Xizmat (buddizm) - Merit (Buddhism) - Wikipedia

Hinduizmda fazilat tushunchasi uchun qarang Punya (hinduizm).

Loyiha, kamsitilish va uning shaxs darajasidagi javoblari. Spiro asosida.[1]

Xizmat (Sanskritcha: puṇya, Pali: puña) uchun asosiy deb hisoblangan tushuncha Buddist axloq qoidalari. Bu yaxshi ishlar, xatti-harakatlar yoki fikrlar natijasida to'planadigan foydali va himoya kuchdir. Xizmat ko'rsatish buddistlik amaliyoti uchun muhimdir: xizmat yaxshi va ma'qul natijalarni beradi, sifatini belgilaydi keyingi hayot va insonning o'sishiga hissa qo'shadi ma'rifat. Bundan tashqari, marhumning yangi hayotida ularga yordam berish uchun, qadr-qimmati vafot etgan yaqinlari bilan bo'lishiladi. Shunga qaramay modernizatsiya, qadr-qimmatga erishish an'anaviy buddist mamlakatlarida muhim bo'lib qolmoqda va ushbu mamlakatlarning qishloq xo'jaligiga sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatdi.

Merit tushunchalari bilan bog'liq tozalik va yaxshilik. Buddaviylikdan oldin, fazilat nisbatan ishlatilgan ajdodlarga sig'inish, ammo buddizmda u yanada umumiy axloqiy ma'noga ega bo'ldi. Savob - bu qilingan yaxshi ishlar natijasida yuzaga keladigan kuch; u inson hayotidagi yaxshi sharoitlarni jalb qilishga, shuningdek, uning ongi va ichki farovonligini yaxshilashga qodir. Bundan tashqari, bu kelgusi hayotga ham ta'sir qiladi inson qayta tug'ilgan joy. Xizmatning teskarisi kamchilik (papa) va loyiqlik kamchiliklarni susaytirishi mumkin deb ishoniladi. Darhaqiqat, qadr-qimmat, hatto yo'l bilan bog'langan Nirvana o'zi, ammo ko'plab olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, bu faqat ba'zi bir xizmat turlariga tegishli.

Maqsadni bir qator usullar bilan olish mumkin, masalan berib, fazilat va aqliy rivojlanish. Bundan tashqari, tavsiflangan maqtovga sazovor bo'lishning ko'plab shakllari mavjud qadimiy buddaviy matnlar. O'xshash tushunchasi kusala (Sanskritcha: kusala) ham ma'lum, bu ba'zi bir tafsilotlarda loyiqlikdan farq qiladi. Xizmat ko'rsatishning eng samarali shakli - bu amalga oshirilgan xayrli ishlardir Uch marvarid, ya'ni Budda, uning ta'limoti, Dhamma (Sanskritcha: Dharma), va Sangha. Buddaviy jamiyatlarda qadr-qimmatga erishish bilan bog'liq turli xil amaliyotlar asrlar davomida o'sib borgan, ba'zan esa katta fidoyilikni o'z ichiga olgan. Meritning bir qismi bo'ldi marosimlar, kundalik va haftalik amaliyot va festivallar. Bundan tashqari, ning keng tarqalgan odati mavjud xizmatni o'tkazish vafot etgan qarindoshlariga, kelib chiqishi hali ham ilmiy munozaralarga sabab bo'ladi. Buddist jamiyatlarda qadr-qimmat shu qadar muhim edi, bu qirollik ko'pincha edi qonuniylashtirilgan u orqali va hali ham shunday.

Zamonaviy jamiyatda merit qilish materialist sifatida tanqid qilingan, ammo savob topish ko'plab jamiyatlarda hamma joyda uchraydi. E'tiqodlarning qadr-qimmatga ega bo'lishiga ta'siri haqidagi misollarni ko'rish mumkin Phu Mi Bun so'nggi asrlarda sodir bo'lgan isyonlar, shuningdek, savobga loyiqlikning ba'zi shakllarini tiklashda, masalan, ko'p muhokama qilingan xizmatni ozod qilish.

Ta'rif

Ning tarjimalari
Xizmat
Sanskritchapuṇya
Palipuña
Birmaကောင်းမှု
(IPA:[káʊ̃ m̥ṵ])
Xitoy功德
(Pinyin: gōng dé)
Yaponく ど く
(rōmaji: kudoku)
Laosບຸນ (bulochka)
Tibetབསོད་ ནམས
(bsod nomlari)
Tailandchaบุญ [būn]
(RTGS: bulka)
Buddaviylik lug'ati

Punya so'zma-so'z "tarjima, munosib harakat, fazilat" deb tarjima qilinadi.[2] Bu porloq Theravada Sharhlovchi Dhammapala kabi "santanaṃ punāti visodheti", bu" hayotning davomiyligini tozalaydi yoki tozalaydi "degan ma'noni anglatadi.[3][4] Uning qarama-qarshi tomonlari apunya (kamchilik) yoki pafa ('bepusht, bepusht, zararli, omad keltirmaydigan'),[2][4][5] bu muddat pafa eng keng tarqalgan bo'lib qoldi.[3] Atama savob, dastlab yahudiy-nasroniy atamasi, yigirmanchi asrning ikkinchi qismida asta-sekin Buddizm atamasining tarjimasi sifatida ishlatilgan puṇya yoki puña.[6] Buddizm atamasi ingliz tilidagi tarjimasi nazarda tutganidan ko'ra ko'proq doimiy xarakterga ega,[7] va buddistlar atamasi tuyg'uni anglatmaydi munosib.[8][9]

Buddizm vujudga kelguniga qadar, xizmat odatda kontekstda ishlatilgan Braxmancha qurbonlik, va bunday qurbonlik bilan topilgan xizmat sadoqatni abadiy osmonga olib chiqadi deb ishonishgan. "otalar" (Sanskritcha: pitṛ, pitara).[10][11][12] Keyinchalik, davrida Upanishadlar, qayta tug'ilish kontseptsiyasi yaratildi va osmondagi hayot avvalgi hayotda to'plangan fazilat bilan belgilanadi, deb ishonishgan,[13][11][12] lekin diqqat markazida pitṛ haqiqatan ham o'zgarmadi.[10] Buddizmda abadiy osmon g'oyasi rad etilgan, ammo loyiqlik vaqtinchalik osmonda qayta tug'ilishga yordam berishi mumkinligiga ishonishgan.[11] Merit endi faqat marosimlarning samarasi emas, balki axloqiy ma'no va rol bilan sarmoyalangan.[14][15]

In Tipṭaka (Sanskritcha: Tripitaka; buddist yozuvlari), loyiqlikning ahamiyati ko'pincha ta'kidlanadi. Xizmat, odatda buddistlarning deyarli barcha an'analarida buddist axloqi uchun asosiy hisoblanadi.[5][16][17] Maqsadga erishish buddistlik jamiyatlarida buddaviy amaliyoti uchun juda muhimdir.[18][19][20]

