Dharani - Dharani

Hind kinorejissyori uchun qarang Dharani (direktor). Film uchun qarang Dharani (film). Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo buddist ma'budasi uchun qarang Phra Mae Torani.
XI asr buddisti Pancaraksa ichida qo'lyozma Pali skript. Bu dharani sehrlar, foydalar va ma'buda marosimlari bo'yicha janr matni.
Qismi bir qator kuni
Buddizm
Dharma Wheel.svg

A dharani (Devanagari: धारणी, IAST: daraṇī) buddistlarning xitobi, mnemonik kod, afsun yoki qiroat, odatda a mantrani sanskrit yoki pali iboralaridan iborat. Himoya va ishlab chiqarish qobiliyatiga ega ekanligiga ishonishdi savob Buddist fidoyi uchun ular tarixiy buddaviy adabiyotning asosiy qismini tashkil qiladi.[1][2][3] Ushbu ashulalar Vedik Sanskrit adabiyotida ildiz otgan,[4] va ko'plari sanskrit tilidagi yozuvlarda yozilgan Siddxam[5] shuningdek xitoy, koreys, yapon va boshqa mintaqaviy yozuvlarga tarjima qilingan.[6][7][8]

Dharani buddizmning barcha asosiy urf-odatlarining qadimiy matnlarida uchraydi. Ular Pali kanonining asosiy qismi Theravada an'ana. Mahayana sutralar - Lotus Sutra va Yurak Sutra kabi - dharani o'z ichiga oladi yoki yakunlaydi.[1] Kabi ba'zi buddaviy matnlar Pancaraksa ko'plab buddistlarning uylaridan topilgan tantra an'ana izdoshlari, butunlay dharaniga bag'ishlangan.[9] Ular marosimdagi ibodatlarning bir qismidir, shuningdek, ular tilovat omadsizlik, kasallik yoki boshqa falokatlarni engillashtiradi deb hisoblangan o'zlari uchun tumor va joziba deb hisoblashadi.[1][9][2] Ular Sharqiy Osiyodagi buddizm tarixidagi monastir mashg'ulotlarining muhim qismidir.[10][11] Ba'zi Buddist mintaqalarda ular Buddist guvoh haqiqatni aytishga qasamyod qilgan matnlar bo'lib xizmat qilishgan.[9]

Milodiy 1-ming yillikda Sharqiy Osiyoda dharani-janr mashhur bo'ldi,[9] xitoy yozuvlari bilan ularning umumiy davrning dastlabki asrlariga qadar ularning ko'pligi haqida gap boradi. Bular Xitoydan Koreyaga va Yaponiyaga ko'chib ketishdi. Buddist sodiq ixlosmandlar orasida bosma dharaniga bo'lgan talab matnli matbaa yangiliklarini rivojlanishiga sabab bo'lishi mumkin.[12] Sharqiy Osiyodagi dharani yozuvlari "dunyodagi eng qadimgi tasdiqlangan bosma matnlar", deydi Robert Syuell va boshqa olimlar.[13][14][15] 8-asrning boshlarida topilgan dharani matnlari Pulguksa ibodatxonasi Gyeongju, Korea dunyodagi ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimgi bosma matn sifatida qaraladi.[16][17][18][eslatma 1]

Dharani tilovati shifo va himoya qilish maqsadida tilga olinadi Paritta ba'zi buddaviy mintaqalarda,[20] ayniqsa Theravada jamoalarida.[21] Dharani-janr g'oyalari, shuningdek, yaponcha Koshiki matnlarini ilhomlantirdi va ashula aytishga odatlandi Daimoku,[22] Nenbutsu (Yaponiya), Nianfo (Xitoy) yoki Yombul (Koreya).[23][24][25] Ular tarixiy xitoylarning muhim qismidir dazangjing (buyuk omborning yozuvlari) va koreys tilida djjanggyeong - V-X asrlar orasidagi Buddist kanonining Sharqiy Osiyo to'plamlari.[26]

Etimologiya va nomenklatura

Dharani misoli

Tuṭṭe, tuṭṭe-vuṭṭe, vuṭṭe-paṭṭe, paṭṭe-kaṭṭe, kaṭṭe-amale,
amale-vimale, vimale-nime, nime-hime, xime-vame,
[...]
sarkke-cakre, cakre – dime, dime – hime, hime – ṭu ṭu ṭu ṭu–
ḍu ḍu ḍu ḍu – ru ru ru ru – phu phu phu phu – svāhā.

- Budda rohibiga Maxamati, yilda Lankavatara 9.260
Tarjimon: Daisetz Teitarō Suzuki[27]

So'z daraṇī Sanskrit tilidan olingan √dhṛ "ushlab turish yoki saqlash" ma'nosini anglatadi.[1][28] Ushbu ildiz, ehtimoldan kelib chiqqan Vedik din qadimgi Hindistonning qo'shiqlari va ohangdor tovushlari, agar ovozni tarjima qilib bo'lmaydigan va ma'nosiz bo'lsa ham (musiqada bo'lgani kabi) tug'ma ma'naviy va davolovchi kuchlarga ega deb ishonilgan. Xuddi shu ildiz beradi dharma yoki dhamma.[1][29] Sharqiy Osiyo buddizm tadqiqotchisi Pol Kopning so'zlariga ko'ra, Hindiston tashqarisidagi ba'zi buddist jamoalar ba'zan murojaat qilishadi dharanis "mantra, hṛdaya (hridiya), paritrana (paritta), raksha (pali: rakkha), gutti yoki vidyā" kabi muqobil atamalar bilan, ammo bu atamalar buddizmda boshqa mazmunli ma'nolarga ega.[2][30][31]

Tibet matnlariga bo'lgan an'anaviy e'tiqodga ko'ra, Xose Kabezon - Tibet buddizm tadqiqotlari bo'yicha Dalay-Lama professori, uchta kishi bor edi kengashlar va muddat dharani qayd etildi va uchinchi kengashdan keyin odatiy holga aylandi.[32] Birinchi e'tiqod, ushbu e'tiqodga binoan Sutranta, Vinaya va Abhidhamma Hindistondagi Rajagrixaning janubidagi Vimalabhada. Birinchi kengash Budda vafot etgan yili bo'lib o'tdi, ammo tuzilgan dhamma yozilmagan so'zlardan iborat edi.[32] Ikkinchi kengash Buddaning vafotidan taxminan 200 yil o'tgach, bir daraxtzorda sodir bo'lgan Ashoka, bu erda bilim yana tuzilgan, ammo u ham hech narsa yozmagan.[32] Uchinchi kengash Tibet an'analariga ko'ra bir asr o'tib Kashmirda yig'ildi va ta'limotlar "hokimiyatga ega bo'lmaganlar" uchun yozma ravishda yozildi (dharani"unutmaslik", chunki odamlar Budda ta'limotining buzilgan shakllarini aytib berishgan. Shu nuqtai nazardan, dharani miloddan avvalgi 2-asrda buddistlik an'analarida e'tirof etilgan va ular zamin va yodda saqlash uchun xotira yordamchisi bo'lgan. dhamma ta'limotlar.[32]

Tavsif

Mahayana va tantrik buddizm tarixida ishlatilgan dharani atamasi va uning talqini 19-asr o'rtalaridan beri muammoli bo'lib kelmoqda, deydi Ronald Devidson. Dastlab u "sehrli formulalar yoki iboralar" deb tushunilgan, ammo keyinchalik Lamotte va Berxard kabi tadqiqotlar ularni "xotira" deb talqin qilgan, Devidson esa ba'zi dharani "kodlar" deb taklif qilgan.[33] Ga binoan Eugène Burnouf 19-asr frantsuz indologi va buddizm olimi dharanis sehrli formulalar bo'lib, Buddist fidoyilarga ularning kitoblarining eng muhim qismidir.[34] Burnouf, deydi Devidson, buddizm sutralarida va mahayana matnlarida dharani qanchalik muhim va keng tarqalganligini anglagan birinchi olim.[35] Indolog Moriz Winternitz 20-asrning boshlarida dharanilar Mahayana buddizmining "katta va muhim" qismini tashkil etganligi va ular sehrli formulalar va "himoya sehrlari" hamda tulkilar ekanligi bilan birlashdilar.[2][3]

Dharani aytishning foydalari

[Bu buyuk tovus sehrini o'qigan kishi uchun] shohlardan [injiq jazodan] qo'rqish, o'g'rilar yoki olovdan qo'rqish yoki suvga cho'ktirish orqali o'lish xavfi bo'lmaydi. Uning tanasiga zahar ham, qurol ham zarar qilmaydi va u uzoq umr ko'radi, faqat oldingi natijalar bundan mustasno karma. Va u orzulardan baxtli uyg'onadi. U qanoat hosil qiladi, falokatni boshdan kechirmaydi, dahshatli hayot kechirmaydi, dushmanlari yo'q qilinadi, raqiblari xarobaga aylanadi, o'ziga tegmaydi, har qanday zahar qo'rquvidan xalos bo'ladi, uzoq va farovon yashaydi, faqat oldingi karma natijalaridan tashqari.

