deb hisoblanadi.^[87]

Amaliyotda bo'lganlar Yaponiya va Qo'shma Shtatlar boshqa joylarda yashovchilarga qaraganda abortga nisbatan toqatli ekanligi aytiladi.^[88] Yaponiyada ayollar ba'zida qatnashadilar Mizuko kuyo (水 子 供養 - yoritilgan. Yangi tug'ilgan chaqaloqni xotirlash xizmati) abortdan keyin yoki abort natijasida tushish; shunga o'xshash Tayvanlik marosim deyiladi gongyang. Xitoyda abort ham keng qo'llaniladi, ammo Tibetda bu juda kam uchraydi. Shunday qilib, buddistlarning aksariyati abortning noto'g'ri ekanligiga rozi bo'lishsa-da, ular amaliyotni taqiqlovchi qonunlarni qabul qilishlari ehtimoldan yiroq. The Dalay Lama abort qilish "salbiy" ekanligini aytdi, ammo istisnolar mavjud. U: "Menimcha, abort har bir holatga ko'ra ma'qullanishi yoki rad etilishi kerak".^[89]

Buddizmda abort qilish muammoli bo'lsa-da, kontratseptsiya odatda muammo emas.

O'z joniga qasd qilish va evtanaziya

Thích Quảng Đức paytida o'zini o'zi yoqib yuborish Buddist inqirozi

Buddizm hayotni o'z ichiga olgan deb tushunadi Dyukha, qoniqarsiz va stressli. Hozirgi azobdan qutulish uchun o'z hayotini tugatish befoyda deb hisoblanadi, chunki u yana qayta tug'iladi va yana tug'iladi. Uchta istak shakllaridan biri bu yo'q qilish istagi (vibhava tanha ) va bu istak shakli kelajakdagi azoblarning ildizi. Noqulay va g'azablangan ruhiy holat bilan o'lish yomon qayta tug'ilishga olib keladi, shuning uchun o'z joniga qasd qilish salbiy karma hosil qilish sifatida qaraladi.^[90] O'z hayotini tugatish ijobiy karma hosil qilish uchun bebaho imkoniyatni tashlash deb ham qaraladi. O'z joniga qasd qilish birinchi amrni buzish (boshqa jonzotlarni o'ldirmaslik) singari talqin qilinmasa ham, u hali ham og'ir va zararli harakat sifatida qaralmoqda.^[91]

Yilda Theravada buddizm, rohib uchun o'limning afzalliklarini maqtash uchun, shu jumladan odamga hayotdagi baxtsizliklar yoki o'lish baxtini aytib berish va jannatga u o'z joniga qasd qilish yoki shunchaki qarag'ayni o'ldirishga ilhomlanib tuyulishi uchun. , hayotga zarar etkazishni taqiqlash bilan bog'liq eng yuqori vinaya kodlaridan birini buzganligi aniq ko'rsatilgan, shuning uchun bu avtomatik ravishda chiqarib yuborilishiga olib keladi Sangha.^[92]

Buddizm o'lish tajribasini insonning ma'naviy hayotidagi o'ta sezgir lahza deb biladi, chunki o'lim paytidagi aqlning sifati kelajakda qayta tug'ilish sharti deb ishoniladi.^[91] Buddist ideal - tinch, ammo ongli holatda o'lish, qo'yib yuborishni o'rganish. Ongli ravishda, salbiy fikrlarsiz o'lish, aksincha yaxshi fikrlarni o'ylab quvonish keyingi hayotga yaxshi o'tish sifatida qabul qilinadi. Buddaviy matnlarni kuylash va o'qish odatiy holdir; Tibetda Bardo Thodol o'layotganlarni yaxshi qayta tug'ilishga yo'naltirish uchun ishlatiladi.^[91]