Qadr - bu "uzoq vaqtga cho'ziladigan foydali va himoya qiluvchi kuch" (B.J. Terviel) - va xayrli ishlarning ta'siri (Pali: kamma, Sanskritcha: karma) jismoniy harakatlar, so'zlar yoki fikrlar orqali amalga oshiriladi.[21][22][23] Uning kabi Pali tili (Shri-Lanka, Tailand, Myanma va boshqalarda qo'llanilgan Theravada Buddizm tili) ta'rifi shuni ko'rsatadiki, bu kuch ezgulik va poklik bilan bog'liq.[24] An'anaviy buddistlik jamiyatlarida, sehrli marosimlar, ruhga sig'inish yoki dunyoviy kuchga qaraganda savobliroq barqarorroq ekanligiga ishonishadi.[25] Maqsadning ishlash usuli shundan iboratki, qadr-qimmat amallari yaxshi va ma'qul natijalarni beradi, aksincha, past harakatlar yomon va kelishmovchilik natijalarini beradi. Ikkalasining aralashmasi inson hayotida aralash natijalarni keltirib chiqaradi. Bu karmik yozishmalar (Pali: kamma-sarikxata) yoki "avtomatik kosmik reaktsiya" (Brokaw) - bu keng tarqalgan fikr Buddist matnlar va buddistlik jamiyatlari,[19][26] va nima uchun odamlar turli xil va turli xil hayot kechirishlarini ko'p jihatdan tushuntiradi.[18][27] Karma o'zini o'zi tartibga soladi va tabiiydir: u ilohiy aralashuvisiz ishlaydi va inson niyati uning uchun muhimdir.[8][6][28] Ichki tomondan, qadr-qimmat aqlni baxtli va ezgu qiladi.[29][30][31] Tashqi tomondan, hozirgi yaxshi sharoitlar, masalan, uzoq umr, sog'liq va boylik, shuningdek, kimningdir tug'ma xarakteri va qobiliyatlari o'tmishda qilingan xizmatlardan va aksincha, kamchiliklar bilan yuzaga keladi.[21][32][33] Biror kishining qilgan afzalliklari va kamchiliklari meva berish uchun biroz vaqt talab qilishi mumkin.[34] Maqsad yoki kamchilik kelajakka, shu jumladan keyingi hayotda ham yaxshi yoki yomon kelajakka olib kelishi mumkin.[6][32] Qayta tug'ilishdan keyin yomon manzil tanazzulga sabab bo'lishi mumkin, ammo shunchaki xizmatning etishmasligi odamni baxtsiz joyda tug'ilishiga olib kelishi mumkin.[35] Biror kishi baxtli manzilda qayta tug'ilganida, u erda faqat qadr-qimmati davom etguncha qolish mumkin.[36] Shunday qilib, Typeṭaka-da, odamlar o'lganlarida o'zlari bilan hech narsa ololmasliklari, faqat ularning kelajagiga ta'sir qiladigan har qanday xizmatlari va kamchiliklari bundan mustasno.[37][38][39] Xizmat turli xil miqdorda to'planishi va saqlanishi mumkin, ammo doimiy xarakterga ega: u tugashi mumkin.[22][40][41] Buddist matnidan xulosa chiqarish Milinda Paña, ba'zi olimlar xulosa xulosaga ko'ra mohiyat nuqsondan ko'ra kuchliroq degan xulosaga kelishadi.[42][43] Bundan tashqari, ko'pgina fazilatlar birgalikda kamchiliklarni "navbatning orqasiga" surish orqali ularni oldini olishga qodir (Richard Gombrich ), ammo kamchiliklarni hech qachon qaytarib bo'lmaydi.[44][45][46]

Ushbu barcha afzalliklar (Pali: anisaṁsa; Sanskritcha: anuśaṁsa), ichki yoki tashqi bo'lsin, savobga erishishga qaratilgan va ko'pincha Dharma ta'limotlari va matnlari mavzusidir.[47][48] Shunday qilib, qadr-qimmat kelajakdagi samoviy baxtning asosidir,[2] va ba'zi mamlakatlarda bu xizmat mamlakatning omadiga hissa qo'shadi deb hisoblangan.[49][50] Meritning bu juda ko'p foydali ta'sirga ega ekanligi tushunilganligi sababli, ba'zida u quyiladigan yoki cho'milayotgan salqin suv bilan taqqoslanadi. Ushbu belgi, masalan, xizmatni topshirish marosimlarida ishlatiladi.[51][52]

An'anaviy matnlardagi munozara

Umumiy

Merit nafaqat tushuncha, balki hayot tarzidir.[53] The Pali kanoni loyiqlikning uchta asosini aniqlaydi (puññakiriyā-vattu),[2][38][39] qiyinchiliklar tartibida:[54][eslatma 1]

  • berib (dana-maya)
  • fazilat (sla-maya)
  • aqliy rivojlanish (bhāvanā-maya)

Buddaviy matnlarda va amaliyotda, berish loyiqlikning uchta asosidan eng osoni deb hisoblanadi.[56] Bu xudbinlikni engishga yordam beradi va aqlni tinchlantiradi; u ezgulik amaliyotiga aqlni tayyorlaydi.[17] Odamlar bergan narsalarini qaytarib beradigan qayta tug'ilish mavjudligini hisobga olgan holda, bu tejashning bir shakli sifatida qaraladi.[57] Yaxshilikka kelsak, bu sakkiz tomonning uchtasini o'z ichiga oladi sakkiz qavatli yo'l, Buddist ta'limotida markaziy yo'l: to'g'ri nutq, to'g'ri harakat va to'g'ri hayot. Buddizmda axloqiy xulq-atvorning asosiy mezoni bo'lgan fazilat asosan majburiyatlarni bajarishga bog'liqdir beshta amr,[17][58] bo'lsa-da sakkizta amr hozir va keyin saqlanishi mumkin.[59] Besh amr buddistlik marosimlarining bir qismidir va shu bilan birga amaliyotchining kuchli va sog'lom bo'lishiga yordam beradi.[17][60][61] Uch fazilat asoslarini qo'llashning afzalliklari, shuningdek, baxtning uch shakli sifatida umumlashtiriladi (Pali: sampatti) - inson sifatida baxt, jannatda baxt va Nirvanada baxt.[62] Odamlar vafot etganda, ular qaysi dunyoda qayta tug'ilishlari, ushbu uchta fazilat asoslarini qanchalik intensiv ravishda bajarishiga bog'liq. Biroq, faqat ruhiy rivojlanish kimnidir osmon olamiga yoki Nirvanaga olib borishi mumkin.[63]

Monk on almsround
Berish xudbinlikni engishga yordam beradi va ongni harakatsiz qiladi; u ezgulik amaliyotiga aqlni tayyorlaydi.[17]

Post-kanonik matnlar va sharhlar[2-eslatma] kabi Dhammasaṅganī va Atasalin,[64][65] fazilatning uchta asosini batafsil bayon etib, buni ta'kidlang bag'ishlanganlar o'nta amalni bajarish orqali savobga erishishi mumkin. Ettita narsa avvalgi uchta qismga qo'shiladi:

  • Berib (Dana-maya)
  • Fazilat (Sla-maya)
  • Aqliy rivojlanish (Bvanava-maya)
  • Boshqalarni hurmat qilish (Apakayana-maya)
  • Xizmatni taklif qilish (Veyyavaka-maya)
  • Xizmatni boshqalarga bag'ishlash (yoki o'tkazish) (Pali:Pattidana-maya; Sanskritcha: puṇyapariṇāmanā)
  • Boshqalarning xizmatidan xursand bo'lish (Pattanumodanā-maya)
  • Buddaning ta'limotlarini tinglash (Dhammassavana-maya)
  • Buddaning ta'limotlarida boshqalarga ko'rsatma berish (Dammadesana-maya)
  • Buddaning ta'limotiga muvofiq o'z qarashlarini to'g'rilash (Dihujukamma)[2][64][66]

Bu o'n kishi, sharhlovchi Buddaxosa Ularning barchasi birinchi uchta loyihaning asoslariga to'g'ri keladi: "berish" o'z ichiga "fazilatni boshqalarga o'tkazish" va "boshqalarning xizmatidan xursand bo'lish" bilan kengayadi, "fazilat" esa "boshqalarni hurmat qilish" va "xizmatni taklif qilish" ni o'z ichiga oladi. Qolgan 'Ta'limlarni tinglash', 'Ta'limlarda boshqalarga ko'rsatma berish' va 'O'z qarashlarini to'g'rilash' moddalari 'Aqliy rivojlanish' ning bir qismidir.[64] Shunday qilib, Theravada buddizmida qadr-qimmat har doim axloqiy (yaxshi) harakatlar orqali topiladi. Bunday xayrli ishlar Buddistlarning qolgan ikkita maktabida, ya'ni Mahayana (Xitoy, Yaponiya va boshqalar) da yuqori baholanadi. Vajrayana (Tibet, Nepal va boshqalar). Mahayana ba'zi shakllarida yoki Vajrayana ammo, ba'zi marosim harakatlaridan, hatto "muborak moddalarning kuchi" deb nomlangan, bundan ham ko'proq savob olinadi deb ishoniladi. (Standart Tibet: rdzas). Ular an'anaviy ro'yxatga qo'shimcha sifatida qaraladi va yomon karma tufayli kelib chiqadigan falokatlardan yoki boshqa salbiy hodisalardan himoya qilishga yordam beradi.[16][67]