- Budda rohib Svati uchun, yilda Mahamayuri 58.20–59.6
Tarjimon: Ronald Devidson[36]

Winternitsning so'zlariga ko'ra, dharani bu erda topilgan afsonalarga o'xshaydi Atharvaveda va Yajurveda hinduizm.[37][3] Buddaviy adabiyotning dharani-janri mantrani, davlatlarni o'z ichiga oladi Etien Lamot, ammo ular Buddaning ta'limotlarini yodlash va kuylash uchun "xotira yordamchisi" edi. Ushbu amaliyot konsentratsiya bilan bog'liq edi (samadhi) va sehrli fazilatlar va ma'naviy va moddiy vositalar mavjudligiga ishonishgan karma-bog'liq savob qilish.[38] Braarvigning so'zlariga ko'ra, dharanilar "ma'nosiz bo'g'inlar qatori" dir. Garchi ular bir vaqtlar "xotira yordamchilari" bo'lishgan bo'lsa-da, zamonaviy davrga qadar saqlanib qolgan dharanilar hech qanday matn bilan mos kelmaydi. Keyingi amaliyotda, dharanilar "deyarli ta'limotning qisqacha mazmuni sifatida ishlatilmadi, lekin ularni konsentratsiya va sehrli himoya qilish uchun yordam sifatida ishlatishdi".[39]

Yan Nattierning so'zlariga ko'ra, vediya mantralari buddaviy dharaniga qaraganda qadimiyroq, ammo vaqt o'tishi bilan ularning ikkalasi ham bir-biriga o'xshash sehrlash shakllari bo'lgan.[40] Buddizmning dastlabki matnlarida, Nattierning ta'kidlashicha, "dharani so'zi avval buddizm ta'limotining ba'zi elementlarini o'z xotirasida saqlab qolish uchun ishlatiladigan mnemonik vositalarga nisbatan ishlatilgan". Nattier nazarida dharani atamasi "buddizmga xos".[40] Dhara a bo'lishi mumkin mnemonik a bo'limining yoki bobining ma'nosini qamrab olish sutra.[41] Buddizm bilan bog'liq yozuvchiga ko'ra Qizil qarag'ay, mantrani va dharani dastlab bir-birining o'rnini bosadigan, ammo bir nuqtada edi daraṇī mazmunli, tushunarli iboralar uchun va mantiqiy tushunarli bo'lmagan hece formulalari uchun ishlatila boshlandi.[42]

Robert Busvell va Ronald Devidsonning so'zlariga ko'ra, dharani ba'zi buddaviy matnlaridagi kodlar edi. Ular matnning oxirida paydo bo'lgan va ular undan oldingi boblarda buddaviylik ta'limotlarining kodlangan, distillangan xulosasi sifatida qaralishi mumkin.[43][44] Masalan, Vajrasamadhi-sutra - 7-asrda Ch'an uchun muhim bo'lgan noma'lum rohib tomonidan tuzilgan koreys buddistlari matni (Zen buddizm ) Sharqiy Osiyoda an'ana, Dharani bob sakkizinchi (ikkinchi oxirgi) bo'lib, Tathagata Budda va Ananda o'rtasidagi qisqa suhbat epilogasi oxirgi bobdir. Bu dharani bob, deydi Buswell, "kodlaydi (dharayati) muhim ma'nolarni, ularni unutmasdan va eslab qoladigan fikrlarni eslatadi va kodlaydi.[43]

Indolog Frits Staal Dranani mantralari Vedik mantralarining davomiyligini aks ettiradi.[4] U Waymanning so'zlariga ko'ra buddistlarning ashulalari "vediya diniga chuqur qarzdor" degan fikrni ta'kidlagan.[4][45] Yogakara olimlari, deydi Staal, Vedalarda topilgan tasnifga amal qilgan - artarxarani, darmadharani va mantradharani, Vedalar singari, ba'zi "dharani mazmunli, boshqalari esa ma'nosiz" ekanligini aniq e'tirof etish bilan birga, barchasi marosimlar uchun samarali.[4]

Tarix

Chapda: A dharani ustuni, ichki Mo'g'uliston (milodiy 1085); O'ngda: dharani ikki tilda - Sanskrit va O'rta Osiyo tillarida yozilgan So'g'diycha.

Dastlabki buddizm adabiyoti dharani sehrlari va afsonalarini o'z ichiga oladi. Dharanilar miloddan avvalgi 1-asrdan oldin shtatlar Charlz Prebish va Damien Kivondan oldin buddist jamoalarida qadrlangani va ishlatilganligini namoyish etadi.[46]

Milodiy 1-ming yillikning o'rtalarida Buddizm amaliyotida dharanilarning o'rni ko'plab matnlar, shu jumladan paydo bo'lgan sistematik traktatlar bilan tasvirlangan. Pol Kopning so'zlariga ko'ra, Dharani yozishni o'z-o'zidan samarali afsun sifatida yozish to'g'risidagi eng qadimgi adabiy topshiriqlardan biri milodiy 317 va 420 yillarda yozilgan xitoycha matnda uchraydi.[47] Ushbu matn Qifo bapusa suoshuo da tuoluoni shenzhou jing (yoki, Yetti Budda va Sakkiz Bodhisattva tomonidan aytilgan Buyuk Dharani Ruhi-Sehr Muqaddas Yozuvi).[47] To'plangan Dharai SitralariMasalan, VII asr o'rtalarida tuzilgan.[48] Ba'zi qadimiy buddaviy diniy yozuvlar Stupalar (Dagoba, Chörten) - bu dharani-janrli kompozitsiyalardan parchalar Bodhigarbhalankaralaksa-dharani.[49][50][2-eslatma] Ning qo'lyozma qismlari Sumuxa-dharani O'rta Osiyoda kashf etilgan va hozirda Rossiya Fanlar Akademiyasining Leningrad filialida saqlanayotgan sanskrit tilida va Braxmi yozuvi, umumiy davrning dastlabki asrlaridan oldin tarqalgan skript.[52]

Xitoy matni Vugou jing guangda tuoluoni jing nufuzli kishining Empress Vu 683 yildan 705 yilgacha bo'lgan davr - Buddaning oltitasini o'qishi haqida dharanis.[53] Birinchi qism uning ahamiyatini quyidagicha bayon qiladi (xitoycha matnning yaponcha versiyasi):

Buning uchun marosim o'tkazishni istaganlar, oyning 8, 13, 14 yoki 15 kunlari, yodgorliklar joylashgan pagoda atrofida to'liq yetmish yetti marta aylanib, aylanib, o'zlarining o'ng tomonlarida ushbu jozibani aytib berishlari kerak. [dhāraṇī] shuningdek, etmish etti marta: qurbongoh qurib, uning yuzasini toza saqlashlari kerak. Ular jozibani etmish etti marta nusxa ko'chirishlari kerak va marosimga hurmat sifatida nusxa ko'chiruvchi parfyumeriya, gullar, oziq-ovqat va ichimliklar, toza kiyim va hammom berishlari va uni moylashi va parfyumeriya bilan qoplashi yoki mukofotlashlari kerak. unga ko'p pul berish yoki qobiliyatiga qarab to'lash orqali. Keyin ular taqinchoqlarning ushbu nusxalarini olib, ularni pagoda ichiga joylashtirishi va pagoda oldida qurbonlik qilishlari kerak. Shu bilan bir qatorda, ular etmish ettita kichik gil pagodalar yasashlari, har biriga bittadan nusxa qo'yishlari va qurbonliklar qilishlari kerak. Agar ular buni munosib ravishda bajarsalar, o'lish arafasidagi odamlar o'zlarining barcha gunohlari va yovuz amallari butunlay yo'q qilinib, umrlarini keksalikka cho'zadilar.