An'anaviy buddizm amal qiladi Evtanaziya, bu erda azob chekayotgan bemorning o'limi (ular buni xohlashadimi yoki yo'qmi) olib keladi, chunki bu birinchi me'yorni buzish sifatida ko'proq og'riqni oldini olish uchun.^[93] Bunday qotillik rahm-shafqatdir, chunki u azoblanishni oldini oladi, chunki an'anaviy buddizm ilohiyoti uchun qabul qilinishi mumkin emas, chunki u chuqur xayolga borib taqaladi. Evtanizatsiya qilingan azob-uqubat qayta tug'ilib, ularning karmasi tufayli azob chekishga majbur bo'lishiga olib keladi (garchi barcha azoblar karma tufayli bo'lmasa ham) va shuning uchun ularni o'ldirish ularga azob-uqubatlardan xalos bo'lishga yordam bermaydi.^[94] The Abhidharma-kosa kasal va keksayib qolgan ota-onasini o'ldirish aldanish xislati ekanligini aniq aytadi. O'lim jarayonida birovni o'ldirish, shuningdek, og'riqni boshdan kechirish va tanani qo'yib yuborishni o'rganish imkoniyatini buzadi, shuning uchun evtanaziya istagi jismoniy og'riqdan nafratlanish va bo'lmaslik istagi bo'ladi. Ga binoan Kalu Rinpoche ammo, hayotni qo'llab-quvvatlashdan olib tashlashni tanlash karma jihatdan neytraldir.^[95] Kasallik o'ta kasal bo'lganida tibbiy muolajani qabul qilmaslik, hayotdan nafratlanish tuyg'usidan kelib chiqmasa, axloqiy jihatdan aybdor deb bo'lmaydi. Bu, shuningdek, terminal bemorni reanimatsiya qilmaslik uchun ham qo'llaniladi.

Biroq, o'z joniga qasd qilishga qarshi ko'rsatmaning istisnolari mavjud. Several Pali suttas contain stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened arhats and euthanized themselves in a calm and detached state of mind.^[96]

In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of O'zini yoqish ishlab chiqilgan. In China, the first recorded self-immolation was by the monk Fayu (d. 396).^[97] According to James A. Benn, this tended to be much more common during times of social and political turmoil and Buddhist persecution.^[98] It was often interpreted in Buddhist terms as a practice of heroic renunciation.^[99] This practice was widely publicized during the Vetnam urushi and have also continued as a form of protest by Tibetans against the Chinese government.

O'lim jazosi

Buddhism places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and hence in theory forbids the death penalty. However, capital punishment has been used in most historically Buddhist states. Birinchisi Besh amr (Panca-sila) - hayotni yo'q qilishdan saqlanish. 10-bob Dhammapada aytadi:

"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill".

Chapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states "Him I call a brahmin qurollarni chetga surib, barcha mavjudotlarga nisbatan zo'ravonlikdan voz kechgan. He neither kills nor helps others to kill". These sentences are interpreted by many Buddhists (especially in the West) as an injunction against supporting any legal measure which might lead to the death penalty. However, almost throughout history, countries where Buddhism has been the official religion (which have included most of the Uzoq Sharq va Hindiston ) have practiced the death penalty. One exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the Imperator Saga ning Yaponiya in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions conducted as a form of retaliation continued to be performed.

Animals and the environment

Tomonidan tasvirlangan Budda Bodhi daraxti, hayvonlar ishtirok etgan, Sanchi vihara.

Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as Nasroniylik qiladi.^[100] Humans are seen as being more able to make moral choices, and this means that they should protect and be kind to animals who are also suffering beings who are living in samsara. Buddhism also sees humans as part of nature, not as separate from it. Thich Naht Hanh summarizes the Buddhist view of harmony with nature thus:

We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it. Then we pose the question ‘How should we deal with Nature?’ We should deal with nature the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.^[101]

Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Tailand o'rmon an'anasi.

Vegetarianizm

There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. Ko'pchilik Mahayana Buddhists – especially the Chinese, Vietnamese and most Korean traditions – strongly oppose meat-eating on yozuvli asoslar.^[102]

The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life. This is one reason that the Budda made a distinction between killing animals and eating meat, and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist texts like the Pali Canon frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat or livestock) as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also includes ordering or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.

Buddist qirol Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings.^[103] One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:

Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.^[104]

Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or promotes vegetarianizm. While Buddhist theory tends to equate killing animals with killing people (and avoids the conclusion that killing can sometimes be ethical, e.g. defense of others), outside of the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and some Japanese monastic traditions, most Buddhists do eat meat in practice;^[105] there is however, a significant minority of Buddhist laypersons in the aforementioned traditions that maintain vegetarianism on a set schedule and a smaller minority who are full-time Buddhist vegetarians.^[106][107] There is some controversy surrounding whether or not the Buddha himself died from eating rancid pork.^[108] While most Chinese and Vietnamese monastics are vegetarian,^[105] vegetarian Tibetans are rare, due to the harsh Himalayan climate.^[105] Japanese lay people tend to eat meat, but monasteries tend to be vegetarian.^[105] The Dalay Lama, after contracting Gepatit B, was advised by doctors to switch to a high animal-protein diet.^[109] The Dalay Lama eats vegetarian every second day, so he effectively eats a vegetarian diet for 6 months of the year.^[110] In the West, vegetarianism among Buddhists is also common.