Bir qator olimlar fazilat va karma tushunchalarini amoral, egoist va hisoblovchi deb tanqid qilib, uning miqdoriy xususiyatini va axloqni kuzatishda shaxsiy manfaatlarga e'tibor berishini ta'kidladilar.[47][68][69] Boshqa olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, buddizm axloqshunosligida egoizm va alturizm g'arb fikrida bo'lgani kabi qat'iy ravishda ajralib turishi mumkin emas, shaxsiy manfaat, ikkinchisining foydasi esa amaliyotchi ma'naviy yo'lda ilgarilayotganda.[70][71][72] Buddist axloqshunoslik Buddist metafizikasi tomonidan ma'lum qilinadi, xususan o'z-o'zini emas doktrinasi va shuning uchun ba'zi g'arbiy axloqiy tushunchalar qo'llanilmasligi mumkin.[72] Bundan tashqari, Keown ta'kidlaganidek, Buddaning o'zi misolida ko'rsatilgandek, agar undan oldin boshqalar uchun axloqiy g'amxo'rlik bo'lmasa, axloqiy harakatlar mumkin emas edi. Bunday axloqiy tashvish, shuningdek, buddistlik yo'lining bir qismidir mehribonlik va boshqa yuksak munosabat (Pali: brahamavihara).[73]

Monks receiving alms
Merit - bu "uzoq vaqtga cho'ziladigan foydali va himoya qiluvchi kuch" (Terviyel) - va bu xayrli ishlarning samarasidir.[21]

Yig'ish va meva

Post-kanonik va xalq tilidagi Pali adabiyotida, masalan Jataka Buddaning oldingi hayoti haqidagi hikoyalar, Avadanalar va Anisaṃsa matnlari, shuningdek, ko'plab Mahayana matnlarida asosiy tushunchadir. U erishish jarayonida turli xil hayot davomida to'planishi mumkin bo'lgan narsa sifatida qaraladi Buddaviylik, shuningdek, unga erishishda muhim ahamiyatga ega. The Bodhisatta Buddavlatni amalga oshirish va boshqa jonzotlarni azob ummoni orqali olib o'tish niyatida har xil fazilatlarni to'plash orqali buni amalga oshirish kerak, shu nuqtai nazardan mukammalliklar (Pali: pāramī; Sanskritcha: pāramitā). Xizmat ko'rsatishning ushbu shakli har doim a tomonidan boshqariladi ma'rifat uchun qasam (Pali: panidhona; Sanskritcha: pridhana) va boshqalarni ham ma'rifat qilish niyatida, shuningdek, barcha tirik mavjudotlarga fazilatlarni topshirish.[74][75][76] Keyingi adabiyotlarda ko'proq ta'kidlangan savobli ishlarning yana bir jihati shundaki, qilingan bitta savobli harakat ko'plab mevalarni yig'adi, masalan, Vimanavatthu. Odamlarning keyingi tug'ilish sifatiga nafaqat ularning xizmatlari ta'sir qiladi, balki ular qayta tug'ilish holatlari ham ta'sir qiladi; nafaqat keyingi hayotda, balki undan keyingi qo'shni hayotda ham. Boylik, umr ko'rish va mavqe - barchasi loyiqlikka bog'liq.[32][33]

Buddist matnlarda qo'shimcha tafsilotlar, savobli ish qanday yo'l bilan va qay darajada natijaga olib kelishi haqida keltirilgan: bu oluvchining ruhiy sifatiga, beruvchining ruhiy munosabatiga, bergan uslubiga va berilgan narsaga bog'liq.[77][43][66] Agar oluvchi inson bo'lsa, sovg'a hayvonga qaraganda ko'proq meva beradi, lekin a uchun sovg'a sāmaṇera (yosh rohib), rohib, ko'plab rohiblar va Budda ortib boradigan tartibda yanada ko'proq meva beradi.[78][79] Agar beruvchini ochko'zlik yoki boshqa sabab bo'lsa aqlning buzilishi Qabul qilingan mukofot, agar unga mehr-shafqat yoki boshqa ezgu niyatlar sabab bo'lsa, unchalik kam bo'ladi.[80] Hatto jannatga borish niyati ham, o'z-o'zidan noto'g'ri deb hisoblanmasa ham, ongni rivojlantirish va poklashni istash kabi yuksak ko'rinmaydi. Agar oluvchi ruhan "sovg'aga loyiq emas" bo'lsa, sovg'a beruvchining niyati yaxshi bo'lgan taqdirda ham sovg'a bo'ladi va bu aksincha ham amal qiladi.[81][82] Yaxshi ish qilinganidan keyin ham yaxshi fikrlar saqlanib turishi kerak, chunki sovg'aga afsuslanish ham savobni pasaytiradi.[83] Beruvchining ma'lum bir xohish yoki niyatni aytishi ham savob ishiga ta'sir qiladi, chunki savob kuchi ma'lum maqsadga yo'naltirilishi mumkin.[84][85][86][3-eslatma] Odamlarning berish uslubi ham muhimdir: kimdir hurmat bilan beradimi yoki yo'qmi, kimgadir berish orqali birovga zarar etkazadimi. Sovg'aning kattaligiga kelsak, kattaroq sovg'a kichikroqdan ko'ra ko'proq savobli bo'ladi, ammo qalbning pokligi sovg'aga qaraganda ko'proq sovg'aga ta'sir qiladi.[87] Shuning uchun imkoningiz boricha ko'proq va kam bo'lmagan miqdorda berish tavsiya etiladi.[88] Kimga va qanday berishni tanlashda bunday g'amxo'rlik, "munosib mahoratli" deb nomlanadi (Pali: puññassa kovidā).[89]

Punya, kusala va Nirvana

Shuningdek qarang: Nirvana (buddizm)

Ikkala Mayaanda ham mavjud bo'lgan ta'limot stralar va Theravadin suttalar - bu harakatning o'nta foydali usuli ()Pali: kusaladhamma). Maxayanada ushbu ta'lim a Bodhisattva "azoblanishning oldini oladi yovuz taqdirlar Ushbu o'nta foydali usul:

  • Hayotni olib qo'yishdan voz kechgan holda, amaliyotchi mashaqqatlardan xalos bo'ladi;
  • O'g'irlikdan voz kechib, amaliyotchi iqtisodiy, ijtimoiy va ma'naviy jihatdan hayotda xavfsizlikni topadi;
  • Noqonuniy (jinsiy) xatti-harakatlardan voz kechishda amaliyotchi oilaviy hayotda ichki tinchlik va xotirjamlikni topadi;
  • Yolg'onchilardan voz kechib, amaliyotchi nutq va ong pokligiga erishadi;
  • Tuhmatdan voz kechishda amaliyotchi ijtimoiy va ma'naviy himoyalanadi;
  • Qattiq so'zlardan voz kechishda amaliyotchining so'zlari samaraliroq bo'ladi;
  • Yengil gaplardan voz kechishda amaliyotchi dono va obro'li bo'ladi;
  • Nafsdan voz kechish bilan shug'ullanuvchi, mamnuniyat va soddalik orqali hayotda erkinlikni topadi;
  • Nafratdan voz kechishda amaliyotchi mehribonlik va yumshoqlikni rivojlantiradi;
  • Noto'g'ri qarashlardan voz kechishda amaliyotchi yaxshi va ma'naviy yo'lda adashmaydi.[90][91]

Ushbu o'nta harakatlar quyidagicha tavsiflanadi akusala ("zararli"; Sanskritcha: akuśala), va ulardan voz kechganda deyiladi kusala ("foydali"; Sanskritcha: kuśala).[92][4-eslatma] Bundan tashqari, kusala va akusala "ildizlar" sifatida tasvirlangan (mūla). Akusalamūla ongdagi yovuzlikning ildizlari ( nopokliklar ), holbuki kusalamūla aqlning yaxshi fazilatlari bilan bog'liq bo'lgan ildizlardir. Ularning ikkalasi ham chaqiriladi ildizlar chunki ular ongda o'stirilishi va o'sishi mumkin bo'lgan fazilatlardir.[94][95]