— Muku joko darani kyo (無垢 浄 光大 陀羅尼 經 經), Tarjima: Peter Kornicki[53]

Evropa adabiyotida dharani haqidagi dastlabki eslatmalar Plano Karpini Jon (1245-7) va Uilyam Rubrik (1254) qoldirgan yozuvlardan olingan bo'lib, ular o'zlarining esdaliklarida uyg'urlar va mo'g'ullar "Om man backam" deb hayqirganlarini yozgan, keyinroq aniqlangan. "Om mani padme hum" bilan. Shuningdek, ular ushbu osiyoliklar "sehrli qisqa jumlalarni qog'ozga yozib, osib qo'yishadi" deb eslashadi.[33] XIX asrning o'rtalarida Brayan Xojson Nepal, Tibet va Hindistonda sanskritcha va unga oid qo'lyozmalarni yanada puxta sotib olishni boshlagach, bunday ozgina so'zlardan tashqari, adabiyotning Dharani janri yoki uning buddaviylikdagi ahamiyati haqida kam ma'lumot mavjud edi. stipendiya, ko'pincha uning shaxsiy hisobidan.[33] Xodjsonning so'zlariga ko'ra, Ronald Devidsonning so'zlariga ko'ra, dharani - bu muttasil takrorlanib turadigan yoki kichkina shlyuzlar ichida taqib yuradigan "[maftunkor hayotga" olib boradigan narsa) ["Buddist tantrik] Upadesadan" kelib chiqadigan ezoterik qisqa ibodatlar.[33][2]

Dastlab mustamlakachilik davridagi stipendiya dharani va unga oid marosimlar boshqa hind dinlarining buddizmiga ta'sir qilgan bo'lishi mumkin, masalan ezoterikadan tantra milodning 1-ming yilligi o'rtalarida hinduizm an'analari. Ushbu taxmin, dastlabki buddizm "mavhum falsafa yoki hatto keng miqyosli ijtimoiy harakat" bo'lgan degan qarash bilan birga, endi ilmiy munozaralarning bir qismiga aylandi. Buddizmning asosiy matnlari va Xitoy, Koreya va Yaponiyadagi tarixiy qo'lyozmalar kashfiyotlari, masalan, dastlabki Silla buddizmi, Makbrayd va boshqalarga kirish imkoniyati ortib, dharani afsonalari va marosimlari Sharqiy Osiyoda dastlabki yillardanoq keng tarqalgan.[54][3-eslatma] Vaddellning 20-asr boshlarida "buddizmdagi dharani kulti" haqidagi stipendiyasi bilan birlashganda,[55] mustamlaka davridan keyingi stipendiya dharani tantrik buddizm paydo bo'lganidan keyin yoki undan keyin ham rivojlanmagan, balki undan oldin va proto-tantrizmning bir shakli bo'lgan degan fikrni ilgari surdi.[56]

Richard Makbrayd va shuningdek, Richard Peynning so'zlariga ko'ra,[56] "proto-tantra" taklifi ham muammoli, chunki u ma'nosiz anaxronistik teleologik kategoriya bo'lib, uni "chalg'itadi" va dharanilar qandaydir tarzda buddizm tantra an'analarini kutgan va qo'llab-quvvatlagan degan ma'noni anglatadi. Bunday ketma-ket rivojlanish uchun hech qanday dalil yo'q. Buning o'rniga, dalillar bir-biriga o'xshashligini ko'rsatmoqda, ammo dharanilarning asosiy buddaviy urf-odatlardagi ahamiyati va ezoterik Buddist tantra an'analari bir-biridan mustaqil ravishda mavjud bo'lgan. Dharani asosidagi fonik tasavvuf va musiqiy ashula - parittalar yoki raksalar Theravada Pali adabiyotida[4-eslatma] - aloqador mantralar bilan bir qatorda buddizmda ham muhim bo'lgan.[56] Ular Osiyodagi buddistlar amaliyotining ajralmas qismi bo'lib qolmoqdalar.[56] Yaqinda paydo bo'lgan dalillar va keyinchalik olingan tahsillarda tantrik va ezoterik buddizm va Vayrayana paydo bo'lishidan ko'p asrlar oldin "dharani va marosimlar odatdagi Mahayana amaliyoti bo'lganligi" tobora ko'payib bormoqda, deb ta'kidlaydi McBride.[58] Buddist tantra an'analari xudolar va mandalalar bilan marosimlarga yana bir nafislik va murakkablikni qo'shdi.[59]

Dharaniylar buddizm tarkibidagi ezoterik kult bilan cheklanib qolmaydi, deb ta'kidlaydi Pol Kop, "dharani afsonalari va ular bilan bog'liq tasavvufiy iboralar va amaliyotlar hech bo'lmaganda umumiy davrning dastlabki asrlaridan beri deyarli barcha buddaviy an'analarning ajralmas qismi bo'lib kelgan".[30]

Dharaslar va mantralar

Xitoy buddizmining dharani ikonografiyasi bilan Siddhaṃ stsenariysi yilda Sanskritcha, Keyinchalik Tang, 927 milodiy

Dharaslar - bu tulkik shaklidir va turli xil buddistlik an'analariga zararli ta'sirlardan va ofatlardan himoya qilishni ishonadi.[9][60] Mantra va dharani ba'zi buddaviy urf-odatlarda sinonimdir, ammo boshqalarda, masalan, tibet tantrik an'analarida dharani mantraning bir turi hisoblanadi.[61][62] Xose Kabezonning so'zlariga ko'ra, tantrik an'analarida mantrani (qaqshatqich) bu barcha Budda bilimlari va ongidir dharma-dhatu (dhammaning mohiyati).[63] Mantra uchta shaklda mavjud - guhya (maxfiy), vidya (bilim) dharani (xotira yordami). The guhya mantrani erkaklar xudosi va ayollarning ilohiy munosabatlari va birlashishi haqida. The vidya mantra erkak buddist xudolarning ongini anglatadi, ammo dharani ayol budda xudolarining mantralari. Teologik jihatdan vidya mantralar Kabezonning so'zlariga ko'ra tantrik buddizmda bu bilimni tashkil etadi, bu "ekzistensial dunyoda boshdan kechirgan azoblarni tinchlantiradi (samsara) va istaklar kabi xatolar yig'indisi ".[63] The dharani mantralar, aksincha, tantrik buddizmdagi bilimlarni tashkil qiladi, bu esa "odamni ushlab turishga olib keladi dhamma, eslash uchun dhamma, fazilatni eslash ".[63] Dharani va mantralar o'rtasida ko'rsatma yoki amaliy farq juda oz, faqat dharani ancha uzoqroq, deb ta'kidlaydi Evgeniy Burnouf.[34]

Ushnisha-vijaya-dharani (Son-shio-da-ra-ni), 9-barg Prajnaparamita Xridaya Sutra
Qo'lyozmalar tarjimasi: Maks Myuller va Bunyiu Nanjio[5][5-eslatma]
Sanskrit madhiyasi:नमस्त्रेलोक्यय्धाय.े.्यथा(ओम)[...]
Dharani sifatida xitoycha translyatsiya:Yo'q-ma-shitsutanrei-ro-kiyabotsu-da-yaba-ga-baku-teitetsuya-ta'an[...]
Xitoy tilidan yaponcha translyatsiya:Nau-ma-shitsutarei-ro-kiyabo-da-yaba-giya-ba-teiniya-tayutuq[...]
Inglizcha-IAST:Namas trailokyabuddhayabhagavatedyataOm[...]