In Pali versiyasi Tripitaka, there are number of occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as recommending certain types of meat as a cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a general sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha declared that:

Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); bular, Jivaka, go'shtni iste'mol qilmaslik kerak bo'lgan uchta holatmi, Jivaka! Men go'shtni iste'mol qilishning uchta holati borligini aytaman: u ko'rilmasa yoki eshitilmasa yoki shubha tug'ilsa (jonzot ataylab yeyish uchun so'yilgan bo'lsa); Jivaka, aytmoqchimanki, bu uchta holat go'shtni iste'mol qilish mumkin.

— Jivaka Sutta

The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.

While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving portions of Pali Tripitaka and no Mahayana sutras explicitly declare that meat eating violates the first precept, certain Mahayana sutralari vigorously and unreservedly denounce the eating of meat, mainly on the ground that such an act violates the bodhisattva's compassion. The sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the Mahayana version of the Nirvana Sutra, The Shurangama Sutra, The Brahmajala Sutra, The Angulimaliya Sutra, The Mahamegha Sutra, va Lankavatara Sutra, as well as the Buddha's comments on the negative karmic effects of go'shtni iste'mol qilish ichida Karma Sutra. In Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra o'zini o'ldirish arafasida Buddaning yakuniy tushuntirish va aniq Mahayana ta'limoti sifatida namoyish etadi, Budda "go'shtni iste'mol qilish Buyuk Mehr urug'ini o'chiradi", deb aytdi va go'sht va baliqning har qanday va har qanday turini qo'shib qo'ydi. iste'mol qilish (hatto o'lik deb topilgan hayvonlarni ham) u tomonidan taqiqlangan. He specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and receive meat from a donor should eat it: ". . . it should be rejected . . . I say that even meat, fish, game, dried hooves and scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an infraction . . . I teach the harm arising from meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious writings to be the authentic Dharma" and will concoct their own sutras and lyingly claim that the Buddha allows the eating of meat, whereas in fact he says he does not. Uzun parcha Lankavatara Sutra Buddaning go'sht iste'mol qilinishiga qarshi juda qattiq va vegetarianizm tarafdori ekanligi, chunki jonli mavjudotlarning go'shtini eyishi u Bodxisattva etishtirishga intilishi kerak bo'lgan shafqatga mos kelmaydi, deb aytganini ko'rsatadi. Boshqa bir qancha Mahayana oyatlarida ham (masalan, Mahayana) jatakas ), Budda go'shtni iste'mol qilish istalmagan va karmik jihatdan zararli ekanligini ko'rsatib turibdi.

Atrof muhit

Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states in East Asia. Turlar fikus dini is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.

Yilda Mahayana buddizmi, some teachings hold that trees and plants have Budda tabiati. Kukai held that plants and trees, along with rocks and everything else, were manifestations of the 'One Mind' of Vayrokana va Dogen held that plant life edi Budda tabiati.

In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed, though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his edicts. Bxikxu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief that increased ishlab chiqarish va iste'mol to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and the Sarvodaya Shramadana harakati have worked for reforestation and environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to those who come after us.^[111]

Jinsiy muammolar

Buddhist nuns from the Tibetan tradition, volunteering in Kyegundo (Tibet Earthquake zone).

In pre-Buddhist Indian religion, women were seen as inferior and subservient to men. Buddha's teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. Ga binoan Isaline Blew Horner, women in Buddhist India: "commanded more respect and ranked as individuals. They enjoyed more independence, and a wider liberty to guide and follow their own lives."^[112] Buddha gave the same teachings to both sexes, praised various female lay disciples for their wisdom and allowed women to become monastics (Bhikkhunis ) at a time when this was seen as scandalous in India, where men dominated the spiritual professions. The two chief female disciples of the Buddha were Xema va Uppalavanna. The Buddha taught that women had the same soteriologik potential as men, and that gender had no influence on one's ability to advance spiritually to nirvana. In the early Buddhist texts, female enlightened Arhats keng tarqalgan. Buddhist nuns are however bound by an extra 8 precepts not applicable to Buddhist monks called The Eight Garudhammas. The authenticity of these rules is highly contested; they were supposedly added to the (bhikkhunis ) Vinaya "to allow more acceptance" of a monastic Order for women, during the Buddha's time but can be interpreted as a form of gender kamsitish.^[113][114] Alan Sponberg argues that the early Buddhist sangha sought social acceptance through 'institutional androsentrizm ' as it was dependent on material support from lay society. Because of this Sponberg concludes: "For all its commitment to inclusiveness at the doctrinal level, institutional Buddhism was not able to (or saw no reason to) challenge prevailing attitudes about gender roles in society."^[115]The pre-Mahayana texts also state that while women can become Arhats, they cannot become a Samyaksambuddha (a Buddha who discovers the path by himself), Chakravartins (Wheel turning king), a Ruler of heaven, a Mara devil or a Brahama god.^[116]