Punya va pafa ma'nosiga yaqin kusala va akusala. Ikkala juftlik axloqiy jihatdan yomonni ajratish uchun ishlatiladi. Biroq, salbiy bo'lsa ham akusala va pafa deyarli bir xil ma'noga ega, ijobiy tomonlari orasida ba'zi farqlar mavjud, kusala va puña. Ga binoan P. D. Premasiri, Kusala to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yo'lni tavsiflash uchun ishlatiladi Nirvana dan puña.[96][97] Damien Keown Biroq, ular bir xil tushunchaning turli xil burchaklari ekanligiga ishonishadi: kusala harakatning axloqiy holatiga ishora qiladi, aksincha puña harakat oqibatlari tajribasiga ishora qiladi.[98] U yana Polida ta'kidlagan suttalar (nutqlar) aqliy rivojlanish (bhāvanā) meditatsiya kabi amaliyotlar ham loyiq yo'lga kiritilgan. Typeṭaka meditatsiyasida Nirvana uchun bilvosita yo'l yoki to'siq sifatida qaralishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas,[99][100] va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Nirvana bilan bog'liq bo'lgan qismlar mavjud.[101][102] Ba'zan dunyoviylik o'rtasida farq qilinadi (Pali: lokīya) va transandantal (Pali: lokuttara) faqat transandantal xizmatlar ozodlikka olib boradigan xizmat.[103][104] Tailand olimi va monastiri Phra Payutto bunga ishonadi savob va kusala ikkalasi ham "aqlning pokligi" ni tavsiflash uchun ishlatiladi (RTGS: xwam sa-at mot chot). Ammo shu bilan birga savob "go'zal va maqtovga loyiq" (RTGS: suai-ngam na chuenchom) boylik, maqtov va baxt kabi dunyoviy foydalarga ega bo'lgan bunday poklikning tomoni; kusala "poklik" ga qaratilgan (RTGS: borisut) poklik jihati, uning foydasi ma'rifatdir. Phra Payutto, ikkalasini ham buddistlik yo'lida to'plash kerakligini qo'shimcha qiladi. Ushbu taqqoslashni amalga oshirayotganda, uning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu transandantal xizmat uchun emas, balki faqat dunyoviy xizmatga tegishli. Kollinz transsendental xizmatni tenglashtiradi kusala.[105][106] Avvalgi Pali matnlarida, kusala ga qaraganda ancha kengroq ishlatilgan puña, puña asosan berish amaliyoti doirasida ishlatiladi.[107]

Keng tarqalgan nazariyada Melford Spiro va Uinston King an'anaviy buddaviylik jamiyatlarida mavjud bo'lgan buddizmning ikkita shaklini ajratdilar, "kammatik buddizm" xizmatlarni qadrlash kabi faoliyatga va azoblanish va qayta tug'ilishdan xalos bo'lishga qaratilgan "nibbanik buddizm".[108] "Transsendensiya tezisi" (Keown) deb nomlangan ushbu nazariyada buddizmning ikkita alohida maqsadi bor, ularni alohida guruhlar, ya'ni oddiy odamlar (kammatistlar) va rohiblar (nibbaniklar) izlaydilar. Ammo bu fikr boshqa ko'plab olimlar tomonidan kamsitilgan yoki tanqid qilingan, chunki kammatika amaliyotlari ko'p jihatdan nibbanik amaliyotlar bilan bog'liq va rohiblar va oddiy odamlarning maqsadlarini bu qadar oson ajratib bo'lmaydi.[109][110][111]

Ushbu transsendensiya tezisi, shuningdek, Muqaddas Kitob talqinida qo'llanilgan. Nirvanaga erishish yo'lini muhokama qilayotganda, Tipakakaning ba'zi qismlarida rad etilgan. Masalan, Padhana Sutta-da Bodhisatta (Budda Gotama bo'lishi kerak) tomonidan vasvasaga solingan Mara undan voz kechish o'z-o'zini qiynoqqa solish Buning o'rniga munosib xatti-harakatlar qilish amaliyoti. The Bodhisatta ozgina bo'lsa ham savob unga foydasi yo'q deb javob beradi (Pali: "anumattenāpi puññena attho mayhaṃ na vijjati"). Transendendensiya tezisini qo'llab-quvvatlagan ba'zi olimlar, buni faqatgina xizmat ichida baxt va taraqqiyotga olib kelishi mumkin degan ma'noni anglatadi. Sa'sara, lekin Nirvanaga olib kelmaydi va aslida Nirvanaga erishishdan oldin tashlab yuborilishi kerak.[112][113][114] Marasinghe, ammo bu so'zga ishonadi savob ushbu parchada buddaviygacha bo'lgan braxmanizm ma'nosida marosimlar va qurbonliklar va oddiy hayot bilan bog'liq bo'lgan xizmat haqida so'z boradi.[115] Ushbu kontekstda tez-tez keltirilgan yana bir misol salga o'xshatish, bu ikkalasi ham ta'kidlaydi dhamma va adhamma ozodlikka erishish uchun qo'yib yuborilishi kerak. Muddat esa adhamma matnda yovuz qarashlarga, ma'nosiga aniq ishora qiladi dhamma turli xil talqinlarga bo'ysunadi. Typeṭaka-da shunga o'xshash boshqa biron bir parcha topilmasligini hisobga olib, Keown transendendensiya tezisini asoslash uchun faqat shu parcha etarli emas deb hisoblaydi.[116]

Pali kanonida, an ma'rifatli kishi karma nuqtai nazaridan neytral deyiladi, ya'ni odam endi karma, loyiqlik yoki kamchilikni keltirib chiqarmaydi.[5][117][118] Ba'zi olimlar buni ma'rifatparvar kishi yaxshilik va yomonlik o'rtasidagi farqlar mavjud bo'lmaydigan holatga erishadi, deb talqin qilishgan. Boshqa olimlar, Buddaning odatda axloqni qanday ta'kidlashini hisobga olib, buni mantiqsiz deb tanqid qildilar. Ma'rifatli odamning karma nuqtai nazaridan betaraf bo'lishi, u degani emas axloqiy jihatdan neytral.[119][120] Darhaqiqat, Buddaning "Tipakaka" da keltirilgan so'zlariga ko'ra u "yuqori axloq" da birinchi o'rinda turadi (adhisīla).[121] Keown bu muammoni engib o'tishga intilib, ma'rifatparvar insonlar xayrli ishlarning tajribasidan tashqarida bo'lishini taklif qilishadi (savob, puña), chunki ular allaqachon takomillashgan. Shuning uchun ularga yaxshilik va natijada baxtni yig'ish kerak emas. Ular endi keyingi hayotda baxtli qayta tug'ilishga intilishlari shart emas, chunki ular qayta tug'ilish doirasidan chiqib ketishdi. Ularning ma'rifati, ammo axloqiy mukammallik, shuningdek, bu faqat ta'riflangan bo'lsa-da kusalakabi emas puña.[122][123][124]

Xizmat sohasi

a farming field
Loyiha sohasining asosiy kontseptsiyasi shundaki, ba'zi oluvchilarga qilingan yaxshiliklar boshqa oluvchilarga nisbatan ko'proq yaxshiliklarni keltirib chiqaradi. Bu unumdor erga qaraganda ko'proq va yaxshi mevalar yig'adigan serhosil erga ekilgan urug' bilan taqqoslanadi.[49][125]

Buddizmgacha bo'lgan braxmanizmda braxman ruhoniylari qatnashgan yajñas (qurbonliklar) va shu bilan qurbonlik uchun sovg'alar bergan donorlar uchun munosib xizmat ko'rsatish. Buddizmda aynan buddist rohib bu rolni o'z zimmasiga oldi, sadoqatli kishilardan saxiylik olishga va shu bilan ularga munosib xizmat ko'rsatishga qodir deb hisobladi. U shunday tasvirlangan ahuneyyo ("qurbonlikka loyiq"), brahmancha atamaga o'xshash ahavanya ("qurbonlikka loyiq", marosimdagi olovga qurbonlik keltirishda ishlatiladi); va kabi dakkhiṇeyyo ("qurbonlikni qabul qilishga qodir"), brahmanikka o'xshash dakśiṇā, qurbonlikning o'zi.[126][127][128] Sangha (monastirlar jamoasi) ham tasvirlangan "xizmat sohasi" (Pali: punchakhetta; Sanskritcha: puṇyakṣetra).[129][130][131] Braxmanizm an'analaridan farqi, Marasinghega ko'ra buddizm tan olgan edi boshqa Rohibga qurbonlik qilishdan tashqari, savob ishlab chiqarish usullari, brahmanik yajña faqat Braxman ruhoniyiga qurbonliklarni ta'kidladi. Bunday takliflar muhim bo'lmagan degani emas dastlabki buddizm: Sangxaga berish buddistlarning birinchi ishtiroki bo'lib, jamoat ishtirok etishiga imkon bergan va buddizmda birinchi marosimlardan oldin bo'lgan.[126]