Winternitsning so'zlariga ko'ra buddaviy dharani hinduizmda topilgan afsonalar va mantralarga o'xshaydi. Dharani oddiy sehrli hecalar va so'zma-so'z ma'nosiz so'zlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin (mantra-padani), yoki uning kuchi so'zlar yoki donolikni o'z ichiga olgan deb ishoniladi rohibada buddist Suttadan.[3][37] Yaponiyaning Horiuzi qo'lyozmasi Prajna paramita hrdaya sutra va Usnisha Vijaya dharani Milodiy 609 yilga oid har ikkalasini ham tasvirlaydi, ikkinchisi esa ma'nosiz hecalar qatoridan iborat bo'lgan chaqiriqlardir.[37] Buddizmda dharani sehrli fazilatlarga va pul topish vositasiga ega ekanligiga ishonishgan savob o'tmishni qoplash uchun karma, bu hayotdagi qo'rquvni, kasalliklarni va ofatlarni kamaytirish va yaxshiroq qilish uchun qayta tug'ilish. Devidsonning ta'kidlashicha, buddistlik jamoatlari uchun moddiy manfaatlar dharanilarni buddizmda bag'ishlanish, marosimlar va marosimlar uchun mashhurligini va ishlatilishini rag'batlantirgan.[37][38] Ga binoan Janet Gyatso, mantralar va dharanilar o'rtasida farq bor. Mantralar ohangdor tovushlardan ko'proq va ma'noga ega va ular Mahayanagacha bo'lgan buddizmda vaqti-vaqti bilan topilgan. Mahayana buddizm an'analari paydo bo'lishi bilan dharanislar mantralar bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi. Keyinchalik Vajrayana buddizm an'analari o'sib borishi bilan ular ko'payib ketdi. Dharanis va mantralar bir-biriga to'g'ri keladi, chunki Vajrayana an'anasida. "Bitta urug 'hecasi mavjud bija dharani singari, "ilonlar, dushmanlar, jinlar va qaroqchilar" kabi xatarlardan ashulachilarni himoya qilish uchun maxsus kuchlarga ega.[65] The bija (urug ') mantrani buddaviy xudo yoki buddaviy matnning himoya kuchlarini bitta bo'g'inga to'playdi. Masalan, bitta "a" harfi (अ) ning 100000 misrasini birlashtiradi Prajna-paramita sutralari bitta bo'g'inga.[66]

Hind Siddxem skriptiga xitoy yozuviga translyatsiya kodi Nilaṇṭhanāmahṛdaya dhāraṇī.

Yaponiya buddist rohib Kokay o'rtasida farq ajratdi daraṇī va mantrani va uni til nazariyasining asosi sifatida ishlatgan. Buddist Kokayning so'zlariga ko'ra mantrani ezoterik buddistlik amaliyoti bilan cheklangan daraṇī ezoterik va ekzoterik marosimlarda uchraydi. Nara va erta Heian davri Yaponiya tarixidan rohib yoki rohiba ularning daraanilarni ravonligi va bilimlari uchun sinovdan o'tkazilib, ularning buddaviylik bilimlarini yaxshi egallaganligini va barkamolligini tasdiqladi. Uchrashuv xatlarida u yoddan aytishi mumkin bo'lgan sutra va dharanilar sanab o'tilgan.[11] Masalan, milodiy 732 yildagi uchrashuvga tavsiya xatida Chishu ismli yaponiyalik ruhoniy o'zining shogirdi Xata no kimi Toyotarining tayinlanishini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi va u quyidagi dharanilarni o'qishi mumkinligini aytadi: Katta Prajna-paramita, Amoghapasa Avalokiteshvara, O'n bir yuzli Avalokiteshvara, Oltin nur, Akashagarbha, Bhaisajyaguru, suvni muqaddaslash, marosim makonini yashirish "sakkiz yillik mashg'ulotdan so'ng dharani sajda qilish marosimlari bilan.[11] Ko'plab narsalarni o'rganish ubasoku koshinge 1-ming yillik Yaponiyadan kelgan tavsiyanomalar dharanilar monastir mashg'ulotining muhim va asosiy qismi bo'lganligini tasdiqlaydi, ammo rohib yoki rohiba yodlagan dharani guruhi turlicha bo'lgan.[11]

Kokai mantralarni dharauslarning maxsus sinfi deb tasnifladi va dharaning har bir bo'g'ini haqiqatning asl mohiyati - buddizm nuqtai nazaridan, barcha tovushlarning namoyon bo'lishi ekanligini ta'kidladi. śūnyatā yoki o'z-o'zini tabiatning bo'shligi. Shunday qilib, ma'nolardan mahrum bo'lish o'rniga, Kaikay dharaslarning aslida ma'noga to'yinganligini taklif qiladi - har bir hece bir necha darajalarda ramziy ma'noga ega.[67]

Mahayana an'anasi

Dharanilar Mahayana buddist adabiyotining katta va muhim qismi bo'lgan.[2][65] Ular, ayniqsa, buddizmning ezoterik an'analarida juda ko'pdir (Vajrayana, Tibet). Biroq, dharanilar faqat ezoterik Mahayana matnlari emas edi.[68] Kabi eng muhim va mashhur Mahayana sutralari Lotus Sutra, Yurak Sutra va boshqalarda dharani boblari ko'zga ko'ringan.[68][69] Dharanilar Prajñāpāramitā Sutras bu erda Budda "dharani afsunini va uni etishtirishni maqtaydi samadhi, a-ning fazilatli faoliyati sifatida bodisattva ", deyiladi Risichi Abe.[68]

The Mega-Sutra qadimiy Mahayana sehrli-diniy matnining namunasidir. Unda ilon xudolari Buddaning oldida paydo bo'lib, unga sig'inishni taklif eting, so'ng ilonlarning, shuningdek odamlarning azoblanishini qanday engillashtirish mumkinligini so'rang. Matn do'stona munosabatni taklif qiladi (maitri) va ayollarning xudolari kabi chaqiruvlar, jodugarlik, sehrli formulalar qatori bilan birga yomg'ir yog'ishini anglatadi. "sara sire sire suru suru naganam java java jivi jivi juvu juvu va boshqalar.", deydi Moriz Winternitz.[37] Tarixiy Maxayana dharanislari bitta qo'lyozma va katta kollektsiyalar sifatida saqlanib qolgan. Nepal va Xitoyda topilgan versiyalar orasida kasallikni tugatish, umrni uzaytirish, zahardan qutulish, urushda omad uchun sehr, jinlar va ilonlarni haydash, yomon yulduz turkumlari ta'siridan himoya qilish, tan olingan gunohdan qutulish, tug'ilish bolani, qayta tug'ilishni xohlaydigan ayolga o'g'il yoki qiz suxavati jannat yoki yomon qayta tug'ilishdan saqlanish.[70][71][72] Ilon-jozibali dharani topilgan Quyi qo'lyozma G'arbiy Xitoyda topilgan.[71][73] Miloddan avvalgi 443 yildagi Lankavatara Sutraning Xitoy tilidagi tarjimasida ba'zi dharani boblari mavjud bo'lmasa, miloddan avvalgi II va IV asrlarga oid Mahayana matnlarining boshqa xitoycha tarjimalarida dharani mavjud.[71] The Dunxuang qo'lyozmasi to'plamlar talismanik dharani bo'limlarini o'z ichiga oladi.[74] O'rta asrlar davridagi Buddist ziyolilar va taniqli xitoylik rohiblar tomonidan kontseptsiyalashgan dharanilar "asosiy diniy buddizmning ajralmas qismi" edi, deydi Richard Makbrayd. Xitoyda buddizm sehrlarining mashhurligi, ehtimol, qadimgi mahalliy Xitoy dinlari sehr-jodularni qadrlashi bilan bog'liq edi.[10]

Robert Busvell va Donald Lopesning so'zlariga ko'ra, dharani haqidagi ba'zi bir Sharqiy Osiyo buddaviy adabiyotlari mahalliy xitoy matnlari va " Daoist amaliyotlar.[75] Masalan, Jingni boshqarish V asrning o'rtalarida Xitoyda tuzilgan bo'lib, asosan o'n ikki yarim mustaqil bobdagi dharani janridagi sehrli sehrlar to'plamidir. Bunga Buddist rohiblarni himoya qilish uchun 72000 ruhiy podshohlarning sehrlari, Buddist rohibalarni himoya qilish uchun 120000 ruhiy podshohlarning afsunlari, atrofni himoya qilish uchun ruh podshohlarining afsonalari, shaytonlarni bo'ysundirish uchun muhrlar va afsunlar, ajdarho podshohlarini chaqirishga chaqiriqlar kiradi. yuqumli kasalliklarni davolash va zararkunandalarni yo'q qilish va o'z xohishi bilan toza tuproqlarda qayta tug'ilishni qidirish.[75]