The Therigatha is a collection of poems from elder Buddhist nuns, and one of the earliest texts of women's literature. Another important text is the Therī-Apadana, which collects the biographies of eminent nuns. One such verses are those of the nun Soma, who was tempted by Mara when traveling in the woods. Mara states that women are not intelligent enough to attain enlightenment, Soma replies with a verse which indicates the insignificance of gender to spirituality:

"What does womanhood matter at all

When the mind is concentrated well,

When knowledge flows on steadily

As one sees correctly into Dhamma.

One to whom it might occur,

'I'm a woman' or 'I'm a man'

Or 'I'm anything at all' —

Is fit for Mara to address."^[117]

The Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya is the largest statue of a woman in the world.

Yilda Mahayana buddizmi, Bodhisattvas such as Tara va Guanyin are very popular female deities. Biroz Buddist tantrik texts include female consorts for each heavenly Buddha or Bodhisattva. In these Tantric couples, the female symbolizes wisdom (prajna ) and the male symbolizes skillful means (upaya ).^[118] The union of these two qualities is often depicted as sexual union, known as yab-yum (father-mother).

Yilda Sharqiy Osiyo, g'oyasi Budda tabiati being inherent in all beings is taken to mean that, spiritually at least, the sexes are equal, and this is expressed by the Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala sutra. Based on this ideal of Buddha nature, the Chinese Chan (Zen ) school emphasized the equality of the sexes. Daxui Zonggao (1089–1163) of the Chinese Linji maktabi said of women in Buddhism: "For mastering the truth, it does not matter whether one is male or female, noble or base." ^[119] The Japanese founder of Soto Zen, Dogen wrote: "If you wish to hear the Dharma and put an end to pain and turmoil, forget about such things as male and female. As long as delusions have not yet been eliminated, neither men nor women have eliminated them; when they are all eliminated and true reality is experienced, there is no distinction of male and female."^[120]

The attitude of Buddhists towards gender has been varied throughout history as it has been influenced by each particular culture and belief system such as Konfutsiylik (which sees women as subservient) and Hinduizm. Theravadin sharhlovchisi Buddaxosa (5th century CE) for example, seems to have been influenced by his Braxmin background in stating that rebirth as a male is higher than rebirth as a female.^[121] Some Mahayana sutras such as the ‘Sutra on Changing the Female Sex’ and the ‘Questions of the Daughter Pure Faith’ also echo this idea. For various historical and cultural reasons such as wars and invasions, the orders of ordained Buddhist nuns disappeared or was never introduced in Southeast Asia and Tibet, though they slowly started being reintroduced by nuns such as Ayya Khema, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, Tenzin Palmo va Thubten Chodron. Until very recently, China, Taiwan and Korea were the only places where fully ordained bhiksuni lineages still existed. An international conference of Buddhist nuns was held on February 1987 at Bodx Gaya and saw the formation of 'Sakyadhita' (Daughters of the Buddha) the International Association of Buddhist Women which focuses on helping Buddhist nuns throughout the world.^[122]

Aloqalar

The Buddha placed much importance on the cultivation of good will and compassion towards one's parents, spouse, friends and all other beings. Buddhism strongly values harmony in the family and community. Keeping the five precepts and having a generous attitude (Dana) is seen as the foundation for this harmony. An important text, seen as the lay people's Vinaya (code of conduct) is the Sigalovada Sutta which outlines wrong action and warns against the squandering of wealth. The Sigalovada Sutta outlines how a virtuous person "worships the six directions" which are parents (East), teachers (South), wife (West), and friends and colleagues (North), and the two vertical directions as: ascetics and Brahmins (Up) and the Servants (Down). The text elaborates on how to respect and support them, and how in turn the Six will return the kindness and support. The relationships are based on reciprocation, and it is understood one has no right to expect behavior from others unless one also performs good acts in their favor.