Loyiha sohasining asosiy kontseptsiyasi shundaki, ba'zi oluvchilarga qilingan yaxshiliklar boshqa oluvchilarga nisbatan ko'proq yaxshiliklarni keltirib chiqaradi. Bu unumsiz erga qaraganda ko'proq va yaxshi mevalarni yig'adigan serhosil erga ekilgan urug' bilan taqqoslanadi.[49][125][132] Sangha savob sohasi sifatida tavsiflanadi, asosan Sangha a'zolari sakkiz barobar yo'lni bosib o'tishadi. Ammo ko'plab matnlarda Budda va Dhamma va ularning tasvirlari fazilat sohalari sifatida ham tasvirlangan. Masalan, Mahayana urf-odatlari Dharma matnlarini ishlab chiqarish va uni hurmat qilishni juda munosib deb hisoblaydi - bu an'anani ba'zan "kitobga sig'inish" deb ham atashadi (Gregori Shopen ), rag'batlantirildi Xitoyda bosib chiqarish texnologiyasining rivojlanishi.[133][134][135] Boshqa urf-odatlarda Budda tasviri ham fazilat sohasi deb hisoblanadi va Budda obrazi bilan bog'liq har qanday xayrli ish juda munosib hisoblanadi.[136][137] Savobli ish birovga (masalan, ota-onaga) minnatdorchilik bildirish uchun qilingan bo'lsa yoki azob chekayotganlarga rahm-shafqat bilan qilingan bo'lsa, juda qimmatga ega bo'ladi (va ba'zida fazilat sohasi nuqtai nazaridan ko'rib chiqiladi).[16][138][139] Umuman Sangha tomon qilingan savob ishlari (Pali: saṅgadāna) ma'lum bir oluvchiga qilingan ishlardan ko'ra ko'proq samaralar berish (Pali: pāṭipuggalikā dakkhiṇā) yoki favoritizm bilan qilingan ishlar.[77][66][140] Haqiqatdan ham, saṅgadāna Buddaning shaxsiga xizmat qilganidan ham ko'proq hosil beradi.[78][141]

Buddist jamiyatlarda amaliyot

Shunday qilib, buddistning hozirgi faoliyati haqidagi qarashlari yanada kengroq asosga ega, bular cheksiz uzoq davom etgan o'tmish, hozirgi va kelajakdagi qator voqealarning bir guruhi. Ular aytilganidek, shunchaki u yoki unga qarshi bo'lgan guvohlar poezdi emas, balki ulkan kuchning to'plangan kuchidagi bosqichdir. U va uning asarlari o'zaro bog'liqlikda, xuddi o'tgan ishlarda ota-onadan bolaga, kelajakdagi asarlarda ota-onadan bolaga o'xshashdir. Endi hech bir oddiy ona o'zining ijodiy salohiyatini qanday yoki qanday amalga oshirayotganiga befarq emas. Shuningdek, har qanday oddiy buddist o'z xatti-harakatlari, uning amaldagi va kelajakdagi fe'l-atvoriga qarab har soatda sodir bo'lganligi, baxtli yoki baxtsiz vorisga aylanayotganiga ahamiyat bera olmaydi va shuning uchun, qanday qilib yoki qaysi sohada ekanligiga aniq ishonmasdan. koinot u o'zining hozirgi vorisi, xudojo'y buddist, boshqa aqidalardagi taqvodor birodarlaridan kam bo'lmagan holda qayta tiklanadi, yaxshi ishlarga pul va kuch, vaqt va fikr berishni davom ettiradi va bundan hech narsa iloji yo'qligiga quvonch bilan ishonadi. uning ta'siridan voz keching, ammo bularning barchasi biron bir joyda, qandaydir tarzda, kelajakdagi baxtga erishish uchun - bu baxt-saodat, garchi u vaqtincha altruistik bo'lsa-da, uning kelajakdagi boyligi bo'lib xizmat qilishi mumkin bo'lgan loyiqlik yoki ijodiy salohiyatdir. u tabiiyki hozirgi o'ziga qaraganda unchalik qiziqmaydigan ba'zi kishilarga qaraganda. Uning fikriga ko'ra, hozir qilayotgan ishi tufayli, kimdir hozirda o'zi tomonidan aqliy ijod jarayonida va kelajakdagi "o'zini" barcha niyat va maqsadlar uchun bir kun kelib, hayot sinovlaridan ozmi yoki ko'pmi tatib ko'radi. Ushbu embrional belgi uchun u doimo uni yaratishi yoki buzishi bilan chambarchas bog'liq va shuning uchun u shuning uchun va shu sababli juda mas'uldir.

C. A. F. Rhys Devids, Buddist me'yorini o'rganish[142]

Xizmat ko'rsatish

Loyihaning o'nta asoslari Buddist mamlakatlarda juda mashhur.[65] Xitoyda boshqa shunga o'xshash ro'yxatlar ham tanilgan.[143][144] Yilda Tailand buddizmi, "xizmat" so'zi (RTGS: bulka) ko'pincha "qilish, qilish" (RTGS: hiyla), va bu ibora tez-tez ishlatiladi, ayniqsa berish bilan bog'liq.[145][146][147][5-eslatma] Buddaviy jamiyatlarda bunday savob ishi, ayniqsa rohiblar va ibodatxonalar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan savobli ishlar keng tarqalgan. Shu munosabat bilan Birmada "Sizning qo'llaringiz har doim xayr-ehson taklif qilishga yaqin" degan naql bor.[18][146][149] Ommabop tushunchalardan farqli o'laroq, xizmatni monastirlar ham, oddiy odamlar ham amalga oshiradilar.[150][151][152] Buddist rohiblar yoki oddiy buddistlar munosib pul topishadi ehtiyotkorlik, meditatsiya, ashula va boshqa marosimlar. Xayr-ehson qilish oddiy odamlar uchun xizmat qilishning asosiy usuli hisoblanadi, chunki rohiblarning o'zlari ovqat pishirishga ruxsat etilmaydi.[31] Monastirlar o'zlarini yaxshi savob sohasi deb bilishadi va donorlarga ta'lim berib, o'zlarini hurmat qilishadi. Shunday qilib, mukofotni yaratish a simbiyotik oddiy odamlar va Sangha o'rtasidagi munosabatlar,[77][66][153] va Sangha oddiy odamlar uchun munosib bo'lishlari shart, chunki ular o'zlarining xizmatlarini qilishlari uchun.[154]

Berish bir necha usulda amalga oshirilishi mumkin. Ba'zi oddiy odamlar oziq-ovqat taklif qiladilar, boshqalari kiyim va jihozlarni taklif qiladilar, boshqalari marosimlarni o'tkazadilar, monastirlar quradilar yoki qarindoshlarini rohib sifatida tayinlashga ishontiradilar. Yoshlar ko'pincha rohiblar sifatida vaqtincha tayinlanishadi, chunki ular bu nafaqat o'zlari uchun, balki ularga tayinlanishiga ruxsat bergan ota-onalari uchun ham katta xizmat mevalarini beradi, deb hisoblashadi.[155][156][157] Xitoy, Tailand va Hindistonda monastirga er yoki birinchi hosilni taklif qilish odatiy hol edi.[158][153][159] Bundan tashqari, kasalxonani yoki ko'prikni qurish yoki kambag'allarga yordam berish kabi ko'proq ijtimoiy yo'naltirilgan ishlar Tipṭaka-ga kiritilgan va ko'plab buddistlar bu xizmatni munosib deb hisoblashgan.[112][151][160] Tadqiqotchilar tomonidan olib borilgan dala ishlarida bag'ishlovchilar ma'bad qurilishini qo'llab-quvvatlash va xizmat ko'rsatishni afzal ko'rishdi.[157][161] Fisher ibodatxona qurishni bag'ishlovchilar katta yutuq deb hisoblashlarini aniqladilar, chunki ular bu ma'badda o'rgatiladigan barcha donoliklarga ega bo'lishlariga ishonishdi.[162] Odamlar turli sabablarga ko'ra munosib xizmat ko'rsatishga intilishlari mumkin, chunki buddist pravoslavligi dunyoviy yoki yakuniy turli xil ideallarga imkon beradi.[163] Garchi ko'plab olimlar ta'kidlashlaricha, fidoyilar ko'pincha savobga erishishda bu dunyoviy manfaatlarni ko'zlashadi,[164][165] qarilik davrida odamlar keyingi hayot va ozodlik nuqtai nazaridan munosib xizmat ko'rsatishga moyil ekanligi ham ta'kidlangan.[165][166] Oddiy odamlar orasida ayollar savob ishiga ko'proq erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ko'proq intilishadi va bu ularning rivojlanish yo'lidir kuchaytirish.[31][167][168] Ko'pincha, mukofotga erishish guruh bo'lib amalga oshiriladi va bunday umumiy xizmatga erishish keyingi hayotda odamlarning birgalikda tug'ilishiga sabab bo'ladi deb ishoniladi. Ushbu e'tiqod oilalar, do'stlar, jamoalar va hatto butun mamlakat uchun amal qiladi.[169][170] Ba'zi hollarda, xayriya ishlari jamoat miqyosidagi musobaqa shaklida bo'lib, unda turli xil donorlar o'zlarining saxiyligi va ijtimoiy mavqeini isbotlash uchun bir-biridan ustun turishga harakat qildilar. Bu o'n to'qqizinchi asrda Tailandda mukofotga sazovor bo'lgan festivallarda bo'lgan.[18][171] Zamonaviy Tailandda biznes va siyosatchilar o'zlarining obro'sini yaxshilash va mijozlar yoki saylovchilar o'rtasida ishonchni oshirish uchun ko'pincha xizmat qilishadi.[172] Birmada sodiq fidoyilar jamoat sifatida meros qilish bilan shug'ullanish uchun birlashmalar tuzadilar.[173]