Dharanilarning ahamiyati shundan iborat ediki, hukumat ham, monastirlar tashkiloti ham VII asrga kelib, dharani qanday va qachon ishlatilishi yoki ishlatilmasligini belgilab qo'ygan edi. A ritsuryo Yaponiyada Nara hukumati tomonidan e'lon qilingan buddist ruhoniylari uchun milodning 718 yiliga oid kod har qanday ruxsatsiz davolanish, harbiy va siyosiy isyonlar uchun dharani ishlatishni taqiqlaydi. Kodeksda ularni "Budda dharmasiga muvofiq dharani kuylash orqali kasallarni davolash" uchun foydalanish aniq ozod qilingan.[76] Milodiy 797 yildagi yana bir hujjatda "davolovchi meditatsiya ustalari" (kanbyo zenji) hukmdor oilasini himoya qilish uchun dharanisda. Boshqalar rohibalar va rohibalar tomonidan dharani o'qishni "Nara davrida davolashning keng tarqalgan usullaridan biri" sifatida ishlatganligini isbotlamoqda, deydi Ritski Abe.[76]

Dharanislar ajralmas qismi bo'lgan rokujikyoho (olti heceli sutra) Yaponiyada liturgiya marosimi. Ular XI-XV asrlarda juda mashhur bo'lib, turli xil kasalliklarni kompleks hal qilishning bir qismi, buddist rohiblari va amaldorlari tomonidan amalga oshirilgan marosimdir. onmyōdō.[77]

Theravada an'anasi

The Theravada an'ana Shri-Lanka va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo buddist mamlakatlarida uchraydi. Theravada jamoatining uchta tarixiy marosimlari Buddha puja (triratna marosim), Besh amr marosimi (oshqozon osti bezi) va Paritranani himoya qilish (paritta ).[78] Theravada Paritrana matnlari Mahayana urf-odatlaridagi Dharani matnlariga tengdir, ikkalasi ham madhiyalar o'qish orqali himoya jozibasini beradi. Buddashunoslik bo'yicha olimlar Sara Livin va Devid Gellnerlarning fikriga ko'ra, Theravada odatdagidek "yomonlikdan himoya qilish" marosimida rohiblarni o'z uylariga chaqirishadi va rohib (lar) paritrana madhiyasini o'qiydilar.[78] Ushbu marosimlar, ayniqsa, chaqaloqqa ism qo'yish, birinchi guruchni iste'mol qilish va boshqalar kabi o'tish marosimlarida keng tarqalgan.[78] Buddist Karel Vernerning so'zlariga ko'ra, ba'zi Mahayana va Vajrayana dharani matnlari Theravada an'analarining paritta matnlariga ta'sir qilgan, masalan, Gini (olov) Paritta, chunki madhiyalar qismlarga ko'ra bir xil va Theravada matni bir xil atamalardan foydalangan, masalan, "dharani dharaniti".[79]

Pali kanoni himoya qilish uchun ko'plab havolalarni beradi (raksha, paritta) afsonalar va sehrli sehrlar.[2][80] Ushbu chaqiriqlar "yomon ruhlardan, kasallik va ofatlardan" himoya qiladi. Masalan, ichida Digha Nikaya (DN I.116.14), Sonadanda Budda qaerda qolmasin, "odam bo'lmaganlar o'sha shahar yoki qishloq aholisiga zarar etkazmaydi", deb ta'kidlaydi buddizm olimi Piter Skilling. Ushbu va shunga o'xshash bayonotlar hind buddaviylik matnlarining dastlabki xitoycha tarjimalarida ham uchraydi.[80] Skillingning so'zlariga ko'ra, ushbu "himoya buddaviy adabiyot" dan Theravada mamlakatlaridagi rohiblar ham, oddiy odamlar ham foydalanadilar. Ushbu matnlar har qanday "Buddist Shri-Lanka uy xo'jaliklarining ozgina kutubxonasi" ning bir qismidir va ular shunday nomlanadi Pirit Pota.[80] Myanmada Theravada jamoasining barcha sinflari bu haqda kengroq bilishadi paritta boshqa har qanday Pali buddistlik asariga qaraganda afsonaviy adabiyot. A haqida yaxshi bilmasligi mumkin bo'lgan boshqa janubi-sharqiy Osiyo mamlakatlaridagi o'rtacha Theravada rohibidir Tipitaka, Skillning ta'kidlashicha, "ko'p sonli xitlarni [paritta, dharani] yoddan aytishga qodir".[80]

Shimoliy Tailandda Suat Boek Phranet (lit. Eye-Opening Sutta) - Budda tasvirini muqaddas qilish kabi marosimlarda ishlatiladigan pali tarjimasi matni. Matnda, deydi Donald Searer, "Buddani madh etuvchi noyob dharani" va uning yovuzlik ustidan g'alabasini o'z ichiga oladi. Mara.[81] Dharani matnning oxirida paydo bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Tailand buddistlik amaliyotida u bilan bog'liq xitob marosim yakunlanganda sodir bo'lgan bo'lsa ham, ular " buddhabhiseka marosim ".[81]

Ta'sir: dunyodagi eng qadimgi bosma matnlar

Hyakumantō Darani: milodiy 770 yilga oid bosma dharani o'z ichiga olgan miniatyura yog'och pagoda. 1908 yilda 43930 pagodalar mavjud edi Hryry-ji ma'bad Nara.[82]

Buddist dharani chaqiriqlari - bu bizgacha etib kelgan dastlabki ommaviy nashr etilgan matnlar. 20-asrning o'rtalariga qadar Hyakumantō Darani yog'ochdan yasalgan joziba sifatida topilgan pagodalar Yaponiya, miloddan avvalgi 764 va 770 yillar oralig'ida bosib chiqarilgan deb qabul qilindi va qadimgi bosma matnlar.[14] 1966 yilda xuddi shu tarzda bosilgan dharani tosh pagodasida topilgan Pulguksa ibodatxonasi Koreyaning Kyonju shahrida. Ular 8-asrning birinchi yarmiga tegishli bo'lib, hozirda dunyodagi eng qadimgi bosma matnlar sifatida qaralmoqda.[14][17][83] Tsyen Tsuen-Xzuyinning so'zlariga ko'ra, koreys dharani yozuvlari Xitoyda imperator Vu davridan keyin bosilgan va bu sana "sutraning tarjimasi tugagan miloddan avvalgi 704 yildan ilgari emas, va bino 751 yildan kechiktirilmagan. ma'bad va stupa qurib bitkazildi ".[84] Koreys tilidagi matni "[hind] sanskrit tilidan tarjima qilingan xitoycha belgilar" dan iborat.[84] Koreys dharani ehtimol Xitoyda bosilgan bo'lsa-da,[6-eslatma] dalillar yaponiyalik dharani Yaponiyada Xitoy orqali kelgan buddaviy shiorlardan bosilganligini tasdiqlaydi.[84] Buddist dharanilarni, shuningdek translyatsiya qilingan sanskritcha sutrani bosib chiqarish va tarqatish an'anasi keyingi asrlarda Sharqiy Osiyoda davom etdi. 9-asrga kelib ommaviy chop etish va kitoblarni sotish davri "kabi qo'shimcha mavzularni qamrab oldi."astrologiya, tushlarning bashorati, alkimyo va geomantika ".[86]

Tillar va qadimiy qo'lyozmalar bo'yicha olim Ernst Volfning so'zlariga ko'ra, "bosmaxona faoliyatini eng avvalo buddizm rag'batlantirgan va qo'llab-quvvatlagan". Uning ashulalari va g'oyalari Sharqiy Osiyoda talabga ega edi va bu yog'och bloklar asosida ommaviy bosib chiqarish texnologiyasining rivojlanishiga olib keldi. Ma'lumki, eng qadimgi dharanilar VIII asrda ommaviy ishlab chiqarilgan, keyinchalik X asrda kanonik Tripitaka bundan tashqari 84000 nusxa dharani ommaviy nashr qilindi.[87]