Parents for example, are to be respected and supported with the understanding that they are to have provided care and affection to oneself. In marriage, the sutta states that a householder should treat their wife by "being courteous to her, by not despising her, by being faithful to her, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornments." while in return the wife "performs her duties well, she is hospitable to relations and attendants, she is faithful, she protects what he brings, she is skilled and industrious in discharging her duties."^[123] The Buddha also stated that a wife and husband are to be each other's best friend (parama sakha). While monogamy is the predominant model for marriage, Buddhist societies have also practiced and accepted ko'pxotinlilik va polyandry.^[124] Buddhism sees marriage not as sacred but as a secular partnership and hence has no issue with divorce.

Jinsiy hayot

The Third (or sometimes Fourth) of the Besh amr of Buddhism states that one is to refrain from "jinsiy buzuqlik ", which has various interpretations, but generally entails any sexual conduct which is harmful to others, such as rape, molestation and often adultery, although this depends on the local marriage and relationship customs. Buddhist rohiblar va rohibalar of most traditions are not only expected to refrain from all sexual activity but also take vows of celibacy.

Jinsiy orientatsiya

Among the Buddhist traditions there is a vast diversity of opinion about gomoseksualizm, and in interpreting the precedents which define "sexual misconduct" generally. Though there is no explicit condemnation of homosexuality in Buddhist sutras, be it Theravada, Mahayana yoki Mantrayana, societal and community attitudes and the historical view of practitioners have established precedents. Biroz sangha equate homosexuality with scriptural sexual misconduct prohibited by the Besh amr. Boshqalar sangha hold that if sexuality is compassionate and/or consensual and does not contravene vows, then there is no karmic infraction, irrespective of whether it is same-sex or not. Buddhist communities in Western states as well as in Japan generally tend to be accepting of homosexuality. In Japan, homosexual relations among Buddhist samurai and clergy were actually quite common. Male homosexuality between clergy was especially common in the Tantric Shingon maktabi.^[125]

Ga ko'ra Pali Canon & Amagama (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is no saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct,^[126][127] va ba'zilari Theravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone underage (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married and who have taken vows of religious celibacy.^[128]

Some later traditions, like Shantideva va Gampopa, feature restrictions on non-vaginal sex (including homosexuality). A medieval commentary of the Digha Nikaya mentions examples of immorality in society, and one of the examples is homosexuality, whereas this has no basis in the Sutta.^[129] Other Buddhist texts such as the Abhidharma-kosa va Jataka ertaklari make no mention of homosexuality in this regard. According to Jose Ignacio Cabezon, Buddhist cultures' attitudes towards homosexuality have generally been neutral.^[130]

While both men and women can be ordained, germafroditlar are not allowed by the Vinaya. According to the ancient texts this is because of the possibility that they will seduce monks or nuns.^[131]The Vinaya also prevents pandakalar from becoming monastics, which have been defined as "without testicles" and generally referred to those who lacked the normal (usually physical) characteristics of maleness (in some cases it refers to women who lack the normal characteristics of femaleness). This rule was established by the Buddha after a pandaka monk broke the Vinaya precepts by having relations with others. Therefore, it seems that pandakas were initially allowed into the Sangha. Later Buddhist texts like the Milinda Panha va Abhidharma-kosa see pandakas as being spiritually hindered by their sexuality and mental defilements.

Iqtisodiy axloq

Butan 's government promotes the concept of 'Yalpi milliy baxt ' (GNH), based on Buddhist spiritual values.

Buddha's teachings to laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. The Buddha considered the creation of wealth to be praiseworthy, so long as it was done morally,^[132] in accordance with right livelihood, one of the elements of the Asil sakkizta yo'l, and which refers to making one's living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol or flesh) or through lying, stealing or deceit.^[133]

The Sigalovada Sutta states that a master should look after servants and employees by: "(1) by assigning them work according to their ability, (2) by supplying them with food and with wages, (3) by tending them in sickness, (4) by sharing with them any delicacies, (5) by granting them leave at times" (Digha Nikaya 31). Early Buddhist texts see success in work as aided by one's spiritual and moral qualities.