A painting about the Vessantara Jātaka
Tailand va Laosda har yili festival o'tkaziladi Vessantara Jataka, muqaddas hisoblangan Buddaning avvalgi hayoti haqida hikoya.[174]

Odamlar savobga erishish va berishga shunchalik intilishganki, ba'zi jamiyatlarda odamlar hatto taklif qilishadi o'zlari qadimgi bir martabali vazir qilganidek, ularning oilasi Buddist ma'badga Butparastlik Shohligi (to'qqizinchi asrdan XIV asrgacha Birma).[175][176] Shunga o'xshash yozuvda, Shri-Lankada shohlar va oddiy odamlar ma'badga qullarni taklif qilishadi, keyin esa o'zlarining erkinliklari uchun pul berishdi, shu bilan bir vaqtning o'zida ikkita xizmatni yig'ishdi. Hatto ramziy ma'noda, shohlar ba'zan o'z shohliklarini ma'badga taklif qilishadi, bu esa sovg'ani darhol va ba'zi Dhamma ta'limoti bilan qaytarib beradi. Shri-Lankada, Qirol Maxakuli Maxatissa o'zini dehqon qiyofasida yashirgan va paxta dalasida ishlab pul topishni boshlagan, shuning uchun u buddist rohiblariga berish uchun mablag 'topish uchun o'zini o'zi ishlab, ko'proq foyda keltirishi mumkin edi.[177] Ba'zi hollarda, odam o'lganidan keyin ham xayr-ehson qilish davom ettirildi: qadimgi Tailand urf-odatlarida, odamlar o'limidan keyin yovvoyi hayvonlarni boqish uchun o'z jasadlarini bag'ishlashlari savobli deb hisoblangan.[178]

Marosimlar

Shuningdek qarang: Buddizm madaniyati va Buddist sadoqat § Bayramlar va bayram kunlari

Ko'p dindor buddistlar muntazam ravishda kuzatadilar "dam olish kunlari" (Pali: uposata) beshta amrni bajarish, ta'limotlarni tinglash, meditatsiya qilish va ma'badda yashash.[179][180] Ushbu haftalik marosimlardan tashqari, marosimlar va tantanalar har yili o'tkaziladi va ko'pincha mukofotlash uchun imkoniyatdir,[29][181] va ba'zan boshqa oddiy kunlarga qaraganda ko'proq foyda keltiradi deb ishoniladi.[182] Tailand va Laosda har yili o'tkaziladigan festival (RTGS: Thet Maxachat) ga yo'naltirilgan holda o'tkaziladi Vessantara Jataka, muqaddas hisoblangan Buddaning avvalgi hayoti haqida hikoya.[181][174] Etti asrlik ushbu festival katta rol o'ynadi qonuniylashtiruvchi Tailand jamiyatidagi qirollik. (qarang § qirollik, quyida) Xizmatga erishish - festivalning asosiy mavzusi. Davridan beri Rama IV ammo, festival kamroq mashhur bo'lib qoldi.[183][184] Ko'pgina mamlakatlar ham har yili nishonlaydilar Kaxina, ular savobga erishish uchun Sangha uchun kiyim, pul va boshqa rekvizitlarni taklif qilishganda.[185][186] Birmada, har ikki yilda Yengil bayramlar oqsoqollarga sovg'alar berilib, Sangha uchun liboslar tikilganligi sababli, odatda mukofotga loyiq holatlardir.[187] Janubiy Koreyada, a Budda kuni (Koreys: seog-ga-tan-sin-il) buddistlar ibodat qiladigan va o'tkaziladigan marosim o'tkaziladi sadaqa qil.[188] Muvaffaqiyatga erishish uchun boshqa holatlar ham qo'llab-quvvatlanadi. Xizmat ko'rsatishning kamroq shakli bilan shug'ullanadigan maxsus shakl davom etmoqda haj, bu asosan Tibet va Yaponiyada keng tarqalgan. Ushbu amaliyot juda qadrlanadi va juda munosib hisoblanadi.[189][190]

Yozib olish

Bir qancha buddaviy mamlakatlarida qilingan xizmatlarni qayd etish odatiy holdir. Xitoyda ko'p asrlar davomida biron kishining xayrli ishlarini "xizmat kitoblarida" qayd etish odatiy hol edi (pinyin : gōngguò gé). Although a belief in merit and retribution had preceded the merit ledgers by many centuries, during the Min sulolasi, through the ledgers a practice of systematic merit accumulation was established for the first time. The merit ledgers were lists of good deeds and bad deeds, organized in the form of a calendar for users to calculate to what extent they had been practicing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds every day. The ledgers also listed the exact retributions of every number of deeds done, to the detail. Through these ledgers it was believed someone could offset bad karma.[191][192] To'rtinchi asrda Idoralar, Baopuzi, and in the twelfth century the Treatise On the Response of the Tao va Ledger of Merit and Demerit of the Taiwei Immortal introduced the basics of the system of merit ledgers. In the fourteenth century CE, the Tao master Zhao Yizhen recommended the use of the ledgers to examine oneself, to bring emotion in harmony with reason.[193][194] From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, many types of ledgers were produced by Buddhist and Tao schools, and the usage of the ledgers grew widespread.[195] The practice of recording merits has survived in China and Japan until the present day.[196] In Theravāda countries, for example in Burma and Sri Lanka, similar customs have been observed.[197][198] In Sri Lanka, a 'book of merit' (Pali: puñña-potthaka, Sanskritcha: puṇyapustaka) was sometimes kept by someone for years and read in the last moments of life. This practice was based on the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, and was mostly practiced by the royalty and rich during the period of the Mahāvaṁsa chronicle.[199][200][201] More recent practice has also been observed, for example, as a form of terminal yordami.[202][203] or as part of the activities of lay merit-making associations.[204]

Merit and wealth

The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anaphapikika and Jōtika.[205] In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became a spiritual practice.[15] But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively. Toxa (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Sa'sara (the cycle of rebirth), instead of becoming liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced ommaviy madaniyat in Buddhist countries.[122][206][205] Several scholars have described merit as a sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system.[44][197][207] Though objections have been made against this metaphor,[203][208] it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā, and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as the Divyavadana.[102][197] Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetizatsiya of ancient India's economy.[209]

Transfer

Asosiy maqola: Transfer of merit
Thai politician participates in ceremony of transferring merit
Sometimes transferring merit is symbolized by pouring water into a vessel.[51][210]

Description and origins

Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others' merits.[211] Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and Theravāda.[212][213][214] In the Pāli tradition, the word pattidāna is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'.[215] And in the Sanskrit tradition, the word pariṇāmanā is used for transferring merit, meaning 'bending round or towards, transfer, dedication'.[216] Of these translations, 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by some scholars.[217][218]