8-asrning dharanislari "dunyodagi eng qadimgi tasdiqlangan bosma matnlar" dir, deydi Robert Syuell.[88] Ular har biri bosma dharani ibodati yoki jozibasini o'z ichiga olgan miniatyura ichi bo'sh yog'och pagodalardan iborat to'plam sifatida ommaviy ravishda ishlab chiqarilgan. Sanskritcha qalin qog'ozli chiziqlar ustida.[88][89] Yaponiya yozuvlari[7-eslatma] buyrug'i bilan buddist ibodatxonalari orqali million dharani shunday ishlab chiqarilgan va tarqatilgan Empress Shotoku - ilgari Buddist rohib - sudiga qarshi davlat to'ntarishiga urinishdan keyin.[88] Ross Benderning so'zlariga ko'ra, ushbu voqealar va Empress Shotoku tashabbuslari yirik yangi buddist ibodatxonalarining asos solinishiga, "katta tezlashuv" va "buddizmning faol tarqalishiga" olib keldi. Yaponiya.[91] Empress Shotokuning million dharani dunyoda ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimiy bosma adabiyotlardan biridir.[92][93]

Dharani buddist pagodalarida saqlanib qolgan dunyodagi eng qadimgi bosma matnlardir. Chapda: Koreya (8-asr boshlari, Incheon Seul aeroportidagi nusxasi), O'ng: Yaponiya (mil. 764–770). Til: sanskrit, tarjima qilingan yozuv: xitoy.[89]

Matnlar

Dharani Buddizmning asosiy matnlari ichida topilgan bo'lsa-da, ba'zi matnlar asosan yoki faqat dharani-janrga tegishli. Ba'zi rasmlarga quyidagilar kiradi:[94][95]

Theravada to'plamlari

Paritta (dharani) ning Theravada to'plamlari qadimiy va kengdir. Ba'zilari turli xil narsalarning bir qismidir suttalar, boshqalari esa maxsus matnlar. Tasvirlarga quyidagilar kiradi:[96]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ Ular eng qadimgi massa sifatida keng tarqalgan bosilgan matnlar, ammo ular ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimgi yozuvlar yoki bitta nusxada yozilgan qo'lyozma varag'i emas. The Pirgi tabletkalari Masalan, uchta oltin varaqqa yozilgan matnlar Santa Marinella 1964 yilda va bu sana miloddan avvalgi 500 yilga to'g'ri keladi.[19]
  2. ^ According to Max Muller and Bunyiu Nanjio, the "dharanis, besides being preserved in manuscripts, is of frequent occurrence as an inscription in Buddhist countries."[51]
  3. ^ The early hypothesis of dharani entering Buddhist texts later was shared by Asian scholars such as Daisetz Teitarō Suzuki who wrote in 1932 while translating the Lankavatara sutra that the dharani were "another later addition probably when dharani was extensively taken into the body of Buddhist literature just before its disappearance from the land of its birth" [14th-century India][27]
  4. ^ According to Joseph Kitagawa, Atanatiya Suttanta (DN 32) illustrates such apotropaic formulae in the Pali canon.[57]
  5. ^ The Sanskrit language is the source language of sacred dharani chants in Buddhism in many other scripts. For example, the discoveries of dharani fragments by Duan Yuquan show that the ancient Buddhist Tangut xalqi also transliterated Sanskrit, rather than translate the hymn into their own language.[64]
  6. ^ Scholars disagree on whether the evidence implies these were printed in Korea or China.[85]
  7. ^ Bular Shoku Nihongi yozuvlar. According to the British Library Treasures collection archival notes, "The Hyakumantō darani or ‘One Million Pagoda Dharani’ are the oldest extant examples of printing in Japan and one of the earliest in the world. The eighth-century Japanese chronicle the Shoku Nihongi records that they were printed between 764 and 770 on the orders of Empress Shōtoku as an act of atonement and reconciliation following the suppression of the Emi Rebellion led by Fujiwara no Nakamaro in 764."[90]