In the Adiya Sutta the Buddha also outlined several ways in which people could put their 'righteously gained' wealth to use:^[134]

1. Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to themselves, their mother & father, their children, spouse, slaves, servants, & assistants.
2. Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to their friends and associates.
3. Warding off calamities coming from fire, flood, kings, thieves, or hateful heirs, and keeps himself safe.
4. Performs five oblations/offerings: to relatives, guests, the dead, kings, & devas.
5. Giving of offerings to priests (brahmins ) and contemplatives (monks).

The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence the practice of donating and charity are central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth: "If beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift."^[135] The modern growth of Buddizm has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include Buddistlarning global yordami, Lotus Outreach, Buddistlarning tinchlik do'stligi, Piyarra Kutta, Xalqaro jalb qilingan buddistlar tarmog'i, The Tzu Chi Foundation, Nonviolent Peaceforce, and Zen tinchlikparvarlari.

Buddhist texts promote the building of public works which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist Kings like Ashoka are used as an example of lay people who promoted the public welfare by building hospitals and parks for the people. The Buddha's chief lay disciple, the rich merchant Anatapindika (‘Feeder of the Poor’) is also another example of a virtuous layperson who donated much of his wealth for the benefit of others and was thus known as the "foremost disciple in generosity". Early Buddhist texts do not disparage merchants and trade, but instead promote enterprise as long as it is done ethically and leads to the well-being of the community. The gold standard for rulers in Buddhism is the ideal wheel turning king, the Chakravartin. A Chakravartin is said to rule justly, giving to the needy and combating poverty so as to prevent social unrest. A Chakravartin does not fight wars for gain but only in defense of the kingdom, he accepts immigrants and refugees, and builds hospitals, parks, hostels, wells, canals and rest houses for the people and animals.^[136] Mahayana buddizmi maintains that lay Bodhisattvas should engage in social welfare activities for the good and safety of others.^[137] In the lands of Southern Buddhism, Buddhist monasteries often became places were the poor, destitute, orphaned, elderly can take shelter. Monasteries often provided education and took care of the sick, and therefore are also centers of social welfare for the poor.

Robert Turman, in his discussion of Nagarjuna "s Precious Garland Ratnavali sees the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as politically supporting ‘a ijtimoiy davlat ...a rule of compassionate sotsializm ’.^[138] Taniqli Buddhist socialists o'z ichiga oladi 14-Dalay Lama, Buddhada, B. R. Ambedkar, U Nu, Girō Seno’o and Lin Qiuwu.^[139] Others such as Neville Karunatilake, E. F. Shumaxer, Padmasiri De Silva, Prayud Payutto va Sulak Sivaraksa have promoted a Buddist iqtisodiyot that does not necessarily define itself as socialist but still offers a critique of modern iste'mol kapitalizmi. E. F. Shumaxer in his "Buddhist economics" (1973) wrote: "Buddhist economics must be very different from the economics of modern materialism, since the Buddhist sees the essence of civilisation not in a multiplication of human wants but in the purification of human character."

While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires and hence Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of iste'molga qarshi kurash va oddiy hayot. Uning ichida Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place, Prayud Payutto writes that consumption is only a means to an end which is 'development of human potential' and 'well being within the individual, within society and within the environment'. From a Buddhist perspective then, 'Right consumption' is based on farovonlik while 'wrong consumption' is the need to 'satisfy the desire for pleasing sensations or ego-gratification'.^[140] Xuddi shunday, Sulak Sivaraksa argues that "the religion of iste'molchilik emphasizes greed, hatred and delusion" which causes anxiety and that this must be countered with an ethic of satisfaction^[141] Modern attempts to practice Buddhist economics can be seen in the Sarvodaya Shramadana harakati va Yalpi milliy baxt economics of Bhutan.

While Buddhism encourages wealth gained ethically,^[132] it sees greed and craving for riches as negative, and praises contentment as 'the greatest wealth'. Qashshoqlik and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic necessities and peace of mind. For laypeople, Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life in which one is always seeking to enrich oneself and to buy more things.^[142] For Buddhist laypersons then, to be Buddhist does not mean to reject all material things, but, according to Sizemore and Swearer: "it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be non-attached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike." ^[143]

Shuningdek qarang

• Buddist monastirizm
• Buddizm madaniyati
• Sakkizta amr
• Besh amr
• Forgiveness § Buddhism
• Sakka-kiriya
• Uchta qochqin
• Uch tomonlama trening

Iqtiboslar

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar

• Sla va Samadhi, Surendranat Dasgupta, 1940 yil
• Hind va Tibet buddizmidagi axloq qoidalari
• Sila Buddist Entsiklopediyada tushuntirilganidek.