Buddhist traditions provide detailed descriptions of how this transfer proceeds. Transferring merit to another person, usually deceased relatives, is simply done by a mental wish. Despite the word o'tkazish, the merit of the giver is in no way decreased during such an act, just like a candle used to light another candle does not diminish.[64][74][219] The merit transferred cannot always be received, however. The dead relatives must also be able to sympathize with the meritorious act. If the relatives do not receive the merit, the act of transferring merit will still be beneficial for the giver himself. The transfer of merit is thus connected with the idea of rejoicing.[220] The other person who rejoices in one's meritorious deeds, in that way also receives merit, if he approves of the merit done. Thus, rejoicing in others' merits, apart from being one of the ten meritorious acts mentioned, is also a prerequisite for the transferring of merit to occur.[43][219][221] The purposes for merit transfer differ. In many Buddhist countries, transferring merit is connected to the notion of an oraliq holat. The merit that is transferred to the deceased will help them to cross over safely to the next rebirth.[222] Some Mahāyāna traditions believe that it can help deceased relatives to attain the Sof er.[16] Another way of transferring merit, apart from helping the deceased, is to dedicate it to the devas (deities), since it is believed that these are not able to make merits themselves. In this way it is believed their favor can be obtained.[44][221][223] Finally, many Buddhists transfer merits to resolve a bond of revenge that may exist between people, as it is believed that someone else's vengefulness may create harm in one's life.[196][224]

Initially in the Western study of Buddhism, some scholars believed that the transfer of merit was a uniquely Mahāyāna practice and that it was developed only at a late period after the historical Buddha. For example, Heinz Bechert dated the Buddhist doctrine of transfer of merit in its fully developed form to the period between the fifth and seventh centuries CE.[225] Scholars perceived that it was discordant with early Buddhist understandings of karma,[213][225][226] and noticed that in the Kathatthu the idea is partly refuted by Theravādins.[227][228] Other scholars have pointed out that the doctrine of the transfer of merit can be found early in the Theravāda tradition.[214][229][230] Then there also scholars who propose that, although the transfer of merit did not exist bunaqa in early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early doctrines.[231][232][233]

The idea that a certain power could be transferred from one to another was known before the arising of Buddhism. In religious texts such as the Mahabharata, it is described that devas can transfer certain powers (Sanskritcha: tejalar). A similar belief existed with regard to the energy gained by performing austerities (Sanskritcha: tapas). Apart from these transfers of power, a second origin is found in Brahamanical ancestor worship.[74] In the period preceding the arising of Buddhism, it was believed that after a person's death he had to be transformed from a wandering preta to reach the blissful world of the pitṛs. This was done through the complex Uddad ceremonies, which would secure the destiny of the deceased as a pitṛ. In Buddhism, however, ancestor worship was discontinued, as it was believed that the dead would not reach heavenly bliss through rituals or worship, but only through the law of karma. Nevertheless, the practice of transfer of merit arose by using the ethical and psychological principles of karma and merit, and connect these with the sense of responsibility towards one's parents. This sense of responsibility was typical for pre-Buddhist practices of ancestor worship. As for the veneration of dead ancestors, this was replaced by veneration of the Sangha.[234][235]

Application in the spreading of Buddhism

Sree Padma and Anthony Barber note that merit transfer was well-established and a very integral part of Buddhist practice in the Andxra Hindiston janubidagi mintaqa.[236] In addition, inscriptions at numerous sites across South Asia provide definitive evidence that the transfer of merit was widely practiced in the first few centuries CE.[237][238] In Theravāda Buddhism, it has become customary for donors to share merits during ceremonies held at intervals, and during a teaching.[239][240][221] In Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is believed that Bodxisattva in the heavens are capable of transferring merits, and will do so to help relief the suffering of their devotees, who then can dedicate it to others. This concept has led to several Buddhist traditions focused on devotion.[241][242][243] Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists transfer merits as part of the 'Seven-part-worship' (Sanskritcha: saptāṇgapūjā),[244][245][246][6-eslatma] and there is almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer.[23][248] Thus, merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in the basic liturgiya of all main schools of Buddhism. Indeed, the transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has become a major way for Buddhism to sustain itself.[16] In Japan, some temples are even called ekōdera, which means a temple for merit transfer.[249]

Shohlik

Shuningdek qarang: Buddhist kingship
Indian relief with Emperor Asoka depicted.
The emperor Asoka (Sanskritcha: Aoka) is featured in later Pali works as an important patron supporting the Sangha.[250]

In South and South-East Asia, merit-making was not only a practice for the mass, but was also practiced by the higher echelons of society. Kingship and merit-making went together.[175][251] In the Tipiṭaka, ideas about good governance were framed in terms of the ideal of the 'wheel-turning monarch ' (Pali: Kakkavatti; Sanskritcha: Cakravartin), the king who rules righteously and non-violently according to Dharma.[252] His roles and duties are discussed extensively in Buddhist texts. The Kakkavatti is a moral example to the people and possesses enough spiritual merit. It is through this that he earns his sovereignty, as opposed to merely inheriting it.[253][254] Also, the Buddha himself was born as a prince, and was also a king (Vessantara) in a previous life.[214][255][256] Apart from the models in the suttalar, Pāli chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa and the Jinakālamālī may have contributed to the ideals of Buddhist kingship. In these vernacular Pāli works, examples are given of royalty performing meritorious acts, sometimes as a form of tavba for previously committed wrongdoings. Imperator Asoka (Sanskritcha: Aoka) is featured as an important patron supporting the Sangha.[250]

Because of these traditions, kings have had an important role in maintaining the Sangha, and publicly performed grand acts of merit, as is testified by epigrafik evidence from South and South-East Asia.[216][251] In Sri Lanka, from the tenth century CE onward, kings have assumed the role of a lay protector of the Sangha, and so have Thai kings, during the periods of Sukhothai va Ayutthaya (fourteenth until eighteenth centuries). In fact, a number of kings in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma have described themselves as Bodhisattalarva epitetlar va royal language were established accordingly.[175][257][258] In short, kingship in traditional Buddhist societies was connected with the Sangha as a field of merit: the king assumed an exemplary role as a donor to the Sangha, and the Sangha legitimated the king as a leader of the state. Both facilitated one another, and both needed each other.[259] In times of famine or other hardship, it was traditionally believed that the king was failing, and the king would typically perform meritorious activities on a grand scale.[197][260][261] In this way the king would be able to improve the kingdom's conditions, through his "overflow karma" (Walters).[262] A similar role was played by queens.[263]

In the last seven centuries in Thailand, the Vessantara Jātaka has played a significant role in legitimating kingship in Thailand, through a yearly festival known as the 'Preaching of the Great Life' (RTGS: Thet Mahachat). Merit-making and pāramīs (doing good deeds, developing good habits to become a Buddha) were greatly emphasized in this festival, through the story about Prince Vessantara's generosity. During the reform period of Rama IV, as Thai Buddhism was being modernized, the festival was dismissed as not reflecting true Buddhism. Its popularity has greatly diminished ever since. Nevertheless, the use of merit-making by the Thai monarchy and government, to solidify their position and create unity in society, has continued until the late twentieth century.[264]

Zamonaviy jamiyatda

Shuningdek qarang: Buddist modernizm

19 - 20-asr boshlari

Buddhists are not in agreement with regard to the interpretation, role, and importance of merit. The role of merit-making in Buddhism has been discussed throughout Buddhist history, but much more so in the last centuries. In the nineteenth century, during the rise of Buddhist modernism and the Communist regimes, Buddhists in South and Southeast Asia became more critical about merit-making when it became associated with magical practices, privileging, marosim and waste of resources.[265][266][267][7-eslatma] In pre-modern Thailand, a great deal of the funds of temples were derived from the profits of land that were offered to temples by royalty and nobility. During the period of religious reform and administrative centralization in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, however, Thai temples were no longer supported in this manner and had to find other ways to maintain themselves.[159]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, perspectives of merit-making had changed again, as merit-making was being associated with kapitalizm va iste'molchilik, which had been rising in South and Southeast Asia.[270][271] Furthermore, in some Buddhist countries, such as Thailand, there is a tendency among teachers and practitioners to dismiss and even revile merit-making in favor of teachings about detachment and attaining Nirvana, for which L. S. amakivachchalari has coined the term " ultimatism".[272][273][274]