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ a b v d e Richard McBride (2004). Robert Buswell (ed.). Buddizm ensiklopediyasi. Macmillan ma'lumotnomasi. pp. 21, 180, 217–218, 253. ISBN  978-0-02-865718-9.
  2. ^ a b v d e f g Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Motilal Banarsidass. 367-368 betlar. ISBN  978-81-208-0265-0., Quote: "Dharani is a synonym of raksha and the Pali paritta, 'protecting magic formula', 'talisman'. Ga ko'ra Saddharma-Pundarika, the dharanis are taught 'for protection, safety and shelter of the preachers'. Dharanis are also used as amuletes."
  3. ^ a b v d Devidson 2009 yil, 101-102-betlar.
  4. ^ a b v d Frits Staal (1991). Harvey P. Alper (ed.). Mantralarni tushunish. Motilal Banarsidass. 59-66 betlar. ISBN  978-81-208-0746-4.
  5. ^ a b F Max Muller; Bunyiu Nanjio (1881). Anecdota Oxoniensia: Buddhist texts from Japan, edited by F.M. Müller. 1881-1884, Vol 1, Part 3. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 22-25 betlar.. For a more complete Indian to Chinese script transliteration of the Sanskrit Ushnisha-Vijaya Dharani, qarang Myuller (pp. 35–46), and the historic code embedded in the Japanese Horiuzi manuscript (pp. 63–82).
  6. ^ Helen J. Baroni (2002). Zen buddizmining Illustrated Entsiklopediyasi. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p. 66. ISBN  978-0-8239-2240-6.
  7. ^ Robert Gimello (2010). Phyllis Granoff and Koichi Shinohara (ed.). Images in Asian Religions: Text and Contexts. Britaniya Kolumbiyasi universiteti Press. 229-231 betlar. ISBN  978-0-7748-5980-6.
  8. ^ Silvio A. Bedini (1994). Vaqt izi: Sharqiy Osiyoda tutatqi bilan vaqtni o'lchash. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 69-84 betlar. ISBN  978-0-521-37482-8.
  9. ^ a b v d e K. R. van Kooij (1978). Nepalda din. BRILL Academic. 25-27 betlar. ISBN  978-90-04-05827-9.
  10. ^ a b Richard D McBride II (2005). "Dharani and Spells in Medieval Sinitic Buddhism". Buddist tadqiqotlari xalqaro assotsiatsiyasi jurnali. 28 (1): 113–114., Quote: "Buddhist intellectuals and eminent monks conceptualized dharani and spells as integral components of mainstream Sinitic Buddhism. Zhoushu, “spell techniques,” was one of the mostprevalent translations of dharani used by Buddhists in medieval China. Seminal Buddhist literature describes an ordinary monk as a student of spell techniques and the acquisition of dharani as a prominent quality of a bodhisattva. Dharani have a firmly established position in the Mahayana doctrine of the bodhisattva path. They were perceived to be part of an ordinary monk's religious cultivation and a by-product of meditation. In this respect they are closely associated with an advanced monk or bodhisattva's acquisition of the spiritual penetrations, supernormal powers and the ability to work miracles. [...] Dharani and spells were functional and fashionable in medievalSinitic Buddhism and their role in Chinese religion has continued to the present. They were understood and used as powerful practices to promote the Buddhist teaching and to protect the personal and spiritual welfare of believers. Yet, the very success of Buddhist spells was probably due to the long-standing value of spells and talismans in Chinese religion."
  11. ^ a b v d Ryûichi Abé (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kûkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 159–161 betlar. ISBN  978-0-231-52887-0.
  12. ^ Peter Francis Kornicki (2018). Languages, Scripts, and Chinese Texts in East Asia. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 112–117 betlar. ISBN  978-0-19-879782-1.
  13. ^ Ernst Wolff (1978). Allen Kent; Garold Lankur; Jey E. Kundalik (tahrir). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 24 - Printers and Printing. CRC Press. pp. 76–79, 85–87. ISBN  978-0-8247-2024-7., Quote (p. 87): "The earliest extant examples of textual printing in Japan represent a remarkable eighth-century enterprise as well as the oldest authenticated printed texts in the world. The texts are part of the Hyakmano darani, or "One Million Pagodas and Dharani", consisting of miniature pagodas, each containing one printed Buddhist charm or prayer called dharani in Sanskrit".
  14. ^ a b v Peter Francis Kornicki (1998). "Empress Shōtoku as a Sponsor of Printing". Yaponiyadagi kitob: boshidan XIX asrgacha bo'lgan madaniy tarix. Tibetan Printing: Comparison, Continuities, and Change. BRILL Academic. 114-116 betlar. ISBN  978-90-04-10195-1. JSTOR  10.1163/j.ctt1w8h246.9.
  15. ^ Hyakumantō Darani, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Quote: "Hyakumantō Darani [The one million pagodas and Dharani prayers] is considered to be the oldest traceable publication in the world whose production date is clearly identified. In 764, the Empress Shōtoku (718–770) ordered the creation of one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a scroll printed with four Buddhist Dharani sutras.";
    One of the “One Million Pagodas” (Hyakumanto) and Invocation, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Quote: "Each pagoda was painted white and contained a printed Buddhist text called a darani (Sanskrit: dharani), or invocation. The text displayed here came from the pagoda on known as the Jishin’in darani, the invocation is one of four from the sacred text Mukujōkōkyō (Sanskrit: Vimala Mirbhasa Sutra) found in the pagodas. These printed texts are among the oldest known in the world. They are likely to have been printed from bronze plates, but some scholars maintain that they were printed from woodblocks.";
    Ernst Wolff (1978). Allen Kent; Garold Lankur; Jey E. Kundalik (tahrir). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 24 - Printers and Printing. CRC Press. 78-79 betlar. ISBN  978-0-8247-2024-7.
  16. ^ Robert E. Buswell (2004). Buddizm ensiklopediyasi. Macmillan ma'lumotnomasi. p. 676. ISBN  978-0-02-865720-2., Quote: "The earliest examples of Buddhist printing involve a type of charm or spell called a dharanI. To date, the oldest printed material that has been discovered is the Korean Mugu chong-gwang tae-darani kyong [dharani]";
    Kornicki, Peter (2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". Xalqaro Osiyo tadqiqotlari jurnali. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 9 (1): 43–70. doi:10.1017/s1479591411000180.;
    Peter Kornicki; va boshq. (2016). "Empress Shōtoku as a Sponsor of Printing". In Hildegard Diemberger (ed.). Tibetan Printing: Comparison, Continuities, and Change. Brill Academic. 47-48 betlar.
  17. ^ a b Masayoshi Sugimoto; David L. Swain (2016). Science and Culture in Traditional Japan. Tuttle. pp. 184 footnote 36. ISBN  978-1-4629-1813-3.
  18. ^ Mark Edvard Lyuis (2009). China's Cosmopolitan Empire. Garvard universiteti matbuoti. p. 238. ISBN  978-0-674-03306-1., Quote: "The earliest surviving printed texts are eighth-century samples of Buddhist charms preserved in Korea and Japan. The oldest is a scroll discovered in 1966 in a stone stupa in the Pulguk-sa temple in Kyongju, Korea. [...] Another specimen of the same scroll printed between 764 and 770 has been preserved in Japan."
  19. ^ C. B. Walker; John Chadwick (1990). O'tmishni o'qish: mixxat yozishidan alifboga qadar qadimiy yozuv. Kaliforniya universiteti matbuoti. 345-347 betlar. ISBN  978-0-520-07431-6.
  20. ^ Damien Keown; Charlz S. Prebish (2013). Buddizm ensiklopediyasi. Yo'nalish. p. 389. ISBN  978-1-136-98588-1.
  21. ^ Donald K. Swearer (2004). Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual of Image Consecration in Thailand. Prinston universiteti matbuoti. 116–118 betlar. ISBN  978-0-691-11435-4.
  22. ^ Rita M. Gross; Terry C. Muck (2003). Christians Talk about Buddhist Meditation, Buddhists Talk About Christian Prayer. A & C qora. 81-82 betlar. ISBN  978-0-8264-1439-7.
  23. ^ Allan Andrews (1987), Pure Land Buddhist Hermeneutics: Hōnen's Interpretation of Nembutsu, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 7–25
  24. ^ James Dobbins (2004). Robert Buswell (ed.). Buddizm ensiklopediyasi. Macmillan ma'lumotnomasi. pp. 137–139, 587–588. ISBN  978-0-02-865718-9.
  25. ^ James L. Ford (2006). Erta O'rta asrlarda Yaponiyada Jeyki va Buddist sadoqati. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. pp. 114–121. ISBN  978-0-19-972004-0.
  26. ^ Robert E. Busvell kichik; Kichik Donald S. Lopez (2013). Buddizmning Princeton lug'ati. Prinston universiteti matbuoti. 225-226 betlar. ISBN  978-1-4008-4805-8.
  27. ^ a b Daisetz Teitarō Suzuki (2009). The Lankavatara Sutra A Mahayana Text. Motilal Banarsidass (Original: 1932). 223-224 betlar. ISBN  978-81-208-3389-0.
  28. ^ Braarvig, Jens (1985), p.19
  29. ^ Brereton, Joel P. (2004). "Dhárman In The Rgveda". Hind falsafasi jurnali. 32 (5–6): 449–489. doi:10.1007/s10781-004-8631-8.
  30. ^ a b Copp, Paul (2014). The Body Incantatory. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 1-7 betlar. doi:10.7312/copp16270. ISBN  978-0-231-53778-0. S2CID  193545844.
  31. ^ Peter Skilling (1992). " Raksha Literature of the Sravakayana". The Journal of the Pali Text Society. XVI: 110–112.
  32. ^ a b v d Jose Ignacio Cabezon (2013). The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 75-77 betlar. ISBN  978-0-19-995862-7.
  33. ^ a b v d Devidson 2009 yil, pp. 97-100.
  34. ^ a b Devidson 2009 yil, p. 100.
  35. ^ Devidson 2009 yil, 100-101 betlar.
  36. ^ Davidson, Ronald M. (2014). "Darax adabiyotidagi tadqiqotlar II: Daraxlar pragmatikasi". Sharq va Afrika tadqiqotlari maktabining Axborotnomasi. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 77 (1): 28. doi:10.1017/s0041977x13000943.
  37. ^ a b v d e Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 367–372. ISBN  978-81-208-0265-0.
  38. ^ a b Devidson 2009 yil, pp. 103-105.
  39. ^ Devidson 2009 yil, 105-106-betlar.
  40. ^ a b Nattier 1992 yil, pp. 201–202 note 9
  41. ^ Nattier 1992, pg. 158
  42. ^ Pine 2004, pg. 146
  43. ^ a b Kichik Robert E. Busvell (2017). The Formation of Ch'an Ideology in China and Korea: The Vajrasamadhi-Sutra, a Buddhist Apocryphon. Prinston universiteti matbuoti. pp. xiii–xv, 3–6, 240–248 with footnote 128. ISBN  978-1-4008-8703-3.
  44. ^ Devidson 2014 yil, 5-11 betlar.
  45. ^ Alex Wayman (1990). Buddist tushuncha: insholar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 430, context: 413–430. ISBN  978-81-208-0675-7.
  46. ^ Charlz S. Prebish; Damien Keown (2010). Buddizmni joriy etish. Yo'nalish. 91-92 betlar. ISBN  978-0-415-55001-7.
  47. ^ a b Copp 2014, 31-32 betlar.
  48. ^ Shinohara, Koichi (2014). Spells, Images, and Mandalas. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 28-35 betlar. ISBN  978-0-231-53739-1.
  49. ^ Robert N. Linrothe (1999). Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art. Serindia nashrlari. 55-56 betlar. ISBN  978-0-906026-51-9.
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  51. ^ F Max Muller; Bunyiu Nanjio (1881). Anecdota Oxoniensia: Buddhist texts from Japan, edited by F.M. Müller. 1881-1884, Vol 1, Part 3. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 31-34 betlar.
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  53. ^ a b Peter Kornicki; va boshq. (2016). "Empress Shōtoku as a Sponsor of Printing". In Hildegard Diemberger (ed.). Tibetan Printing: Comparison, Continuities, and Change. Brill Academic. 46-47 betlar.
  54. ^ Richard D. McBride (2008). Domesticating the Dharma: Buddhist Cults and the Hwa?m Synthesis in Silla Korea. Gavayi universiteti matbuoti. pp. 1–4, 71–77. ISBN  978-0-8248-3087-8.
  55. ^ LA Waddell (1912). "The Dharani Cult in Buddhism, Its Origin, Diefied Literature and Images". Ostasiatische Zeitschrift. 1: 155–195. OCLC  6398250.
  56. ^ a b v d Richard K. Payne (2006). Sharqiy Osiyodagi tantrik buddizm. Simon va Shuster. 14-17 betlar. ISBN  978-0-86171-487-2.
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  58. ^ Richard D. McBride II (2011). "Practical Buddhist Thaumaturgy: The "Great Dhāraṇī on Immaculately Pure Light" in Medieval Sinitic Buddhism". Koreya dinlari jurnali. 2 (1): 33–73. doi:10.1353/jkr.2011.0001. JSTOR  23943345.
  59. ^ Shinohara, Koichi (2014). Spells, Images, and Mandalas. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 3-11 betlar. ISBN  978-0-231-53739-1.
  60. ^ P. K. Mishra (1999). Studies in Hindu and Buddhist Art. Abhinav nashrlari. 49-55 betlar. ISBN  978-81-7017-368-7.
  61. ^ Keisho Tsukamoto (2007). Source Elements of the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Integration of Religion, Thought, and Culture. Kosei. 390-391 betlar. ISBN  978-4-333-02259-5.
  62. ^ Peter Skilling (1992). " Raksha Literature of the Sravakayana". The Journal of the Pali Text Society. XVI: 150–151.
  63. ^ a b v Jose Ignacio Cabezon (2013). The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. pp. 108–111 with footnote 15. ISBN  978-0-19-995862-7.
  64. ^ Duan Yuquan (2014). "A Textual Research on the Tangut Version of Mahākāruṇika-nāma-ārya-avalokiteśvara dhāraṇī". Markaziy Osiyo jurnali. Xarrassovits Verlag. 57, Special Tangut Edition: 99–109. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.57.2014.0099.
  65. ^ a b Janet Gyatso (1992). In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Nyu-York shtati universiteti matbuoti. 173–174 betlar. ISBN  978-1-4384-0525-4., Quote: "Dharanis are widespread in Mahayana scriptures."
  66. ^ Janet Gyatso (1992). In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Nyu-York shtati universiteti matbuoti. 174–175 betlar. ISBN  978-1-4384-0525-4.
  67. ^ Ryûichi Abé (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kûkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. pp. 159–176, 490–491 with notes 72, 73. ISBN  978-0-231-52887-0.
  68. ^ a b v Ryûichi Abé (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kûkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 164–168 betlar. ISBN  978-0-231-52887-0.
  69. ^ Robert N. Linrothe (1999). Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art. Serindia nashrlari. 56-59 betlar. ISBN  978-0-906026-51-9.
  70. ^ Michel Strickmann (2002). Xitoy sehrli tibbiyoti. Stenford universiteti matbuoti. pp. viii, 99–108, 120–121, 146–153, 165–167, 310–315. ISBN  978-0-8047-3940-5.; For a reviewed summary, see Sørensen, Henrik H. (2004). "Michel Strickmann on Magical Medicine in Medieval China and Elsewhere; Chinese Magical Medicine by Michel Strickmann, Edited by Bernard Faure. Asian Religions and Cultures, Stanford University Press". Dinlar tarixi. Chikago universiteti matbuoti. 43 (4): 319–332. doi:10.1086/426739.
  71. ^ a b v Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 369–374 with footnotes. ISBN  978-81-208-0265-0.
  72. ^ Richard D McBride II (2005). "Dharani and Spells in Medieval Sinitic Buddhism". Buddist tadqiqotlari xalqaro assotsiatsiyasi jurnali. 28 (1): 85–114.
  73. ^ Jean Philippe Vogel (1995). Indian Serpent-lore. Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. pp. 10–11 with footnotes. ISBN  978-81-206-1071-2.
  74. ^ Robson, James (2008). "Signs of Power: Talismanic Writing in Chinese Buddhism". Dinlar tarixi. Chikago universiteti matbuoti. 48 (2): 141–145, 130–169. doi:10.1086/596569.
  75. ^ a b Robert E. Busvell kichik; Kichik Donald S. Lopez (2013). Buddizmning Princeton lug'ati. Prinston universiteti matbuoti. 330-331 betlar. ISBN  978-1-4008-4805-8.
  76. ^ a b Ryûichi Abé (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kûkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 161–163 betlar. ISBN  978-0-231-52887-0.
  77. ^ Benedetta Lomi (2014). "Dharanis, Talismans, and Straw-Dolls: Ritual Choreographies and Healing Strategies of the "Rokujikyōhō" in Medieval Japan". Yaponiya diniy tadqiqotlar jurnali. 41 (2): 255–304. JSTOR  43233881.
  78. ^ a b v Sara Livin; Devid N Gellner (2009). Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Garvard universiteti matbuoti. 65-66 betlar. ISBN  978-0-674-04012-0.
  79. ^ Karel Verner (2013). Sevgi ilohiy: "Baxti va devotional tasavvuf". Yo'nalish. pp. 82–83 note 7. ISBN  978-1-136-77461-4.
  80. ^ a b v d Peter Skilling (1992). " Raksha Literature of the Sravakayana". The Journal of the Pali Text Society. XVI: 110–111, 116–123.
  81. ^ a b Donald K. Swearer (2004). Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual of Image Consecration in Thailand. Prinston universiteti matbuoti. pp. 94–95, 156, 169–170. ISBN  978-0-691-11435-4.
  82. ^ Yiengpruksawan 1987, p. 235
  83. ^ Insup Teylor; M. Martin Taylor (2014). Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese: Revised edition. Jon Benjamins. p. 247. ISBN  978-90-272-6944-7., Quote: "The world's oldest extant example of wood-block printing is believed to be the copy of the Dharani sutra found in a pagoda at Pulguksa temple in Kyongju, South Korea."
  84. ^ a b v Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Joseph Needham (ed.). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology Part 1: Paper and Printing. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 149-151 betlar. ISBN  978-0-521-08690-5.
  85. ^ Kornicki, Peter (2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". Xalqaro Osiyo tadqiqotlari jurnali. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 9 (1): 43–70. doi:10.1017/s1479591411000180.
  86. ^ Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Joseph Needham (ed.). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology Part 1: Paper and Printing. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 151-153 betlar. ISBN  978-0-521-08690-5.
  87. ^ Ernst Wolff (1978). Allen Kent; Garold Lankur; Jey E. Kundalik (tahrir). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 24 - Printers and Printing. CRC Press. 78-79 betlar. ISBN  978-0-8247-2024-7.
  88. ^ a b v Ernst Wolff (1978). Allen Kent; Garold Lankur; Jey E. Kundalik (tahrir). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 24 - Printers and Printing. CRC Press. 87-88 betlar. ISBN  978-0-8247-2024-7.
  89. ^ a b Julie L. Mellby (2009), One Million Buddhist Incantations, Princeton University, Quote: "Completed around 770, these slips of paper—now held in collections around the world—represent some of the earliest printed texts. They are known as the Hyakumanto Dharani or one million pagoda prayers, and Princeton University library holds two. The text consists of four Sanskrit prayers of the Mukujoko-kyo, entitled Kompon, Jishinin, Sorin, and Rokudo from the Darani-kyo."
  90. ^ The Million Pagoda Charms, The British Library
  91. ^ Ross Bender (1979). "The Hachiman Cult and the Dokyo Incident". Monumenta Nipponika. 34 (2): 139–140. JSTOR  2384320.
  92. ^ One of the “One Million Pagodas” (Hyakumanto) and Invocation, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Quote: "Each pagoda was painted white and contained a printed Buddhist text called a darani (Sanskrit: dharani), or invocation. The text displayed here came from the pagoda on known as the Jishin’in darani, the invocation is one of four from the sacred text Mukujōkōkyō (Sanskrit: Vimala Mirbhasa Sutra) found in the pagodas. These printed texts are among the oldest known in the world. They are likely to have been printed from bronze plates, but some scholars maintain that they were printed from woodblocks."
  93. ^ Hyakumantō Darani, Library of Congress, Washington DC, Quote: "Hyakumantō Darani [The one million pagodas and Dharani prayers] is considered to be the oldest traceable publication in the world whose production date is clearly identified. In 764, the Empress Shōtoku (718–770) ordered the creation of one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a scroll printed with four Buddhist Dharani sutras."
  94. ^ Davidson, Ronald M. (2014). "Darax adabiyotidagi tadqiqotlar II: Daraxlar pragmatikasi". Sharq va Afrika tadqiqotlari maktabining Axborotnomasi. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. 77 (1): 53. doi:10.1017/s0041977x13000943.
  95. ^ Elisabetta Chiodo (2000). The Mongolian Manuscripts on Birch Bark from Xarbuxyn Balgas in the Collection of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Otto Xarrassovits Verlag. ISBN  978-3-447-05714-1.
  96. ^ Peter Skilling (1992). " Raksha Literature of the Sravakayana" (PDF). The Journal of the Pali Text Society. XVI: 121–125, 174–179.

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