From 1960s onward

Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma showed that a great deal of time, effort and money was invested by people in merit-making, e.g. Spiro described Burma's rural economy as "geared to the overriding goal of the accumulation of wealth as a means of acquiring merit". In some studies done in rural Burma, up to thirty percent of people's income was spent on merit-making.[275] In 2014, when Burma ranked highest on the World Giving Index (tied with the United States, and followed by many other Buddhist countries), scholars attributed this to the Burmese habit of merit-making.[18][276] Studies done in Thailand, however, showed that in the 1980s merit-making was declining, and a significant group did no longer believe in karma—though this was not a majority.[277] Some scholars disagree with these findings, however, saying that Buddhist practices such as merit-making are still very widespread.[271] Similar observations have been made about Cambodia and even about Thai people in the United States.[278][279] As for Buddhist "converts" in the west, for example Buyuk Britaniyadan, the interest in merit is less than among Asian Buddhists, but they strongly appreciate the generosity and reverence as exhibited by Asian Buddhists.[280][281]

Average expenses in merit-making per person, in Thailand, 2005.[29]
MintaqaBaxt /Person/Year
Bangkok Metropoliten maydoni1,512
Markaziy1,032
Shimoliy672
Shimoli-sharq492
Janubiy516
O'rtacha milliy804

Discussion by scholars

Some scholars have suggested that merit-making may have affected the economies of Buddhist countries in a negative way, because spending savings on the local temple would prevent consumption and investment and therefore stunt economic growth. Other researchers have disagreed, pointing out that spending resources on a Buddhist temple does stimulate economic growth through the investment in goods for the temple.[29][282][8-eslatma] It has also been suggested that even if the economy of Buddhist countries would be better off without merit-making, it would result in an economy that the majority of the population would not prefer. Another criticism often leveled at merit-making in modern times is that it prevents people from using their resources to help the poor and needy. Very often, however, temples do have many social roles in society, and offer help to many groups in society—resources are therefore redistributed widely.[284][285] Moreover, since merit-making is often done as a community, merit-making may strengthen ijtimoiy aloqalar, which Walters calls "sociokarma".[286][284][287]

Scholars have often connected the notion of karma to the determinizm ichida Hindistondagi kast tizimi.[288] Just like in the case of karma, some scholars believe that a belief in merit can cause social differences to stay unchanged. This would be the case when the poor, who cannot make much merit, resign to their fate.[289][290] Other scholars point out that merit can be used to improve social status in the present, as in the case of someone ordaining as a monk for a few years.[214] And vice versa, if someone's social status quickly deteriorates, for example, due to quick changes in the bureaucratic structure, these changes might be justified in Buddhist societies because someone's store of merit is believed to have run out.[291] Someone's position in society, even in the cosmos, is always subject to the impermanent workings of merit and demerit. In traditional Buddhist societies, quick changes in position, status, or roles are therefore considered part of life, and this insecurity is a motivator in trying to improve the situation through merit-making.[292][293] Findly points out that in Buddhist ideals of merit-making, the earned value gained by doing good deeds is more important than the assigned value gained by social status at birth.[294]

Phu Mi Bun harakatlar

Shuningdek qarang: Faith in Buddhism § Millenarianism

The idea of merit is also at the basis of the Phu Mi Bun movements as has been studied in Thailand and other Buddhist societies. Phu Mi Bun are people who are considered to have much merit from past lives, whose influence morally affects society at large.[295][296][297] Phu Mi Bun are in many ways similar to people declared Bodxisattva in Buddhist societies, and in fact, the word Phu Mi Bun is often used in traditional Thai texts about the previous lives of the Buddha. Besides the example of the king himself, certain monks and shamanlar have assumed this role throughout history. In Thailand, around the turn of the twentieth century, a ming yillik movement arose regarding the coming of a Phu Mi Bun, to the extent of becoming an insurgency which was suppressed by the government.[298][299][300] This insurgency became known to Thai historians as the "rebellion of the Phu Mi Bun" (RTGS: Kabot Phu Mi Bun), commonly known in English as the Muqaddas odamning isyoni.[301] Several of such rebellions involving Phu Mi Bun have taken place in the history of Thai, Laos, Cambodia and Burma. For example, in Cambodia, there were Phu Mi Bun–led revolts against the French control of Cambodia.[302] Lucien Hanks has shown that beliefs pertaining to Phu Mi Bun have profoundly affected the way Thai people relate to authority.[40] Indologist Arthur Basham, however, believed that in contemporary Thai society the Phu Mi Bun is more of a label, and savob more of a secular term than a deeply-rooted belief.[303]

Tibetan monk releases a crab into the ocean
Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way of making merit.[304]

Merit release

Asosiy maqola: Hayotni ozod qilish

One merit-making practice that has received more scholarly attention since the 1990s is the practice of "merit release". Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way to make merit. Merit release is a practice common in many Buddhist societies, and has since the 2010s made a comeback in some societies.[304] Its origins are unclear, but traditionally it is said to originate from the Mahāyāna Humane King Sutra, boshqa manbalar qatorida.[305][306] It often involves a large number of animals which are released simultaneously, as well as ashula, making a resolution, and transfer of merits.[307][308] Though the most common practice is the releasing of fish and birds back in nature, there are also other forms: in Tibet, animals are bought from the slaughterhouse to release.[309] However, the practice has come under criticism by wildlife tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha mutaxassislar va olimlar. Studies done in Cambodia, Hong Kong and Taiwan have shown that the practice may not only be fatal for a high percentage of the released animals, but may also affect the survival of tahdid ostida bo'lgan turlar, create a black market for wildlife, as well as pose a threat for public hygiene.[305][309] In Thailand, there are cases where animals are captured for the explicit purpose of being sold to be released—often into unsuitable ecosystems.[310] Some Buddhist organizations have responded to this by adjusting their practices, by working together with conservationist organizations to educate people, and even by pushing for new laws controlling the practice.[309] 2016 yilda, Biologiyani muhofaza qilish jamiyati (SCB) started discussing possible solutions with religious communities on how the practice could be adapted. According to the SCB, the communities have generally responded positively.[305][311] In the meantime, in some countries, laws have been issued to control the practice. In Singapore, to limit merit release on Vesak celebrations, people were fined.[306]

Despite its critics, merit release continues to grow, and has also developed new forms in western countries. In 2016, it was widely reported that the Canada-based Great Enlightenment Buddhist Institute Society (GEBIS) had released 600 pounds (270 kg) of lobsters in the ocean. The release was planned in agreement with local lobster-men.[312] In the same year, Wendy Cook from Lincoln, United States, bought fourteen rabbits from a farm to raise them under better conditions. The costly release, advertised on Facebook as The Great Rabbit Liberation of 2016, was supported by Buddhist monastics from Singapore and the Tibetan tradition, and was based on the idea of merit-making.[313] In a less successful attempt, two Taiwanese Buddhists released crab and lobsters in the sea at Brayton, United Kingdom, to make merit. They were fined by the authorities for £15,000 for a wildlife offense that could have significant impact on native species.[314]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ In the Sangīti Sutta ("Chanting together discourse," Digha Nikaya 33), verse 38, the leading disciple Sāriputta is described as teaching the same triad: dana, sīla, bhāvanā.[55]
  2. ^ Qarang Digha Nikaya iii.218
  3. ^ The announcing of a certain intention in reference to the actions someone has done (Pali: saccakiriya) is a common theme in all Indian religion [84]
  4. ^ There is some discussion as to the best translation of kusala, some preferring 'skilful' or 'intelligent' instead.[93]
  5. ^ Biroq, muddat qadr-qimmat may also originate from a translation of Pāli terms. In Pāli texts several of such terms were used.[148]
  6. ^ There are also other forms that are practiced, varying from four to eleven parts.[247]
  7. ^ From the 1980s onward, the communist regimes in Laos and Cambodia no longer viewed Buddhism as an obstacle to the development of the state, and many of the restrictions with regard to Buddhist practice were lifted. [50][268] In Burma, the former military government approached merit-making practices differently: they justified their majburiy mehnat lagerlari by citing that the labor there yielded merit. Xuddi shu paytni o'zida, Aun San Su Chi referred to the struggle for democracy as savobli.[269]
  8. ^ Since the 2000s, studies in China have shown a growing interest among local government officials to promote merit-making activities, believing it to stimulate local economy.[283]

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Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar

Lay  Theravada Amaliyot: Baxt uchunQayta tug'ilish

IMON (Saddha)BERIB (Dana )FOYDALI (Sla )Aql (Bvanava )BOShQA (Paña)

Budda ·
Dhamma · Sangha

Xayriya ·
Sadaqa

5 ta amr ·
8 ta amr

Metta ·
Vipassana

4 Nobel Haqiqatlar ·
3 xususiyatlari

Asoslangan: Dighajanu Sutta, Velama Sutta, Dhammika Sutta.